Integration of terrestrial and nonterrestrial networks for extending connectivity in rural remote areas

i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 1 — #1 i i i i i i 1 Integration of Terrestrial and Non-Terrestrial Networks for Extending Connectivity in Rural Remote Areas Souhaima Stiri,1, Maria Rita Palattella1, Muhammed Faheem Awan2, Alejandro Ram´ ırez-Arroyo3, David Pradas4, Christos Politis5, Maria Raftopoulou6, Ljupco Jorguseski6and Mehmet Izzet Saglam7 1 LIST, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg 2 TNOR, Telenor Research and Innovation, Oslo, Norway 3 AAU, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark 4 Viveris Technologies, Toulouse, France 5 SES TechCom SA, Betzdorf, Luxembourg 6 TNO, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research, The Hague, Netherlands 7 TCELL, Research and Development Turkcell Teknoloji, Istanbul, Turkiye 1Corresponding: [email protected] , [email protected] Abstract The integration of Terrestrial Networks (TN) and Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) is an emerging solution for extending broadband connectivity to remote and rural areas, where traditional infrastructure deployment is economically and technically challenging. This chapter explores various use cases demonstrating the potential of TN-NTN integration to bridge the digital divide and to support new services in agriculture, livestock, and forest operations. Satellite backhauling is presented in several scenarios as an enabler to extend coverage and provide global connectivity in remote fields, farms, forests and roads. In other scenarios, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are deployed to temporarily extend the coverage, allowing broadband network penetration in dense forests, or massive connectivity of IoT devices in large agricultural fields. From the architecture design, to deployment challenges, and ongoing standardization initiatives, this paper highlights the feasibility of an integrated TN-NTN network as a cornerstone of beyond 5G and future 6G. 1. Introduction The next wave of wireless technologies is resulting in an explosion of connected devices and digital applications requesting for seamless and broadband connectivity. Billions of sensors, drones, vehicles, machines and robots need to be interconnected and connected to humans, putting more stress and challenges on existing Terrestrial Networks (TNs). In this regard, Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs) come into play to support and complement TNs to cope with the increasing demand on capacity and the massive number of devices everywhere. ©Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1 This work is the preprint version of Chapter 13 (DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-443-26526-6.00002-5), pp. 313-333, in the book "Non-Terrestrial Networks; Paving the Way Towards Global Connectivity", Elsevier 2025, ISBN: 978-0-443-26526-6 i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 2 — #2 i i i i i i 2Book Title The concept of NTNs in the 6G era was initially introduced in [1], where Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), High Altitude Platforms (HAPs), and satellites cooperate to support existing terrestrial networks, acting as aerial gateways ensuring connectivity requests to and from the ground. Notably, these elements can provide extensive, autonomous, and standalone geographical coverage, thus enabling global connectivity [2]. In the various NTN-based connectivity scenarios, the satellites differ in their flying altitude like Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and Low Earth Orbit (LEO), as the altitude decreases, their coverage area is reduced.The HAPs operate in the stratosphere at an altitude of around 20 km while UAVs fly at low altitudes (e.g., a few hundred meters). NTNs have several advantages compared to TNs, which motivates TN-NTN contributions to future communication infrastructure. Aerial and space platforms can cover larger areas than ground-based platforms and can be deployed quickly allowing for a fast response in critical situation. It is also easier to manage large data traffic and handle massive data communications, making it excellent for 4K video streaming, virtual reality experiences, and other data-intensive workloads [3]. Thanks to HAPs and UAVs, NTNs can improve connectivity in unconnected or crowded areas in 3D architecture, where the aerial components act as relays and move to bring the on-demand connectivity [1]. UAV assisted data collection has been investigated in several research works as flexible, agile and low-cost solution to extended IoT network coverage [4]. Published works focused on the data collection modes from ground sensors, trajectory planning for UAVs and resource allocation and transmission scheduling. In other contexts, where ground stations do not exist, direct IoT to satellite communications have also been investigated, i.e., LEO satellite gateways bringing coverage to unconnected areas. However, this requires specific considerations in terms of transmission power to reach the distant satellite, which limits the battery lifetime of the devices on the ground. Moreover, given the limited visibility and footprint of LEO satellites, devices should efficiently schedule data transmission to benefit from the available capacity, which becomes challenging when the network size increases [5]. Constellations of LEO satellites can be also considered for offloading and backhauling. The former allows offloading IoT traffic from a congested terrestrial network, usually in dense areas. In