Factors determining the survival or mortality of Nyctereutes procyonoides (Canidae) rescued by a wildlife rescue centre: Is urbanisation a threat to wildlife?

Biodiversity Data Journal 13: e163708 doi: 10.3897/BDJ.13.e163708 Research Article Factors determining the survival or mortality of Nyctereutes procyonoides (Canidae) rescued by a wildlife rescue centre: Is urbanisation a threat to wildlife? Bong Kyun Kim , Soo Hyung Eo ‡ Kongju National University, Yesan, Republic of Korea § Chungnam Wild Animal Rescue Center, Yesan, Republic of Korea Corresponding author: Soo Hyung Eo ([email protected]) Academic editor: Krizler Tanalgo Received: 01 Jul 2025 | Accepted: 30 Sep 2025 | Published: 06 Oct 2025 Citation: Kim BK, Eo SH (2025) Factors determining the survival or mortality of Nyctereutes procyonoides (Canidae) rescued by a wildlife rescue centre: Is urbanisation a threat to wildlife? Biodiversity Data Journal 13: e163708. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.13.e163708 Abstract Effective wildlife conservation requires an understanding of species' ecological characteristics and identifying survival-threatening factors. Specifically, mitigating anthropogenic threats is imperative for wildlife facing human-wildlife conflicts, such as raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides). This study analysed data collected over 11 years on raccoon dogs rescued in South Korea, categorising 1,123 rescue cases, based on seven variables. Furthermore, it examined the impact of these variables on incident frequency and subsequent outcomes, including release and mortality. In raccoon dogs, rescue frequency was higher in autumn, in males and in juveniles, with incidents frequently occurring near buildings or involving parasitic infections. Causes of distress and triage were identified as key indicators when evaluating the release potential of rescued raccoon dogs. Additionally, the release potential was found to significantly decrease when they were rescued near roads or buildings or had experienced collisions with vehicles, highlighting urbanisation as a major threat to wildlife. This study provides guidance for the protection and management of raccoon dogs and supports the evaluation and improvement of wildlife rescue, treatment and rehabilitation efforts. ‡,§ ‡ © Kim B, Eo S. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Keywords collision with vehicle, raccoon dog, sarcoptic mange, triage, wildlife management, wildlife rehabilitation Introduction The Wildlife Rescue Centre (WRC) rescues wildlife exposed to various accidents resulting from human activities and provides appropriate treatment, management and rehabilitation to restore their health and facilitate their return to suitable habitats. These activities contribute to the welfare of individual wildlife and maintenance of populations (Tribe and Brown 2000, Molina-López et al. 2017, Kim 2019, Cope et al. 2022). Additionally, WRC analyses the accident history of rescued wildlife to identify threats to species and populations, assesses the levels and trends of damage and collects the necessary data to mitigate the risk of accidents (Kim 2006, Kwok et al. 2021, Cope et al. 2022, Pahuja and Narayan 2023). The collected data can be used to evaluate ecosystem health or establish protection strategies for wildlife species and populations (Sleeman and Clark 2003, Molina-López et al. 2017). Based on the above, WRC is recognised for its contribution to wildlife protection, ecosystem conservation and biodiversity maintenance (Romero et al. 2019, Cope et al. 2022). Rescued wildlife provides valuable biological and ecological information (Tribe and Brown 2000), including species, sex, age, rescue location, causes of distress, condition, treatment and management history (Molina-López and Darwich 2011, Kwok et al. 2021). The collected information and samples from rescued wildlife can be utilised for research in various fields such as veterinary science, ecology, genetics, molecular biology, toxicology and pathology (Cleaveland et al. 2014). For example, veterinary treatment and management protocols for different fracture types were illustrated through the case of a rescued large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler, 1827) (Kim et al. 2024). DNA analysis of rescued bats yielded the first national record of a particoloured bat (Vespertilio murinus Linnaeus, 1758), a species not previously documented in the country (Kim et al. 2025). One study analysed the presence of West Nile Virus infection in rescued birds and assessed the risk of disease emergence and spread (López et al. 2010). Moreover, accurate assessment of injury severity in rescued wildlife has been recognised as a key factor in predicting survival prospects and this understanding has been used to establish practical standards for treatment and management (Molony et al. 2007). Understanding the causes, frequency and risks of accidents involving rescued wildlife offers important advantages (Kim 2006, Molina-López and Darwich 2011, Kim 2019, Kwok et al. 2021). Representative studies include those that analyse the outcomes of rescued wildlife to examine trends related to accidents (Montesdeoca et al. 2017) or present the criticality of the injuries in predicting survival prospects (Molony et al. 2007). Furthermore, these data can provide information for practical mitigation measures