Identifying quarries in the Roman Pannonia: geological report

Geological report: Identifying quarries in the Roman Pannonia! Ljubljana 2025 Final report Author: Igor RIŽNAR! DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17352814 Final report Genii project Introduction# !3 Methods# !3 Description of lithotypes# !5 Lithotype A# !5 Fenestral and moldic porosity# !5 Emersion breccia (subaerial-exposure breccia)# !5 Bioturbation traces# !7 Banded limestone# !9 Stratigraphic position of Lithotype A and comparable beds in southern Slovenia# !10 Lower Jurassic limestones that are not Lithotype A# !11 Monuments from Stična# !13 Monuments without argued assignment# !13 Source of Lithotype A# !14 Lithotype B# !15 Lithotype B1 – Badenian limestone# !16 Potential sources of Lithotype B1# !16 Lithotype B2 – Sarmatian limestone# !22 Lithotype C# !24 Potential sources of Lithotype C# !25 Potential sources of Lithotype D# !29 Conclusion# !33 References#40 2 Final report Genii project Introduction This study examines ancient monuments found in Dolenjska with the aim of providing insight into local ancient quarries, which represent the predominant form and organization of quarrying across the Roman Empire. For the purposes of this study, we developed a simple procedure to approach artifacts, most of which we could examine only by macroscopic observation or using non-destructive methods. Only a small number could be sampled, and thin sections prepared from those samples for microscopic analysis. To identify potential sources, we analyzed available geological maps and LiDAR-derived relief imagery.!!! Methods Within the GENNI project—whose goal is to delineate areas of ancient Roman quarries that operated between the 1st and 4th centuries CE in the region of presentday Dolenjska and Bela krajina—we reviewed more than 200 ancient stone artifacts. These are published artifacts stored in museum repositories or displayed in lapidaria, parks, and museum atria, in churches, built into the walls of older buildings (usually churches); some are outdoors or even on private land. Because curators (the custodians of the artifacts) generally do not allow sampling, we were able to describe the artifacts only at a macroscopic level—i.e., observation with the naked eye and hand lens. Among the surveyed artifacts, votive altars and funerary monuments are most prevalent, followed by milestones, inscribed plaques, and architectural members. From their creation to the present day, ancient artifacts have been exposed to very different conditions for a relatively long time, so their surfaces are degraded in various ways. The most common are bacterial biofilms that cover the rock surface and considerably limit visibility into the fabric of the rock. Because the monuments were in many cases buried for centuries, their surfaces may bear traces of sinter, limonite crusts, and similar incrustations. Monuments displayed in the open are often completely overgrown with lichens and other biota, which rather quickly degrade the surfaces of limestone monuments (Fig. 1). Since the purpose of this paper is not to assess stone decay, we do not address the degradation of the monuments further here. 3 Figure 1. Degraded surfaces of monuments from Drnovo compared with fresh rock. Left: Neogene limestone; right: Lower Jurassic brecciated limestone. Final report Genii project In addition to objective difficulties caused by natural weathering, in many cases we faced very poor conditions for inspecting the monuments. Many monuments are stored in completely unsuitable places: cramped spaces where access is hardly possible, the artifacts are very dirty, and the lighting is inadequate or even absent. In a few cases, a protective coating also prevented analysis, which seems entirely unsuitable for artifacts kept indoors. The data we obtained through macroscopic inspection are limited to the rock fabric where it is visible on the surface, any presence of macrofossils, and especially sedimentary textures were developed and observable. In some monuments, small damages occurred during excavation or manipulation when embedding into walls, revealing “fresh rock” over a few square centimeters and allowing a better—though still quite limited—view of the rock fabric. We were able to obtain only a few samples from which thin sections were prepared, enabling insight into the microstructure of the rocks and thus a possible determination of the rock’s age. Determining the age of the rocks—and arguing for the assigned age and thus indirectly for membership in a given geological formation or member—is difficult given the limited amount of information we could obtain during inspection, and in large part rests on indirect evidence. We refrained from determining rock color using the Munsell scale due to the inaccessibility of fresh surfaces and poor lighting conditions. Among the examined artifacts, we could distinguish at a glance dark grey—and in many cases also lighter—apparently Lower Jurassic limestones, which account for roughly half of the set. As explained below, we grouped these into a single Lithotype A primarily on the basis of sedimentary textures. Lithotype B also differs sufficiently from the other Mesozoic rocks to be easily separated; the subdivision into B1 and B2 is based on microfacies differences observable with a hand lens and, in most cases, even with the naked eye. The remaining lithotypes are relatively poorly represented, but separable and recognizable. ! 