the latter, the constellation provides a multi-hop backhaul that connects a remote terrestrial base station [6] . MEO and GEO satellites can also provide broadband connectivity through satellite backhauling and support high throughput services [1]. Satellite technology offers a wide array of tailored solutions to meet specific requirements. Fixed satellite services (FSS) provided by companies such as SES Networks, Intelsat, and Eutelsat offer reliable broadband, broadcasting, and data solutions. Mobile satellite services (MSS) from providers like Iridium, Inmarsat, and Globalstar i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 3 — #3 i i i i i i Chapter Title 3 ensure global communication coverage, essential for mobile devices, maritime activities, and aviation sectors. Broadcast satellite services (BSS) like DIRECTV, Dish Network, and SES Astra provide extensive television and radio coverage. In terms of broadband internet, options from Starlink, Viasat, and HughesNet deliver high-speed connections, particularly beneficial in remote and underserved areas. These diverse satellite offerings ensure comprehensive connectivity solutions suitable for various applications and environments. In this context, the Horizon Europe COMMECT [7] project focuses on designing innovative connectivity solutions to extend coverage in rural and remote areas, with the final aim of empowering rural communities. COMMECT leverages existing and evolving TNs and NTNs to ensure reachability everywhere. Access to fast broadband Internet can enable the mainstreaming of smart farming, forestry inventory and monitor changes, including small and big IoT data, Earth Observation (EO) data; and allow the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to solve business and social issues for the communities. Smart agriculture and smart forestry services are needed to promote and guide actions required to transform and reorient agroforestry systems to effectively support development and ensure food security in a changing climate. In this framework, this chapter first describes the evolution of 3GPP standards and architectures towards the integration of TN and NTN. Then it presents a set of use cases identified in the COMMECT project, where TN-NTN integration helps bridging the digital divide in remote areas, and enable innovative digital solutions for crop monitoring and management, forest surveillance, and livestock transport. 2. TN-NTN Integration in 3GPP TN and NTN networks were designed independently, targeting different end users and use cases until 5G 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Release 17 [8], when NTN has become a part of the mobile network, extending its service with ubiquitous coverage. 3GPP Release 21, the first release of 6G, will offer a unified network that works with a combined architecture and protocol of the terrestrial and non-terrestrial types. It has to be noted that within 3GPP, the use of the term NTN has been limited to satellites and high-altitude platform stations. 3GPP completed the feasibility study in Release 15 [9], Release 16 [10] and froze the first standards in Release 17 for NTN New Radio and IoT [8]. The 3GPP published Release 17 in 2022, making it the first release to account for TN and NTN platforms in the 5G specifications or any previous 3GPP specifications. Release 17 defines these NTN platforms of geostationary equatorial and non-geostationary equatorial orbits and HAPS. Release 17 supports Frequency Range one (FR1) capable User Equipments (UEs) and IoT sensors for different use cases, such as agriculture, transportation, and other i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 4 — #4 i i i i i i 4Book Title applications, like the ones described in this chapter. Release 17 addressed the propagation delay, doppler shift, and the difficulties associated with communication between moving UEs and satellites for transparent (bent pipe) architecture (see Figure 1). These challenges resulted in innovative solutions for NTN use cases such as e.g. enhanced hybrid automatic repeat requests and random channel access procedures to address the higher signal propagation delay [13]. The satellite ephemeris data is added to the system information broadcast messages, which have information on the location and movement of the satellites. The UEs can estimate when satellites might become available with this ephemeris data delivered by the system information broadcast message. The 3GPP Release 18 and 19 cover the second and third phases of the NTN evolution, respectively. Release 18, completed in 2024, added new NTN capabilities related to the new frequency bands, coverage, and performance enhancements. These Release 18 enhancements cover the new frequency bands above 10 GHz, neighbor ephemeris data support to prevent radio link failure for eMTC (enhanced Machine-Type Communication) and NB-IoT (Narrowband Internet of Things), and disabling hybrid automatic repeat requests to avoid stalling and fixing the positioned global navigation satellite system to reduce UE’s power consumption. The third phase of the NTN study is under 3GPP Release 19 [8], [11], which targets the regenerative architecture, illustrated in Figure 2. Release 19 addresses capacity, throughput, and discontinuous coverage enhancement for both uplink and downlink. Release 19 supports 5G reduced capability devices and multicast broadcast services. Global navigation satellite system support was mandatory for the previous releases. Release 19 targets reducing global navigation satellite system dependency via UE precompensation for uplink time and frequency synchronization. Release 19 IoT NTN will add store and forward technology to 5G Advanced New Radio [12]. Release 19 specifies inter-radio access technology mobility support from Long Term Evolution Terrestrial Network to 5G Advanced New Radio. It covers idle mode mobility based on cell reselection, which uses the existing signaling introduced for IoT-NTN and mobility procedures between NR TN and NR NTN to the maximum extent. 