Interdisiplinary Interactions in Ceramic Art

INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Editor Betül AYTEPE SERİNSU Lyon 2025 INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Editor Betül AYTEPE SERİNSU Lyon 2025 Interdisiplinary Interactions in Ceramic Art Editor • Assoc. Prof. Dr. Betül AYTEPE SERİNSU • Orcid: 0000-0002-6853-9219 Cover Design • Betül Aytepe Serinsu Book Layout • Motion Graphics First Published • October 2025, Lyon e-ISBN: 978-2-38236-902-9 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17319077 copyright © 2025 by Livre de Lyon All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the Publisher. The author or authors of the relevant section are responsible for any copyright infringement that may occur due to the images and graphics used in the book. The editor or publisher does not assume responsibility in this regard. Publisher • Livre de Lyon Address • 37 rue marietton, 69009, Lyon France website • http://www.livredelyon.com e-mail • [email protected] I PREFACE Ceramics represents one of humanity’s most profound forms of expression. Throughout its millennia-long trajectory, it has occupied a central position in cultural, social, technological, and artistic transformations, embodying the traces of past civilizations and constituting a unique cultural memory. Over time, ceramics has transcended its function as a mere utilitarian object. It has become a vessel for rituals, narratives, and symbols; it has converged with technological innovation and evolved into a distinctive language of aesthetic inquiry. Today, it constitutes a powerful branch of contemporary art. Ceramic production, developed across diverse geographical regions and historical periods, has been enriched through the transmission of knowledge, techniques, and aesthetic sensibilities from one civilization to another. Through this accumulated heritage, it has acquired an interdisciplinary universal language, becoming an indispensable medium of expression not merely for craft, but for contemporary art, design, and technology as well. Ceramics now functions not simply as a mode of production, but as an intellectual foundation, an experimental laboratory, and a bridge between cultures. This book examines ceramic art not solely within its own axis, but through the dialogues it establishes with other disciplines. Multifaceted research and interpretations are presented comprehensively through the lenses of material, color, technique, technology, aesthetics, design, and socio-dynamic perspectives. In today’s art and design world, where interdisciplinary approaches have gained increasing significance, this work aims to serve as an inspirational resource for all readers who pursue new explorations in creative processes, think through diverse perspectives, and seek to establish connections between material and concept. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Betül AYTEPE SERİNSU III CONTENTS PREFACE I CHAPTER I. COLOR IN CERAMIC ART 1 MelahatALTUNDAĞ CHAPTER II. ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY CERAMIC ARTISTS: RECONSTRUCTING TRADITIONAL AESTHETICS 19 ÖzlemSAĞLIYANSÖNMEZ CHAPTER III. INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS OF BORON TULLE GLAZES IN CERAMIC BODY 45 EylülKURTCEBE&PınarÇalışkanGÜNEŞ CHAPTER IV. FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION TECHNIQUE THROUGH THE LENS OF THREE CULTURES 59 OyaAşanYÜKSEL&DuyguKAHRAMAN CHAPTER V. AESTHETIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, GASTRONOMIC, AND COMMERCIAL PERSPECTIVES ON ANCIENT PERIOD AMPHORAE 83 FirdevsMüjdeGÖKBELYAVUZOĞLU CHAPTER VI. AZULEJO ART IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION 97 SenemAKERENSARİ CHAPTER VII. RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART 119 İsmetYÜKSEL CHAPTER VIII. PABLO PICASSO’S CERAMIC FORMS 141 SerkanTOK CHAPTER IX. THE THEME OF DEATH IN ART AND ITS REFLECTIONS IN CERAMIC ART 167 GülşenÜNAL&MemduhaCandanGÜNGÖR CHAPTER X. INTERDISCIPLINARY THERAPEUTIC CERAMIC ART PROJECTS: APPLICATIONS IMPLEMENTED AT NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS 197 ÖzlemÖZERTUĞAL COLOR IN CERAMIC ART   7 known as Siena earth or gray soil, is formed by a small amount of manganese oxide mixed with goethite. There are also black soils in which manganese oxide predominates.” (Delamare & Guineau, cited in Özol, 2012). Figure 8: Natural Soils. (Personal Photo Archive) Pigments are generally in powder form and are used by mixing them with binders such as water, oil, or resin. Based on their origins, they are divided into two main groups: the first consists of pigments obtained from natural sources such as soil, clay, minerals, and