4 Final report Genii project Description of lithotypes ! Lithotype A During the inventory we noticed that the artefacts can be divided into three major groups based on the rock from which they are made. The most numerous groups consist of medium to dark grey and sometimes light-grey micritic limestone that visually corresponds to Lower Jurassic limestones known from the southern margin of the Ljubljana Marsh and Dolenjska, as well as the Trnovo Forest. This group comprises roughly half of the artefacts. We initially classified these as presumed Lower Jurassic, meaning we first tried to assign the artefacts coarsely based on the overall impression—colour of fresh and weathered rock, sedimentary textures, and macrofossils that often occur in certain formations and are well known to geologists with extensive field experience. Because we could not sample the monuments and determine age or formation using microfossil inventories, we resorted to an indirect approach: describe what is observable on the monuments and try to connect those observations into clearly distinguishable groups. A mo n g m o re t ha n on e h u n d r e d monuments we recognised as “presumed Lower Jurassic,” we recorded the following sedimentary textures: ! Fenestral and moldic porosity ! The largest proportion of monuments contained dissolution cavities and fenestral porosity up to a few centimeters across, filled with white coarse sparry calcite. These are voids formed in limestone due to various causes: decay of organic matter; movement of fluids and gases in the sediment while it consolidates into limestone; dissolution of aragonitic shells of mollusks; and similar. Once carbonate mud hardens, calcite crystals precipitate from pore water in the resulting voids; owing to their larger size these crystals are less soluble than the enclosing microcrystalline matrix (micrite) and thus remain visible even on strongly corroded limestone surfaces (Fig. 2-5). Such sparry calcite– filled porosity is known from other formations too, but not at the prevalence and scale seen in the Lower Jurassic and Upper Triassic. The indicative nature of this texture is reflected in the considerable match we observed: about 40% of the inspected monuments initially assigned to the Lower Jurassic contained large sparrycalcite–filled pores. By contrast, we did not find these textures on other artifacts made of different limestone lithotypes. Emersion breccia (subaerial-exposure breccia) Fairly common—present in about one quarter of monuments made of presumed Lower Jurassic limestone—is emersion breccia. This is a limestone breccia that forms during brief subaerial exposure and typically comprises only a single layer a few centimeters thick, rarely exceeding 20 cm. Clasts are up to a few centimeters in size, commonly poorly rounded to angular; contacts between clasts are often stylolitic, or clasts “float” in ochre-colored calcareous clay (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9). The breccias are usually monomict and rarely contain more than one clast type; typically, dark clasts are set in a somewhat lighter matrix. Poor rounding indicates very short transport, and between the grains we usually find up to a few millimeters of infill by ochre calcareous clay—its presence and color reflecting input from the land surface. A brecciated limestone in the middle part of the Lower Jurassic 5 Final report Genii project profile at Kompolje is also described by Dozet and Strohmenger (1990). Among the surveyed monuments, two specimens are made of limestone breccia without a clearly visible terrigenous component. Where there is no ochre calcareous clay between clasts and clasts are larger—for example 10 cm or more— this could in principle be a breccia of carbonate flysch of Upper Cretaceous age known from SE Slovenia. However, without a thin section (a destructive method), the rock cannot be confidently determined unless grains of Middle Jurassic or younger limestone are recognized among the clasts. 