2.1. NTN Architecture With the current evolution of NTN, the primary focus of the 3GPP NTN endeavors has been to provide satellite-based communication services to consumers. Two distinct architectures are available to realize satellite communication systems based on the 3GPP NTN architecture, the transparent NTN architecture, and the regenerative NTN architecture [14]. In general, the satellite radio payload connects to the core network through a satellite ground station or gateway, referred to as the feeder link. The satellite then delivers communication services to user equipment (UE) via the service link. In the transparent architecture, shown in Figure 1, the base station (gNB) is po- i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 5 — #5 i i i i i i Chapter Title 5 sitioned on the ground behind the gateway, with the satellite serving primarily as a repeater. The satellite conducts radio frequency processing tasks like frequency conversion, amplification, and beam management, without the ability to perform extensive processing functions. Figure 1: Transparent NTN architecture [14] In the regenerative architecture, illustrated in Figure 2, the satellite contains either a complete gNB or certain components of it, such as the radio unit. This enables the satellite to decode and process packets on board. In this configuration, the feeder link, which connects the satellite to the ground, is like terrestrial fronthaul/backhaul and may not necessarily utilize NR technology. The regenerative architecture offers greater flexibility, improved performance, and global coverage, thanks to its capability to support inter-satellite links. Furthermore, with respect to use cases, architecture and possible technology aspects, 3GPP defined two major directions. The first direction relates to the enhancement of 5G New Radio (NR) to incorporate non-terrestrial communications within the 5G system and the technology is described as NR-NTN. The second direction is the extension of the general Internet of Things (IoT) by non-terrestrial connectivity and is described as IoT-NTN. 2.2. Multi-Layer Hierarchical Architecture The progress in aerial/space technology, industry and research , new spectrum developments, and novel antenna designs, are contributing to the evolution of NTN architecture [15]. Solid improvements in UAV technology and market make it possible for UAVs to be considered safe aerial devices. Furthermore, combined with HAPs and satellite, they can operate to define a new 3D architecture, supporting robust information broadcasting [1]. Integrated/multi-layered aerial/space architectures could lead to further improve- i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 6 — #6 i i i i i i 6Book Title Figure 2: Regenerative NTN architecture [14] ments in the system performance. Indeed, the integration of UAV and satellite systems brings several advantages, like longer battery life for low-power IoT devices on the ground, and low-latency processing on board the UAV. Moreover, the UAV layer can act as a wireless relay to improve the link quality of an upstream satellite, while the satellite layer can offer the UAV a ready-to-use link for the backhaul, as well as an easy access to the core network [16]. Figure 3: Multi-Layer Hierarchical Architecture [14] i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 7 — #7 i i i i i i Chapter Title 7 3. Extending connectivity in Rural Remote Areas Despite all the efforts toward digital integration and extension of network coverage to reach global connectivity, rural and remote area remain largely unconnected, facing several challenges. To date, a significant urban–rural digital divide persists in many countries, mainly due to the higher cost and risk associated with network deployment in less populated areas. In fact, rural and remote areas are the least commercial attractive for network operators. Missing access to fast broadband still presents a development challenge for rural communities. The Horizon Europe COMMECT project aims at building digital bridges, and reducing the digital divide by integrating NTN (satellites, drones) with TN, spanning from cellular (4G/5G) to IoT networks. The project adopts a participatory approach, engaging end-users, ICT experts, Telco and Satellite operators, farmers advisors, policy makers in five Living Labs (LLs) across and outside Europe. The five LLs focuses on: digitalization of viticulture (Luxembourg), connected forestry (Norway), livestock transport (Denmark), smart olive farming (T¨ urkiye), and sustainable agriculture and environmental preservation (Serbia). The goal of the Living Labs is to develop advancements that are both technologically viable and closely aligned with the real-life needs and preferences of the local communities involved. In this section we describe some of the use cases and applications that were identified in the COMMECT LLs, which would be made possible, thanks to the extended connectivity obtained by integrating TN and NTN. 3.1. Monitoring and Managing Vineyards Viticulture is severely impacted by the climate change and weather conditions [17]. Moreover, adapting to drought