addressing the causes of accidents and provide crucial information for enacting or revising relevant institutions and laws (National Institute of Ecology 2017, Ministry of 2Kim B, Eo S Government Legislation 2024). However, despite growing recognition of the value of data collected by WRCs, related research and utilisation remain limited (Kwok et al. 2021). Raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides Gray, 1834) is the only species of the genus Nyctereutes within the family Canidae; it primarily inhabits East Asia, being widely distributed from eastern Siberia and northern Indochina to Central Europe (Jo et al. 2018 ). In Korea, with the extinction of canid species such as the grey wolf (Canis lupus) and dhole (Cuon alpinus), the raccoon dog remains the only extant member of the family Canidae excluding the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), which is currently under restoration programmes (Jo and Baccus 2015). Raccoon dogs, which have a broad range of habitat preferences (Saeki et al. 2007), are amongst the most commonly observed wild mammals in Korea (Choi and Park 2006). However, wildlife habitats have been extensively lost due to industrialisation and urbanisation (Kavzoǧlu 2008). Recently, the increased frequency of the species in urban areas has raised concerns about humanwildlife conflicts, including crop damage, landscape destruction and confrontations with people or dogs during walks (Kim et al. 2024). Urbanisation and habitat reduction have increased conflicts between wildlife, including mammal species and humans, exposing wildlife to various accidents (Kim 2006, Treves et al. 2006). Generally, compared to natural environments such as forests or rivers, urban areas with dense artificial structures pose a higher risk of wildlife accidents, such as collisions with vehicles, habitat fragmentation, isolation in artificial structures and attacks by stray dogs (Kim 2006, Kim 2019, Coronel-Arellano et al. 2021). However, specific causes of distress in raccoon dogs remain largely unknown. Thus far, collisions with vehicles have been regarded as the most significant threat, similar to patterns observed in other mammal species (Choi and Park 2006, Kim 2006, Kim 2019). Therefore, analysing the causes and levels of accidents involving raccoon dogs is urgently needed to develop effective protection and management strategies or policies. This study examined 11 years (January 2011 to December 2022) of rescue and management efforts of raccoon dogs from the Chungnam Wild Animal Rescue Center in South Korea. The data were classified by year, season, sex, age, environment, causes of distress and triage to examine the occurrence levels and release or mortality status under different conditions. Specifically, we hypothesised that: (1) vehicle collisions, as reported in other mammals, would also represent the most frequent and lethal cause of mortality in raccoon dogs; (2) information collected during rescue, particularly injury level, could serve as reliable indicators for assessing release potential; and (3) accidents associated with urbanisation, including buildings, roads and artificial structures, would directly increase incident frequency and mortality risk. By testing these hypotheses, this study aimed to identify the major threats to raccoon dogs and provide a scientific basis for developing effective management and conservation strategies that promote co-existence with humans. Factors determining the survival or mortality of Nyctereutes procyonoides ... 3 Material and methods Study area The study area, Chungnam Province South Korea (approximately 36.52°N, 126.80°E), covered approximately 8,248 km² and was composed of 29.8% agricultural area, 49.2% forest and 21% other environments, including urban and industrial areas (Korean Statistical Information Service 2023). It consists of 15 cities and counties and land-use patterns and population density tend to vary across administrative divisions. As of May 2023, the Province had a population of approximately 2.14 million (Korean Statistical Information Service 2025). Frequency of rescues and affecting variables Between January 2012 and December 2022, the Chungnam Wild Animal Rescue Center in South Korea rescued 1,123 raccoon dogs (Fig. 1). Data obtained from the rescued raccoon dogs were classified, based on six variables: year, season, sex, age, environment and causes of distress (Table 1) to determine how these variables affected accident occurrence. The variables used in the analysis were selected, based on previous studies (Molony et al. 2007, Cope et al. 2022, Pahuja and Narayan 2023). It is worth noting that body weight was considered in the analysis, but ultimately excluded. Although body weight can be an indicator of health, variations in growth levels amongst individuals may complicate analysis and interpretation (Molony et al. 2007). Variable Variable type Description Year Categorical From 2012 to 2022 Season Categorical Spring (Mar–May), Summer (Jun–Aug), Autumn (Sep–Nov), Winter (Dec– Feb) Sex Categorical Male, Female, Unknown Age Categorical Adult, Sub adult, Juvenile, Unknown Environment Categorical Agricultural area, By buildings, Forest, Road, Waterbodies, Others Causes of distress Categorical Six distinct causes of distress and an "Others” group (comprising 15 additional causes) Triage (Level of injuries) Categorical Level 1 (Normal), Level 2 (Mild injury), Level 3 (Severe injury), Level 4 (Very severe injury) Outcome Categorical Dependent variable: released or non-released First, we classified the data by “Year” and “Season”, based on the date the animal was rescued. Annual frequencies were analysed to track temporal changes and trends. Table 1. Description of the variables used in the analysis for raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) admitted to Chungnam Wild Animal Rescue Center. 