6 Figure 2. Large sparry-calcite–filled dissolution pores, Trebnje church (ID 21). Figure 4. Prominent sparry fenestral pores (limestone block ID 59 at Jezero near Trebnje). Figure 5. Sparry-calcite– filled mollusks in the stone of a votive altar from Drnovo (ID 48). Figure 3. Sparry porosity on the surface of a milestone in Novo mesto (ID 93). Final report Genii project Bioturbation traces Bioturbation traces are not uncommon in limestones. These ichnofossils represent feeding traces of saprophagous organisms that filter organic-rich mud, or burrows of organisms (bivalves, crustaceans, worms) in which they lived. While burrowing through the sediment, organisms leave behind traces in the form of tubes with approximately circular cross-sections. In the monuments we encountered two different types of bioturbation traces. More frequent are tubular voids up to a few millimeters wide that—unlike the large white sparry fills of pores described above—are filled with large, clear calcite crystals. Because of their transparency, these crystals usually appear dark at the surface, in contrast to the white sparry calcite that fills dissolution, fenestral, and moldic pores (Figs. 10, 11). On some monuments we also observed similarly filled polygonal structures, which may represent desiccation cracks. Because we can only investigate artifacts non-destructively, we cannot definitively clarify the origin of these textures. In addition to fine burrow traces, we also observed much larger textures where approximately straight pores up to 1 cm thick, filled with lighter sediment, join into polygons up to 20 cm across (Figs. 12, 13, 14). Seeing these textures in a single plane on artifacts, we do not know their three-dimensional geometry. The key question is whether this texture can occur in the same formation as the textures described above and whether it constitutes a different lithotype. Since roughly half of the artifacts with these bioturbation traces also contain emersion breccia or large white sparry pore fills—some contain both—it is clear that they can belong to the same formation, and that monuments with such bioturbation can at least conditionally be assigned to the same stratigraphic unit (lower part of the Lower Jurassic). 7 Figure 6: Milestone at Velika vas pri Krškem. Breccia. (ID 150). Figure 7. Inscribed plaque, Museum of Novo mesto (ID 28). Figure 9. Drnovo, limestone block. Figure 8. Milestone, Castle Raka (ID 114). Final report Genii project 8 Figure 12. Votive altar, Trebnje (ID: 40). Figure 11. Sparry-calcite–filled ichnofossils Figure 10. Sparry-calcite–filled ichnofossils (ID 12). Final report Genii project Banded limestone! About 20% of the monuments contain a horizon of laminae or thin beds up to 2 cm thick of usually featureless micritic limestone. Darker and lighter micrite beds alternate, giving a “banded” appearance (literature: banded limestone; Figs. 15, 16, 17, 18). Between beds there may be stylolitic seams of very low amplitude filled with ochre material. As seen in the milestone from Grm Castle (Fig. 15), laminae in the lower part of such a horizon are deformed and break into fragments so that the sediment resembles a supratidal conglomerate—or this may be bioturbation tearing partly lithified laminae. Limestones labeled “banded micritic limestones” by Dozet (2009) describe the lowest part of the Lower Jurassic. Three quarters of the monuments in which we identified banded limestone also contain other textures used to define the stratigraphic position of Lithotype A; it is therefore clear that these textures also belong to the same formation as those above. 9 Figure 13. Inscribed plaque (ID 6). Figure 14. Plaque before the chapel steps at Velike Malence (ID 79). Final report Genii project Lithotype B1 – Badenian limestone! Badenian limestone includes many varieties; in general, these are detrital limestones containing lithothamnion algae, bryozoans, shells, foraminifera, bioclastic debris, and occasional larger fossils such as starfish and sea urchins. They are very similar to each other, so we also informally distinguished them by grain size (Fig. 28). Potential sources of Lithotype B1 Badenian limestone crops out in Slovenia east and north of Ljubljana. In the north it is present east of Cerklje na Gorenjskem and east of Moravče; further south east of Šmarjeta and Bela cerkev on the western edge of the Krško Basin. Along the Roman road between Ljubljana and Brežice, larger outcrops occur around Bela cerkev, Kostanjevica, between Podbočje and Čatež, on the southern slope of Libna, and along the Sava north of Sevnica. All of these localities are close to the Krka or Sava. A quite evident quarry is at Dvorce SE of Čatež (marked on geological maps); quarries are also known on the eastern Gorjanci south of Brežice—reportedly used for building the Vienna Museum (M. Novak, pers. comm., 2020). Despite numerous areas with Badenian