stress, maintaining plant health, and protecting vineyards from diseases, such as downy mildew (i.e., Plasmopara viticola), is very challenging due to the permanent and multi-season cultivation of vine. Irrigation, fertilization, and pesticide applications are necessary to control diseases and face weather challenges. However, they have several negative impacts, such as environmental risks and high costs of labour and treatments, which calls for an optimal timing and dosing of these activities. Timing and dosing of site-specific activities are strongly linked to micro-climatic conditions and state of plant, since the infection process depends on wetness duration at leaf level, temperature conditions during the wetness/drought period, and state of plant health [17]. Thus, continuous monitoring of micro-climatic conditions, crops, and plants status through digital applications, can play a key role to face the viticulture challenges. In this context, the Monitoring and Management of the Vineyards relies on developing connectivity solutions and digital tools to assist winegrowers in plant protection i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 8 — #8 i i i i i i 8Book Title practices, and support them toward efficient and sustainable management of the vineyards. This can be achieved through the continuous monitoring of micro-climate conditions in the vineyards including weather information, leaf wetness and soil moisture, as well as collecting images and videos from the field to create the digital maps of the vineyard (see Fig. 4). Data from different sources, like sensors (weather stations, leaf wetness sensors and soil moisture) and cameras need to be collected. This requires a robust communication infrastructure with different traffic requirements. Once data is collected, it can be processed at the edge, or in the cloud, using different models, and AI algorithms, for providing recommendations to the farmers [18]. Figure 4: Monitoring and Management of Vineyards The availability of a network infrastructure in the vineyards is fundamental to ensure reliable in-situ data collection. However, agricultural fields are in general situated in rural and remote regions with low population densities, where the cellular coverage from Telco operators may be limited or not able to meet the application’s requirements. NTN can fill this gap and meet the urgent need to extend broadband coverage in rural areas where TN cannot provide the necessary Quality of Service (QoS). UAVs build a 3D multi-hop network to extend the coverage range in the field while satellite communications offer a wide bandwidth to support the transmission of videos and a large coverage to collect data from dispatched sensors. An overall satellite throughput between 6 Mbps to 3 Gbps can be achieved depending on configuration and constellations (LEO/GEO). However, the latency and delay in satellite networks is more significant than in terrestrial networks, given the distance between transmitter and receiver. Also, the deployment, rental, and maintenance of the network are expensive. In this context, a trade-offbetween the communication performances (i.e. throughput, i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 9 — #9 i i i i i i Chapter Title 9 delay and coverage range), energy consumption, and the cost and complexity of the platform must be found. In the following, we present different network configurations, supported by NTN, to extend the coverage in the vineyards and meet the requirements of this use case. 3.1.1. Local Wi-Fi over satellite backhauling Digital Twins (DT) refer to the creation of virtual replicas of physical agricultural fields, such as crops, livestock, or farming equipment. These digital models are continuously updated with real-time data from sensors, drones, cameras and other IoT devices, allowing farmers to monitor and simulate various aspects of their operations. In order to build the DT of the vineyard, that will help managing and supporting agricultural activities, there is a need of frequently collecting videos from the field, at different precision. High resolutions cameras can be mounted on the tractors and videos will be collected and sent to servers while the tractor is doing the routine work navigating between the rows. This use case needs a high throughput and stable connectivity in the field area. This connectivity solution can be composed of Wi-Fi Access Points (APs), to create the local access network, supported by a satellite backhauling link. The satellite backhauling link brings a stable connectivity to the fields not well covered by TN, while the Wi-Fi access points ensure the spread of the access network over the field and extend the communication range. This use case has been implemented and tested in the field in the COMMECT LL in Luxembourg. Data is collected by the phone cameras mounted on the tractor (see Fig. 5.a) while the tractor is doing the routine work and navigating between rows. Each row is recorded using at least the standard resolution SD (480p) of the camera and the real time positioning from the Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) antenna. Data of an entire row is saved and uploaded to the remote server using the local Wi-Fi network. The local Wi-Fi network is deployed in the field using a Point-To-Point (PTP) network extender with two APs: One mounted on top of the tractor (see Fig. 5.b) and the second connected directly to the satellite edge terminal (see Fig. 5.c). The satellite terminal (see Fig. 5.d) ensures the uplink and downlink bandwidth capabilities using the GEO satellite