4Kim B, Eo S Months were classified into four seasons according to the start dates and durations as defined by the Korea Meteorological Administration: spring (March–May), summer (June–August), autumn (September–November) and winter (December–February). Subsequently, the occurrence rates and trends for each season were analysed. The “sex” of the rescued raccoon dogs was determined by examining the ventral side and identifying the position and shape of the genitalia (Peterson 1988). Classification was marked as unknown in cases where the genitalia were damaged or information was missing, as sex determination was impossible. “Age” was classified into adult (over one year old), sub-adult (between six months and one year old) and juvenile (under six months old). Individuals whose age could not be determined due to physical damage or missing information were classified as unknown. Age was assessed via radiographic examination to determine the body size and current stage of skeletal development and potential for further growth (Geiger 2015, Rogers et al. 2021). We examined the closure of growth plates in four limb bones: the humerus, ulna, femur and tibia. “Environment” describes a place where an animal was rescued and is classified into six types: agricultural area, buildings, forest, road, waterbodies and others. "Others" include environments not covered by any of the categories, transitional environments due to Figure 1. The study area in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea, where raccoon dog rescues were conducted, along with the actual locations where individuals were rescued (CNWARC: Chungnam Wild Animal Rescue Center).  Factors determining the survival or mortality of Nyctereutes procyonoides ... 5 construction and mixed environments that are difficult to define, such as outdoor golf courses or parks. The environment was assessed by considering on-site data and satellite images from Google Earth Pro (version 7.3), evaluating the type that occupied the largest area within a 30 m radius and the characteristics of the environment where the accident occurred. A total of 20 “causes of distress” related to the rescue of raccoon dogs were identified. The five most frequent causes were parasitic infections, collisions with vehicles, orphaning and kidnapping, isolation of artificial structures and entrapment. The remaining 15 less frequent causes were included in the "others" category, making a total of six categories. Rescue outcomes and influencing variables The rescued raccoon dogs were classified into six categories after treatment, rehabilitation and other management: release, dead, dead on arrival (DOA), carcass, euthanasia and in-care. The frequency and proportion of each category were examined. Criteria for each category were as follows: (1) Release, in which individuals were returned to the wild after undergoing treatment and rehabilitation; (2) Dead, in which individuals died during treatment and rehabilitation process; (3) DOA, in which individuals died within 24 hours of being rescued; (4) Carcass, in which individuals were already deceased at the time of admission; (5) Euthanasia, in which individuals were humanely euthanised due to reasons such as disease diagnosis, viral infection or an untreatable condition; (6) In-care, in which individuals were still undergoing treatment or being held long-term for research and educational purposes. To evaluate the likelihood of release, the categories were further classified into two outcomes: released and not released. The released group comprised individuals who returned to the wild, whereas the non-released group included those who died, were DOA or were euthanised. The remaining outcomes, carcass and in-care, were excluded from this analysis as they did not align to evaluate the factors affecting the release of rescued raccoon dogs. Subsequently, we added “triage” to the existing six variables to determine how the seven factors affected the likelihood of releasing rescued animals (Table 1). Triage is a concept designed to categorise patients, based on the severity of their injuries, assess treatment potential and assign priority levels (Robertson-Steel 2006). In this study, injuries were classified into four levels based on severity. Level 1 (Normal), indicating no apparent injury; Level 2 (Mild injury), such as minor trauma without weight loss or closed fractures; Level 3 (Severe injury), including open fractures, infected or multiple fractures and clear signs of dehydration and weight loss; and Level 4 (Very severe injury), involving neurological disorders, respiratory impairment, trap-related injuries, blindness, paralysis or severe starvation and exhaustion. 