plants; the second includes synthetic pigments produced through modern chemical methods. Among the most preferred natural pigments throughout history, known for their strong coloring power, are cobalt blue, ultramarine, red iron oxide, chrome yellow, lead white, and copper green. In the plastic arts, color is a multilayered phenomenon with physical, perceptual, theoretical, and cultural dimensions. It is a fundamental building block that expands the artist’s means of expression, enables the creation of an emotional bond with the viewer, and fosters visual awareness in art education. With this multidimensional function, color continues to be one of the most powerful expressive tools of the plastic arts. Different disciplines of the plastic arts, such as painting, sculpture, and ceramics, approach color through different methods. In painting, color creates a two-dimensional effect on the canvas surface through the use of paints, while in sculpture, color is a three-dimensional element that derives from the material itself or from surface coatings. In ceramics, however, color is not only related to pigments but is also closely connected to technical processes such as kiln atmosphere and firing conditions, which distinguishes color formation in ceramics from that in other plastic art disciplines. 3. Color and Color Formation in Ceramic Art Ceramic art is one of humanity’s oldest and most enduring forms of expression. Emerging from the shaping of earth by fire, this art form has, since the Neolithic age, served not only as a field of functional production but also as 8   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART a carrier of cultural identities, beliefs, and aesthetic values. As Balyemez (2017) emphasizes, ceramics is a cultural phenomenon obtained from nature and shaped by human hands, displaying an uninterrupted continuity in terms of form, color, and traditions of use. Throughout history, ceramics have gone beyond meeting the practical needs of daily life, finding wide application in religious rituals, architectural ornamentation, ceremonial objects, and artistic expressions. Thus, ceramics have been not only material objects of production but also powerful instruments of communication carrying social memory, cultural codes, and aesthetic ideals. In this sense, ceramics have made visible the continuity of human history by embodying traces of both technological developments and cultural values across different periods and geographies. Within this historical continuity, color emerges as one of the most significant elements defining both the technical and aesthetic dimensions of ceramic art. The pigments, glazes, and oxides used have not only enhanced visual diversity but have also reflected the cultural and symbolic values of their respective periods. In this respect, color is not merely a superficial attribute of ceramics but a powerful means of expression that conveys cultural memory and artistic narrative. In ceramic art, the phenomenon of color first appears through the natural firing color of the clay body. The minerals present in the clay’s structure, particularly metal oxides such as iron oxide, create a wide range of colors from white to cream tones, and from yellow to red and brown (Figure 9). Figure 9: Natural colors produced by minerals and oxides in soil composition. (Personal Photo Archive) The geographical origin of the clay used also determines the diversity of these colors; for example, pure kaolin gives porcelain its whiteness, while clays with a high iron content imparted reddish tones to the early ceramics of Anatolia and Mesopotamia (Figure 10). COLOR IN CERAMIC ART   9 Figure 10: Female-Shaped Vessel, Late Neolithic Period, ca. 6000 BCE, Hacılar. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, (https://www.transanatolie.com/Turkce/Turkiye/Muzeler/amm.htm#kc) Artists did not limit themselves to these natural tones; by adding various additives to the clay body, they obtained different colors that reflected their aesthetic preferences. Iron oxide produced red and brown tones, manganese created purple and black, while copper yielded green and turquoise colors. In this way, the color of the ceramic clay ceased to be merely a natural property of the material and was transformed into a means of expression directed by technical interventions. In ceramic bodies, coloring can be achieved during the clay preparation stage by directly mixing coloring oxides, pigments, or natural minerals (Figure 11). In this way, the color spreads homogeneously throughout the material, and even if the surface wears down, the aesthetic integrity is preserved. Yüksel and Yüksel (2022) note that colored clay provides aesthetic depth by creating a color effect that extends across the entire form without the need for surface coating. Figure 11: Coloring clay bodies with oxides, pigments, and stains (https://www.potterytothepeople.com/marbling-pottery) In the historical process, masters were not limited to natural colors alone but sought to add decorative value by using clays of different colors. In this context, semi-liquid clay applications known as slip or engobe are considered the 10   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART beginning of the phenomenon of color in ceramics (Uzuner, 1998). In Ancient Egypt around 2100 BCE, “Egyptian paste” or “Egyptian faience,” which was mass-colored with large amounts of coloring oxides and pigments, emerged and is regarded today as the ancestor of ceramic glaze (Figure 12). Figure 12: Egyptian Paste (http://ceramicdictionary.com/en/e/832/egyptian-paste) In the 18th century, a colored body called “Egyptian Black,” produced in England with the addition of manganese and iron oxides, gained widespread commercial popularity (Uzuner, 1998). Today, ceramic bodies are colored with cobalt, iron, copper, manganese, chromium, zirconium, antimony, tin, and zinc oxides; while light-colored bodies can be easily colored with small amounts of oxides, dark-colored bodies are generally used in brown and black tones. In addition, the incorporation of coloring oxides not only into the body but also into slip or glaze formulations creates different color effects. Özkara (2002) and Telli (2019) reveal that iron compounds, particularly at high temperatures (e.g., 1160°C), cause significant color changes. Since the Neolithic period, the need for tones beyond the natural color of clay has led to the use of oxides, glazes, pigments, and paints in ceramics. This developmental process increased the diversity of color in ceramic production, and with technical advancements, the coloring materials used have become increasingly enriched. In addition to directly coloring the body, the slip technique applied to the surface has also held an important place in ceramics. Slip is obtained by applying semi-liquid clay—usually more finely sieved and enriched with colorants—onto the surface. In this way, after firing, a homogeneous and aesthetic surface appearance different from the natural color of the body is achieved. Throughout history, slip has been preferred especially for decorative purposes; in Anatolia, contrast effects were created through the use of white, red, and black slips on slip-decorated vessels. COLOR IN CERAMIC ART   11 Slip not only imparts surface color but also provides a suitable ground for decorative processes. According to Akdemir (2012), colored slip is defined as “the application of a semi-liquid layer of clay containing colorant oxides or pigments onto an unfired or bisque-fired ceramic surface,” while Yoleri and Çövenoğlu (2023) describe slip as a coating material used to change the color of the clay, smooth the surface, and create decorative effects. When these definitions are considered together, slip can be understood as a versatile application that both colors the surface and, through techniques such as sgraffito and carving, reveals the color of the underlying body. Depending on the mineral composition of the clay used and the type of oxides added, the color of slip can vary across a wide spectrum, from white to black (Yoleri & Çövenoğlu, 2023). Among the most commonly used colorants in slip preparation are cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, chromium, and zirconium oxides. These components produce different tonal effects depending on the color of the clay body and the firing temperature. Application methods include brushing, dipping, spraying, and pouring techniques. Colored slip provides aesthetic unity across the entire form from an artistic perspective, while from a technical standpoint it offers a lowcost method of coloring. In addition, when applied before glazing, it stabilizes the color and enhances the durability of the surface under a transparent glaze. Throughout history, slip has been regarded as one of the earliest methods of using color in ceramics, serving both decorative and functional purposes. Spanning from the Neolithic period to Ottoman tiles, various slip applications have added lasting value to ceramic art, both aesthetically and technically. One of the most comprehensive and lasting methods of achieving color on the ceramic surface is through glaze applications. The glaze, which coats the surface of the fired clay in a thin layer, melts during firing to form a glassy structure, giving