backhauling. Extensive tests from the field in the COMMECT LL in Luxembourg demonstrated that the local Wi-Fi over satellite backhauling is a robust solution to upload videos. In these tests, videos with different resolutions were recorded, from SD(480p) to ultra High Definition (HD), also known as 4K. The upload time was ranging from 50 seconds to 24 minutes depending on the video size (from 44MB to 1.4GB). Compared to the baseline terrestrial network, the public cellular network was not stable during the experiment period; the upload of videos fluctuated between higher and lower upload times. This was expected since the quality of coverage in that remote area was not i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 16 — #16 i i i i i i 16 Book Title Figure 10: Use of UAV as a coverage extender or a base station UAV’s leverages existing commercial networks through backhauling and creates localized coverage where traditional ground-based infrastructure is not feasible. The complexity of this approach lies in managing the UAV’s positioning, maintaining stable network connections, and ensuring low-latency communication, particularly in emergency scenarios. Compared to traditional methods like terrestrial cell towers, satellite communication, or fixed wireless systems, UAV-based solutions offer distinct advantages in mobility, rapid deployment, and the ability to dynamically adjust coverage. Terrestrial towers and fixed wireless systems require significant infrastructure investments and are less suitable for rapidly changing environments. In contrast, UAVs equipped with network extenders can quickly establish or restore connectivity, enhancing operational capabilities. Thus, UAVs equipped with network extenders represent a versatile solution for overcoming connectivity limitations and enhancing operational capabilities in remote and dynamic environments like forests. 3.3. Livestock monitoring at the farm and on the road Livestock transport is a vital element in the supply chain of animal breeding and production. To ensure animal welfare during the livestock transportation and the loading and unloading processes, regulations defined by the EU and the country where the transport is occurring should be met. Some of these regulations require communication of digital data as well as paperwork between the livestock transport units and the operational centre all along the transport route. An example can be found in the case of pig transport between the consignor farm and the consignee farm, where the trans- i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 17 — #17 i i i i i i Chapter Title 17 port must always be registered in the Pig Movement Database [21, 22, 23]. Therefore, livestock transport could indeed strongly benefit for further digitalization, where an increased cost efficiency can be achieved while maintaining animal welfare and livestock quality. The regulations on the protection of animals during transport require constant reporting of the truck’s location within a fixed interval of 10 to 12 minutes. The systems collecting and transmitting location data, currently work over 2G and it has been observed that the transmissions of the location reports from the truck to the coordination centre do not always succeed due to poor cellular connectivity. Additionally, constant monitoring of the animals’ health conditions and other parameters during the journey is required, including onboard sensor information (CO2 levels and temperature in the livestock trailer compartments), load weight, and loading ramp status, among others. This information is currently registered manually, and it is not transmitted while the vehicle is on the route, but uploaded to the database established by the regulatory bodies after the journey is completed. Stakeholders, like transport companies, envision a smarter livestock trading, with the transport units connected to the operational centre all along the process. This would allow constant sharing of extensive information, and individual decisions could be made depending on the vehicle’s location, the health status of the onboard livestock, or other indicators. The monitoring of the animals’ health is also required during the loading and unloading process of the animals from the transportation track, to ensure their wellbeing. Additionally, it is mandated that the animals are counted before departing, after arrival at the delivery location, as well as during the transportation. Typically, the animal counting is performed on the ramp of the truck carrying the animals and currently it is performed manually, which often leads to mistakes. Therefore, the implementation of an automatic system will facilitate the efficient and correct counting of the animals as well as a means to animal monitoring. Despite what is claimed by cellular operators, trucks and other vehicles, using cellular (2G/3G/4G/5G) connectivity, do not have stable connectivity along routes especially in rural area and secondary roads, and sometimes they lose connectivity. Moreover, 5G coverage is still lacking in many remote areas where typically farms are located. Besides unavailability of 5G, 2G/3G/4G coverage may not support the requested quality of service in term of data rates and latency. Thus, cellular access alone cannot be used to fulfill the need of seamless and reliable connectivity at all road and farm locations. On the contrary, multi-connectivity in the last-mile network (using TN and NTN in user terminal) and in the access and backhauling network, e.g., chaining a TN and a NTN, are promising approaches to achieve seamless