limestone, we lack direct archaeological data for ancient quarry sites for this lithotype. Following the Roman road west to east, at the entry into the Krško Basin— where Neogene rocks begin— opportunities for quarrying certainly existed around Bela cerkev (Fig. 29), where very steep slopes occur at Badenian outcrops right beside the ancient road; however, aside from steep slopes, there are no convincing signs of quarrying. A similar situation exists on the northern margin of the Krško Basin, where the steep southern slope of Libna is built of Badenian limestone but shows no extraction marks (Fig. 30). On the southern margin of the basin, small quarries appear in the right bank of the Sušica (Fig. 31), but these are rather small. The quarry at Dvorce (Fig. 32) likely served for building the manor opposite, which gave the hamlet its name. 16 Figure 22. Left: Emona sewer covers (NUK II). Right: Emona sewer cover belonging to Lithotype A, made of the light banded micrite characteristic of Lithotype A and sourced from the Podpeč quarry. Final report Genii project A somewhat different possibility is suggested by a large rockslide below St.!George’s chapel at Čatež, still visible in the relief (Fig. 33). This is a slide where poorly permeable clayey gravel underlies several tens of meters of Badenian limestone. Their boundary dips north parallel to the slope, which is why the slide formed. During motorway construction, the slide was dated to about 10,000 years before present (Poljak & Ribičič, 2005). The last rockfall below the chapel occurred in the 1950s earthquake. The hill and the wider area around the Čatež petrol station consist of blocks of Badenian limestone that detached and rolled down the steep northern slope of Šentviška gora; boreholes around the petrol station did not 17 Figure 23. Extract from the Basic Geological Map of Slovenia 1:100,000, sheets Ribnica (Buser, 1969) and Novo mesto (Pleničar et al., 1976), with Lower Jurassic (Lias) strata and the routes of ancient roads in Dolenjska. Yellow indicates larger outcrops of Neogene limestones (Lithotypes B1, B2); green marks areas where Lithotype C crops out. Bottom: Lithostratigraphic column of the Ribnica sheet (Buser, 1969) with the approximate thickness of Lithotype A (red) and encircled Lower Jurassic strata . Final report Genii project 18 Figure 24. Relief of the presumed ancient Brnek quarry with indicated dip direction and 20° dip angle. Figure 26. Left: Banded micrite bed at the foot of Brnek. Right: Sample of banded micrite. Figure 25. Left: Bed of limestone breccia with ochre cement in the western part of Brnek. Right: Close-up of the breccia. Final report Genii project reach bedrock at 30 m depth but only blocks and large fragments interpreted as slide deposits. The lower part of the slide was removed by the Sava and Krka rivers, whose confluence lies directly below. Under such conditions—where the rockslide delivered blocks to the confluence—one wonders where those blocks are today; at least some should be at the surface. 19 Figure 27. Beds with fenestral porosity filled with white sparry calcite in the NW part of Brnek. Final report Genii project A plausible answer is that blocks were systematically removed from the surface because this would be easier and cheaper than quarrying by cutting. 20 Figure 28. Coarse-grained and fine-grained varieties of Badenian limestone. Figure 29. Relief around Bela cerkev. Steep slopes marking Badenian outcrops are indicated. ! Final report Genii project 21 Figure 30. The steep southern slope of Libna is built of Badenian limestone but shows no signs of extraction. Final report Genii project Lithotype B2 – Sarmatian limestone! Sarmatian limestones differ somewhat from Badenian ones. During the regression that affected the entire Pannonian Basin ca. 13.6 Ma, Badenian limestone was eroded and re-sedimented into the shallow Sarmatian sea; therefore, Sarmatian limestones—at least in their lower part— contain reworked (pebble/grain) clasts of Badenian limestones (Rižnar et al., 1995). In our material, Lithotype B2 encompasses Neogene carbonate resediments that can be described as conglomeratic limestones, or as packstone to grainstone (and rarely rudstone) in the Dunham classification (Fig. 34 ). Pebbles are relatively small, up to 5 mm—rarely up to 2 cm—and are almost exclusively Badenian. In principle, Sarmatian limestones may also contain pebbles from the pre-Neogene basement (Mesozoic and older), but among the surveyed artifacts none showed this; we infer that Lithotype B2 represents the lowest Sarmatian horizon. 