the ceramic both aesthetic and functional qualities. From a technical perspective, glaze ensures that the product has a smooth surface that may be glossy or matte, provides impermeability to liquids, increases mechanical strength, and offers electrical insulation. From an aesthetic perspective, glaze enriches the visual value of the form by adding color, gloss, matte effects, texture, and depth to the surface. It also preserves the decoration applied beneath the glaze, ensuring its durability over time. The coloring of glazes is directly related to the metal oxides, pigments, and firing conditions used. Cobalt oxide produces blue, copper oxide yields green and turquoise tones, while iron oxide results in a range of colors from yellow to brown. In addition, whether the glaze is transparent or opaque, the amount of coloring oxide, and the firing atmosphere all determine the quality of the 12   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART resulting color. With these characteristics, glaze has become a powerful tool in the expressive language of the ceramic artist. Throughout history, colored glazes have given ceramics not only visual diversity but also a cultural identity. The celadon (Figure 13) and sancai glazes (Figure 14) developed during the Tang and Song dynasties in China are among the most significant examples of glaze technology. In the Islamic world, the lustre technique added a metallic sheen to the glaze surface, producing striking aesthetic effects. Figure 13: Celadon-Glazed Bowl (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celadon) Figure 14: Sancai-Glazed Jar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancai) One of the most critical stages determining color formation in ceramics is the firing process. The type of atmosphere used, temperature levels, cooling rate, and the amount of oxygen inside the kiln can cause the same raw material to produce completely different colors under different conditions. In an oxidizing atmosphere, coloring oxides appear in their fully oxidized states, yielding stable and predictable colors; whereas in a reducing atmosphere, the limited oxygen causes these oxides to transform into different chemical structures. For example, copper oxide produces green tones in an oxidizing atmosphere, but in a reducing atmosphere it creates a range of colors from vivid red to purplish COLOR IN CERAMIC ART   13 hues. Similarly, while iron oxide produces red and brown tones under oxidation, during reduction it transforms into FeO, resulting in gray, blue, or nearly black shades (Akdemir, 2012; Kılıç, 2023). In addition to the firing atmosphere, temperature is also a determining factor in color formation. At lower temperatures (900–1050°C), brighter and more opaque colors are obtained, whereas at higher temperatures (1200–1300°C), more matte and softer tones appear (Yoleri & Çövenoğlu, 2023). Furthermore, chemical interactions between the glaze and the body—for instance, white glazes containing tin oxide producing bright blue tones with cobalt oxide, or brick red with iron oxide—demonstrate that color diversity is also defined by the interaction between material and glaze (Çövenoğlu, 2023). Historically, different cultures have consciously manipulated the firing atmosphere. During the Song dynasty in China, celadon glazes obtained in a reducing atmosphere stood out with their characteristic gray-green tones; whereas in Islamic ceramics, the lustre technique, achieved through lowtemperature secondary firings, imparted metallic reflections (Figure 15). Figure 15: Lustre-Glazed Bowl (https://www.watergaw.com/index.php?p=more_lustre) In traditional Japanese raku firing (Figure 16), sudden cooling and interventions with combustible materials resulted in unexpected surface effects. Figure 16: Betül Aytepe Serinsu, “Rebirth,” Hand-built, 24×50×12 cm, underglaze decal decoration, Raku firing, 1050°C, 2025. (Artist’s Private Archive) 14   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Similarly, in Ancient Greece, through a three-stage process of oxidation– reduction–reoxidation, it was possible to obtain both red and black colors on the same form (Kılıç, 2023). The type of atmosphere, temperature curve, reducing agents (such as wood, sawdust, naphthalene, etc.), and cooling rates created endless color variations on ceramic surfaces. Therefore, in ceramics, color is not merely a result dependent on the natural structure of the material, but also a creative field of expression shaped by the artist’s technical knowledge, conscious choices, and aesthetic interventions (Yüksel & Yüksel, 2022; Kılıç, 2023). One of the most fundamental methods of obtaining