and reliable connectivity [24, 25, 26]. As illustrated in Fig. 11, satellite can be a backup option when cellular coverage is i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 18 — #18 i i i i i i 18 Book Title Figure 11: Use case schematic for cellular and satellite multiconnectivity in livestock transport. poor or nonexistent along a defined route during livestock transport. The integrated TN-NTN network can allow period transmission of reports (vehicle location and sensor data information) from each mobile transport unit on the road to the operation center within and beyond EU member states. Additionally, the TN-NTN infrastructure will benefit future applications for route-optimisation. The truck may need to recalculate the route depending on traffic conditions, weather forecasts and risk infection areas and consider the location of recharging stations (for future electric truck). The exchange of relevant data in almost real-time will help minimizing the trip time and thus improving animal wellness and driver’s quality of life, and reduce energy consumption. Furthermore, NTN offers an alternative and robust solution for Internet access at the rural farm locations, where Internet access may be hindered by the limited or non-existent TN infrastructure. 3.3.1. Multi-connectivity architecture for livestock transportation: narrowband and broadband One of the main advantages of using cellular (TN) and satellite (NTN) multiconnectivity is the increased robustness of the network due to a duplicated network architecture [27]. Fig. 11 shows an example of the multi-connectivity network architecture approach: broadband satellite network can be used when the cellular network is not available or signal quality is not enough to provide the required service. The satellite access, based on a GEO or LEO constellation configuration will be used as a backup. i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 19 — #19 i i i i i i Chapter Title 19 However, using broadband satellite access only for sensor data collection and sending reports is not yet been justified, given the high price of broadband satellite capacity/equipment for one single truck. In recent years, however, the cost of access to space has been decreasing, with organizations such as Space-X or OneWeb dramatically driving down launch costs, stimulating growth in the launch numbers of small satellites, including CubeSats. This growing popularity of small satellites is opening multiple opportunities to implement satellite technologies for remote sensing with with cheaper equipment. Recent experimental studies conducted within the framework of the COMMECT project [28, 29, 30] demonstrate an improvement in the end user Quality of Experience (QoE) in terms of coverage and performance. In particular, using the satellite network as a backup has proven successful, as satellite constellations remain available as long as there is a direct Line-of-Sight towards the sky, overcoming the limited cellular deployment in rural areas. Consequently, the previous studies indicate that the availability and reliability of the integrated cellular-satellite network is able to exceed 99.9%. However, as a trade-off, the complexity of the required hardware and software increases, since it necessitates duplicating equipment and maintaining both mobile and satellite subscriptions to ensure simultaneous service through two connectivity solutions. To mitigate the increased complexity of the connectivity solution, ongoing research is focused on defining smart replication strategies that activate multiconnectivity only when Key Performance Indicators at the physical layer (e.g., SNR) or the network layer (e.g., throughput) degrade [31]. 3.3.2. Connectivity solution for the (un)loading process For the counting of the animals during the loading and unloading process, a live video stream could be used. Specifically, a camera mounted on the truck could transmit in real-time a video of the loading and unloading process to a remote server, where computer vision solutions will be applied. Additionally, the remote server could also facilitate other computer vision solutions, e.g., to monitor the health status of the animals. Because the video monitoring and analysis might require timely analysis and decisions, from a connectivity point of view, the remote server should be nearby the farm location and a high uplink wireless access link is required, to e.g. ensure at least 10 Mbps of uplink throughput. Considering that farms are typically located in rural areas where cellular connectivity might be unstable or non-existent, a connectivity solution for local wireless network coverage is proposed and illustrated in Fig. 12. Specifically, to facilitate the remote video monitoring and analysis, connectivity at the farm location is achieved by either WiFi or a 5G private network. Additionally, the Internet connectivity between the farm and the remote server via a cellular network may be unreliable. Therefore, NTN are considered as an alternative and robust solution for Internet access and thus, i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 20 — #20 i i i i i i 20 Book Title Figure 12: Connectivity solution for the loading and unloading of livestock at a farm location. they could play a major role in transporting the video stream to the remote server. The COMMECT project field test results with private 5G networks [32] illustrate that uplink throughputs well above 10 Mbps can be achieved depending on the distance between the transmitter and receiver, as well as particular configuration of the local private 5G