22 Figure 31. Small cuts in Badenian limestone in the right bank of the Sušica between Podbočje and Šutna. Final report Genii project Potential sources of Lithotype B2 Lithotype B2 is somewhat rare, as Sarmatian strata are much thinner in nature than Badenian. Wider outcrops occur on the southern margin of the Krško Basin on the slope between Čatež and Velike Malence (Fig. 35). Sarmatian limestone beds overlie a horizon of grey marl that forms an approximately 100 m wide plain between the right bank of the Krka and the northern Gorjanci slopes west of Velike Malence (Fig. 36). In antiquity, Sarmatian limestone likely cropped out in the right bank of the Krka. Beds are up to 50 cm thick, dipping 20° northward. Signs of extraction are visible behind houses south of the motorway bridge over the Krka (Fig. 35, 36), though the opening date is unknown. Thin Sarmatian limestone beds also crop out among laminated marls in the left bank of the Sava about 100 m upstream of the iron bridge west of the former Jutranjka factory on the southern edge of Brežice (Figs. 35, 37). The Sava–Krka confluence lies on Sarmatian beds, and it is possible that the Sava exposed these beds more widely in antiquity—similar to today’s exposures of Lithotype C below the Krško bridge (see below). The church in Krška vas stands on a hill of Sarmatian limestone, suggesting that Sarmatian strata form the bedrock across the area from Malence to the confluence. The easiest extraction of Sarmatian limestones would therefore have been in the right bank of the Krka above the confluence and along the Sava above the confluence, where limestone slabs up to 20 cm thick could be readily prised from the ground. 23 Final report Genii project Lithotype C ! Lithotype C is relatively easy to recognize: a platy, usually laminated limestone with chert. The limestone is medium to light grey, violet-red, brick red, and pink; more rarely brownish-pink or yellowish. The red limestones are somewhat marly; the grey ones are purer. Both contain interbeds of marl, more common among the red beds. Bed thickness ranges from 2 to 20 cm. Lithotype C contains pelagic foraminifera documenting an Upper Cretaceous (Turonian–Santonian) age. Chert occurs between limestone beds, more rarely as nodules. Chert beds are 1–15 cm thick and typically fractured by tectonic processes. Chert can be red, grey, or dark grey. This platy limestone is Upper Cretaceous, specifically Turonian–Santonian. The informal Italian term scaglia (scaglia rossa) is also used for this rock.! Due to relatively thin beds (rarely exceeding 20 cm), the rock is very suitable for construction, as beds split well along bedding partings. Products include wall slabs (e.g., tomb walls), more rarely inscribed plaques and stelae; such artifacts are few among the surveyed monuments (only seven), mostly from the Krško Basin. Use of this lithotype is surprisingly common only around Krško, where in Drnovo—according to a local archaeologist—we had the opportunity to inspect a wall built entirely of stone recovered from house foundation excavations. We examined the wall and determined the lithotype for nearly one hundred building stones. It turned out that 45% of the stones belong to Lithotype C (Figure 38). The remainder are mostly Lithotype B1; only ten stones are Lithotypes A and E, plus several larger Sava River pebbles. 24 Figure 32. Badenian limestone quarry at Dvorce near Čatež. Final report Genii project Potential sources of Lithotype C Potential quarry locations for Lithotype C are on both margins of the Krško Basin and on the northern margin of the Krško Hills (Fig. 39). Three quarries of Lithotype C occur in the village of Šutna on the southern margin of the Krško Basin, 6 km east of Kostanjevica (Figs. 39, 40, 41). Figure 41 shows red platy limestone in a steep roadcut on the northern slope of the Krško Hills along the Sava near Pijavško. The source closest to Neviodunum is south of Krško (Fig. 44): a rather extensive area in the right bank of the Sava, still exposed today at low water, where Lithotype C beds crop out for more than a kilometer (Fig. 45). This area extends from the Matija Gubec stadium to the bridge connecting Videm and Krško and on the left bank opposite Krško; in antiquity it may have extended south to present-day Leskovec, where the Žlapovec stream marks the boundary between Lithotype C and younger rocks.Lithotype D Artifacts from Bela krajina were treated separately because, from an archaeological perspective, this area is geographically distinct from Dolenjska and it is unlikely that the same quarry supplied both, as in the case of Lithotype A. There is considerable homogeneity among the artifacts from Bela krajina. All of the (macroscopically) examined pieces are made of a dark, grey-brown micritic limestone without macroscopically visible sedimentary textures and macrofossils. An exception—greatly aiding our work—is an altar with three figures from the City Museum of Črnomelj, in which we found bivalves of the genus