color in ceramic art is the use of metal oxides. Oxides are widely employed in coloring slips, bodies, and glazes on ceramic surfaces, producing different shades depending on the firing atmosphere, temperature, and the chemical composition of the glaze. Historically, oxides have been used in ceramics since the earliest periods, and today they remain among the most powerful and permanent colorants (Çalışkan Güneş, 2015). The main oxides used as colorants in ceramic production are copper oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, chromium oxide, manganese oxide, nickel oxide, tin oxide, zirconium oxide, antimony oxide, uranium oxide, and selenium compounds. Even in small amounts, these oxides can produce distinct colors. For example, cobalt oxide, even when used at a low ratio of only 0.2%, yields strong navy blue tones; when the flux content is reduced, this color can shift to a lighter sky blue (Çalışkan Güneş, 2015). Similarly, copper oxide produces green and aqua tones in an oxidizing atmosphere, while in a reducing atmosphere it transforms into vivid red hues; when used above 8%, it results in intense, almost black tones (Çalışkan Güneş, 2015). Iron oxide offers a wide spectrum from yellow to dark brown; in oxidation it creates warm browns, while in a reducing atmosphere it produces greenish celadon tones. Manganese dioxide generates brown, purple, and black tones, whereas nickel oxide produces gray, pink, and greenish shades. Chromium oxide is effective in producing deep green tones, while titanium dioxide not only opacifies glazes but, when used with other oxides, also creates crystalline surface effects (Avşar & Önder, 2016). These oxides are employed not only in glaze formulations but also in ceramic slips and clay body coloring, providing a rich variety of colors. Studies have shown that by applying these raw materials in different proportions, numerous color variations can be achieved, particularly in stoneware and porcelain glazes, while the firing atmosphere and temperature directly affect the final color results (Çalışkan Güneş, 2015). COLOR IN CERAMIC ART   15 In addition to metal oxides, ceramic pigments and stains also constitute an important group of colorants in ceramic art. Ceramic stains can be used not only in clay bodies, slips, and glazes but also in underglaze, inglaze, or overglaze decorations. The majority of these stains are derived from metal oxides (Arcasoy & Başkırkan, 2020). According to their areas of application, ceramic stains are classified as underglaze, inglaze, overglaze, and metal solution stains. Among these, solution stains in particular are obtained from water-soluble salts of coloring metals (nitrate, chloride, and sulfate compounds). Metals used in this group include cobalt, manganese, iron, chromium, copper, nickel, uranium, gold, and platinum (Güzelgün, 2012). Sulfates, in particular, stand out for decorative purposes due to their low melting temperatures and the color changes they exhibit under different firing atmospheres. For example, copper sulfate (CuSO₄) produces green and blue tones in an oxidizing atmosphere, while in a reducing atmosphere it can yield darker greens or nearly black colors. Cobalt sulfate (CoSO₄) gives purplish-blue tones, manganese sulfate (MnSO₄) produces brown and purple hues, and iron sulfate (FeSO₄) provides transitions ranging from yellow to brown (Güngör & Çizer, 2022). During firing, these salts decompose into their respective metal oxides, thereby creating permanent color effects. The use of solution stains in decorative applications has also opened new horizons for modern ceramic art. Norwegian artist Prof. Arne Åse, with the technique he developed in 1989, enabled these types of solution stains to be applied to ceramic surfaces in a way that creates a watercolor effect, thus introducing entirely new aesthetic experiences into ceramic art. Metal oxides, pigments, and ceramic stains can be regarded as the fundamental components of color formation in ceramics. While oxides have historically been used as the oldest and most powerful colorants, stains provide stable and controlled colors in modern industry, and solution stains add aesthetic diversity to decorative applications. Each of these materials, when combined with firing atmosphere, temperature, and chemical interactions, offers artists limitless possibilities for expression. Therefore, in ceramics, color is not merely a surface phenomenon but a multidimensional process that brings together material knowledge, technological control, and artistic creativity. 