networks in terms of available bandwidth, and the transmit and/or receive antenna configuration with respect to output powers and MIMO capabilities. On the other side, the achievable WiFi uplink throughput can be also way above 10 Mbps depending on the used WiFi band (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz) and the terminal and access point transmit/receive capabilities and distance. Therefore, in practice when the backhauling of the local private 5G or WiFi access network is done via satellite links, most likely the uplink throughput bottleneck will be dictated by the uplink throughput satellite link performance. In recent years Starlink’s LEO satellite access has been gaining popularity and in COMMECT’s project this commercial solution is seen as viable alternative for the backhauling transport network in rural areas. Recent market study done by Ookla in Q4 2024 [33] presents that the median uplink throughput in most European countries is above 10 Mbps. This means that with the current Starlink commercial capabilities for the backhauling and in combination with local 5G or WiFi network an uplink video monitoring stream would be feasible for the livestock on/offloading processes at farms located in rural areas. Note also that the latency reported by Ookla ranges from 41 to 144 ms, which might also be sufficient to build an almost real-time video monitoring application based on the video streaming data. i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 21 — #21 i i i i i i Chapter Title 21 4. Conclusions The 3GPP standardisation work from Release 17 to Release 19 contribute to the full and seamless integration of NTN and TN for 5G systems, and this trend is expected to continue in the future 6G systems. The NTN related enhancements enable easier deployment and usage of NTN architecture concepts for providing affordable connectivity in challenging domains such as rural areas, where costs for providing coverage solely via terrestrial cellular systems might be currently prohibitive. This chapter provides an overview of the TN-NTN architectures and potential deployments in several rural area use cases, based on the work carried in the Horizon Europe COMMECT project. These use cases show the prospects of NTN integration in meeting 6G and beyond requirements, by providing global connectivity, high-speed, and ultra-reliable network solutions. The first use case focuses on monitoring and managing vineyards. It includes broadband video monitoring of the vineyards by cameras mounted on UAVs and/or tractors that use satellite backhauling for transferring the video feed towards remote monitoring locations; and UAV enabled collection of IoT sensor data. Note here that with the advancements of IoT NTN support in 3GPP Release 18 and Release 19 it could be also possible to directly connect the IoT sensors to e.g. LEO satellite for the sensory data collection. The second rural area use case is about enabling situation awareness in forests via UAVs mounted with monitoring cameras such that the video feed can be processed by e.g. AI/ML algorithms for early detection of smoke/fires. As this video monitoring requires high uplink bandwidth the UAV can be served by a mobile 5G private networks (e.g., network on wheels). The latter can use satellite backhauling as an option to increase the robustness of the connectivity when there is no terrestrial network available. The regenerative NTN architecture concepts developed in 3GPP can be used as option to replace the local 5G private networks on wheels for providing high uplink capacity in forest areas where no cellular connectivity is available and not approachable by vehicles. The third use case is about enabling digitisation and enhancements of the livestock transportation as well as the un/loading process. As the livestock transportation truck travels through remote areas where terrestrial cellular connectivity is patchy, the real-time monitoring would be more robust if the transportation truck is equipped with a communication terminal that is also able to connect to satellite 5G systems. The 3GPP work on full and seamless integration of NTN in (beyond)5G and 6G enables cheaper terminals and also improved mobility procedures for the handover between the terrestrial and NTN coverage. At farms in rural areas where the livestock is un/loaded and uplink video feed is necessary for monitoring this process a local 5G private network can be established that can use satellite link backhauling, or again in future, when regenerative NTN concepts are deployed, this local private 5G connectivity can be realized by satellite coverage. i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 22 — #22 i i i i i i 22 Book Title Clearly, TN-NTN integration holds the potential to bridge the digital divide in rural areas, and support new applications to improve crop and livestock monitoring, and forests surveillance. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS his work was performed in the framework of the COMMECT project which received funding from the EU Horizon Europe Programme, under grant agreement No. 101060881. The authors would like to thank all the members of the COMMECT Living Labs that contributed to the collection of the users’ needs, and the definition of the use cases. REFERENCES 1. M. Giordani and M. 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Available Online: https://www.ookla.com/articles/starlink-europe-q1-2024, 2025. i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 24 — #24 i i i i i i i i “output” — 2025/10/13 — 8:24 — page 25 — #25 i i i i i i Chapter Title 25