6Kim B, Eo S Statistical analysis Based on the information collected from rescued raccoons, linear regression and chisquare goodness-of-fit tests were conducted according to the nature of each variable to identify the levels and correlations of accident occurrences across various variables. Additionally, to evaluate the factors influencing the outcomes — release or in-care mortality — of rescued raccoons, logistic regression analyses were performed using categorised variables and the log-odds ratios (ORs) were calculated. ORs, derived through logistic regression analysis, are used to quantitatively assess the extent to which specific conditions affect outcomes (Molony et al. 2007). In this study, the calculated ORs represent the likelihood of release versus in-care mortality for each condition. An odds ratio greater than one indicates that animals influenced by a given variable are more likely to be released compared to those influenced by the reference category, while an odds ratio less than one indicates a higher likelihood of in-care mortality. One variable within each category was set as the intercept and ORs for the remaining variables were compared relative to this reference to quantitatively assess the influence of each factor on the outcome. All statistical analyses conducted in this study were performed using R software (version 4.3.3; R Core Team (2024)). Results Frequency of rescues and affecting variables An analysis of 1,123 rescued raccoon dogs indicated that they accounted for approximately 25.6% of all rescued mammals during the same period, representing the second-highest proportion after the water deer (Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870). The annual number of rescues increased from 73 in 2012 to 157 in 2022, with an average annual increase of 12.8 individuals (Fig. 2, R² = 0.61, p < 0.01). Seasonal proportions were 24.4, 25.5, 32.3 and 17.8% (274, 286, 363 and 200 cases) in spring, summer, autumn and winter, respectively. The proportion of animals rescued by sex was 48.3% and 37.0% (542 and 416 cases) for males and females, respectively. The proportions by age were 10.5, 16.8 and 25.6% (118, 189 and 288 cases) for adults, subadults and juveniles, respectively. Rescued individuals with unknown sex or age accounted for 14.7% and 47.0% (165 and 528 cases). For environmentals analysis, the highest proportion was observed in buildings (54.1%, 608 cases), followed by agricultural land (19.9%, 224 cases), roads (12.6%, 142 cases), forests (8.2%, 92 cases), waterbodies (2.6%, 29 cases) and others (2.5%, 28 cases). Causes of distress analysis revealed that parasitic infections accounted for the highest proportion, at 60.9% (684 cases). Orphaning and kidnapping were the second-most frequent causes (11.1%, 125 cases), followed by collisions with vehicles (11.0%, 124 cases), isolation in artificial structures (5.3%, 59 cases), entrapment (4.6%, 52 cases) and others (7.0%, 79 cases). Analysis of the incidence rates of distress causes, based on sex-confirmed individuals, identified parasitic infections as the leading cause in males, accounting for 62.4% (338 cases); orphaning/kidnapping as the second most frequent cause (12.4%, 67 cases), Factors determining the survival or mortality of Nyctereutes procyonoides ... 7 followed by collision with vehicles (10.0%, 54 cases), entrapment (4.8%, 26 cases), isolation from artificial structures (3.7%, 20 cases) and others (6.8%, 37 cases). Amongst the 416 females, parasitic infections were the leading cause, accounting for 62.3% (n = 259). Collision with vehicles was the second most frequent cause (12.3%, 51 cases), followed by orphaning/kidnapping (9.6%, 40 cases), entrapment (4.3%, 18 cases), isolation in artificial structures (3.6%, 15 cases) and other causes (7.9%, 33 cases). Analysis of the incidence rates of the causes of distress, based on age-confirmed individuals, identified parasitic infections as the leading cause of distress amongst adults, accounting for 49.2% (58 cases). Collision with vehicles was the second most frequent cause (17.8%, 21 cases), followed by entrapment (12.7%, 15 cases), isolation in artificial structures (4.2%, 5 cases) and others (16.1%, 19 cases). Amongst sub-adults, parasitic infections were the leading cause, accounting for 75.1% (142 cases). The second most frequent cause was collisions with vehicles (12.2%, 23 cases), followed by entrapment (5.3%, 10 cases), isolation in artificial structures (1.6%, 3 cases) and others (5.8%, 11 cases). Amongst juveniles, parasitic infections, orphaning and kidnapping were identified as the leading causes, accounting for 34.4% (n = 99). The third most frequent cause was collisions with vehicles (12.2%, 35 cases), followed by isolation in artificial structures (7.6%, 22 cases), entrapment (2.1%, 6 cases) and others (9.4%, 27 cases). The frequency of rescues for each variable is shown in Fig. 3. Rescue outcomes and correlation of variables The analysis of outcomes for 1,123 rescued raccoon dogs revealed that release accounted for the highest proportion at 41.2%, followed by dead at 22.3%, DOA at 16.2%, euthanasia at 11%, carcass at 8.5% and in-care at 0.8% as of 1 January 2023. Figure 2. Annual trends in the rescue frequency of raccoon dogs from 2012 to 2022.  8Kim B, Eo S The analysis of the likelihood of release, based on seasons, showed that, compared to spring, summer had a 2.69 times higher likelihood of release (OR = 2.69, 95% CI = 1.88–3.85, p < 0.001). In contrast, there were no significant differences in the likelihood of release Figure 3. 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