Requienia that demonstrate an Aptian–Albian (upper Lower Cretaceous) age. From artifacts made of (macroscopically) similar limestone we prepared several thin sections, which showed that all the brownish limestones belong to the same lithotype: poorly sorted, small micritic intraclasts somewhat darker than the 25 Figure 33. Outline of the large rockslide above Čatež. Final report Genii project 32 Figure 43. Area of Lithotype C outcrops in the right bank of the Sava south of the Krško bridge. Figure 44. Beds of platy limestone with black chert in the right bank of the Sava opposite the Vipap plant. Final report Genii project Conclusion The present analysis of ancient stone artifacts shows that most monuments are made of Lower Jurassic limestone. Based on the results, the great majority of artifacts made from grey micritic limestone—initially presumed to be Lower Jurassic—share the same sedimentary textures that can be grouped into a relatively thin horizon in the lower Lower Jurassic. Relief analysis of areas where Lower Jurassic limestones crop out in Dolenjska led us to examine potential extraction sites; for Lithotype A, the Brnek quarry at Nemška vas near Trebnje is confirmed with high probability. Noteworthy is the similarity between Lithotype A from Brnek and beds with the same textures at Podpeč, clearly exploited for Emona’s construction; we were able to separate them based on archaeological data. Despite a plausible working hypothesis of transport along the Krka— especially given large areas of Lower Jurassic outcrops along the river—we did not confirm signs of exploitation of Lithotype A along the Krka. Lithotypes B1 and B2 are easily distinguishable; however, at potential sites where ancient quarries might be expected, we found no clear signs of ancient extraction—likely removed by later quarrying. 33 Figure 45. Large (0.7 mm) benthic foraminifer with alveolar wall. Sample 18 . Final report Genii project Extraction sites for Lithotype C generally lack signs of ancient production, but the right bank of the Sava appears to be the most likely location for ancient procurement of this lithotype; other potential locations, except Pijavško, are too small. Lithotype D, identified in thin section as a dark grey-brown micrite with small intraclasts or peloidal grains, is fairly homogeneous among the Bela krajina artifacts. This enabled relatively straightforward field recognition and discovery of Lithotype D outcrops on the NE margin of Črnomelj, where, although we did not find convincing signs of extraction, the proximity of outcrops strongly suggests that this was the source. Lithotype E is the rarest rock among the monuments. In fact, we have only two monuments showing similarities with carbonate flysch; this is too little for serious consideration. We did find some such stones in a wall built of ancient ruins in Drnovo, but the number of artifacts of this lithotype is too small for serious analysis. An integral part of the report is an extensive table listing the artifacts examined. It is organized by catalog number with accompanying data. The catalog is accompanied by a complete set of photographs showing individual monuments, sedimentary textures, and any fossils observable on the monuments. 34 Figure 46. Slightly darker intraclasts (A) and ostracods (B) in a partly washed micritic matrix (C). Sample 16 . Final report Genii project 35 Figure 47. Favreina (F) in a micritic matrix with sparry detritus and tiny dolomite crystals (the smallest bright grains). Sample 4 . Figure 48. Slightly darker small micritic intraclasts (A) and ostracods (B) in micrite, with euhedral dolomite crystals up to 0.1 mm (D). Sample 7 Final report Genii project 36 Figure 50. Biolitite bed marked on the geological map (Bukovac et al., 1984). Figure 49. Larger and smaller darker intraclasts (A) and individual foraminifers (B) in a partly washed micritic matrix. Final report Genii project 37 Figure 51. Three larger cuts on the northern margin of Črnomelj and the approximate boundary (yellow dashed line) between the white limestone to the SW and the bedded grey-brown Lithotype D limestone to the NE. The red ellipse marks the area where beds crop out as reefs. Final report Genii project 38 Figure 52. Individual reefs of Lithotype D limestone crop out over ~0.5 ha in open woodland on the NE edge of Črnomelj. Final report Genii project 39 Figure 54. Sample 49. A: larger intraclasts; B: foraminifers; C: fields of washed matrix; D: small dark intraclasts. Figure 53. Sample 48. Partly washed grey-brown micritic packstone with intraclasts or peloidal grains 0.05–5 mm, just slightly darker than the matrix (A); individual foraminifers (B); fields of washed micrite (C). Final report Genii project References! ! 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