4. Conclusion In ceramic art, color is regarded not merely as an aesthetic element but as a multidimensional phenomenon emerging at the intersection of materials science, 16   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART chemical processes, and artistic creativity. Color formation begins with the natural minerals within the clay body and diversifies through the use of oxides, pigments, and glazes, acquiring different appearances depending on variables such as firing atmosphere, temperature, and cooling rate. This process requires the artist to manage it with both aesthetic vision and technical knowledge, offering a unique creative field where art and science intertwine. The fact that the same coloring oxide (for example, copper oxide) can produce completely opposite colors under different firing conditions demonstrates that color in ceramics serves as a transformative and experimental medium of expression. This dynamic establishes a unique balance between control and unpredictability, making each work the product of a distinctive chemical and aesthetic journey. In conclusion, color in ceramics is not only the translation of a physical phenomenon into an aesthetic language but also a multilayered field where history, culture, technology, and art intersect. Color functions as a powerful means of communication in ceramic art, encompassing cultural memory, artistic mastery, and experimental exploration; this multidimensional structure makes ceramics an original art form in both historical and contemporary contexts. 5. References Akdemir, Z. D. (2012). Renkli astar araştırmaları ve seramik bünye üzerine uygulanması [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Dokuz Eylül University. Arcasoy, A., & Başkırkan, H. (2020). Seramik teknolojisi. Literatür Publishing. Avşar, M. E., & Önder, A. M. (2016). Konya ilinden alınan üç farklı kil örneğinin seramik astar yapımında kullanılmasının araştırılması. Kalemişi - Türk Sanatları Dergisi, 8(15), 141–166. Balyemez, A. (2017). Seramik kültüründe renk öğesi ve çağdaş seramik sanatında kullanımı [Unpublished proficiency in art dissertation]. Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University. Çalışkan Güneş, P. (2015). Renk veren oksitlerle geliştirilen ‘stoneware’ sır araştırmaları. Yedi: Sanat, Tasarım ve Bilim Dergisi, (14), 135–142. Çövenoğlu, F. (2023). Roma dönemi kırmızı astarlı seramiklerde yüzey özellikleri ve üretim teknikleri. Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research, 10(82), 1552–1566. Erim, G. (1999). Temel sanat eğitiminde renk [Unpublished proficiency in art dissertation]. Marmara University. Güngör, M. C., & Çizer, İ. S. (2022). Demir oksit içeren sırlar. Ulakbilge, 10(71), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.7816/ulakbilge-10-71-01 ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   23 optimized the physical and aesthetic properties of the material by implementing technical modifications such as raising the firing temperatures and reducing the proportion of soluble salts. These interventions enhanced the surface quality of her works while playing a significant role in improving the material’s durability and visual impact (Luyt, 2018, pp. 26-27). Deborah Siegel constructs the metal frameworks in her sculptures by welding steel rods that are resistant to high-temperature firing processes. This technique enables the artist to maintain structural durability while creating volume and spatial tension through strong, defined, and dynamic lines. Consequently, the metal armature functions as a bold visual and conceptual framework that contrasts with the fragility of the ceramic material (Acıbal, 2023, p. 70). Deborah Siegel draws inspiration from patterns and notions of order in which nature and rational mathematics intertwine (Standen, 2013, p. 99). Her primary theme involves creating geometric structures inspired by plant forms and expressing them through a vibrant color palette. Typically exhibiting her works on walls, the artist deliberately manipulates the spaces and shadows between the pieces, incorporating the shadows as integral elements of the composition, thereby adding an additional dimension to her works. Furthermore, by emphasizing the patterns that emerge through grouping, she aims to observe both the individual objects and the whole simultaneously (Cloonan, 2014). Deborah Siegel constructs the armatures of her sculptures by welding 0.25-inch diameter steel rods that can withstand high-temperature firing processes (Figure 1). This method grants the artist the freedom to build threedimensional volumes with strong and bold lines. Siegel designs these steel frameworks as spatial drawings upon which the Egyptian paste is applied and shaped, thereby establishing an organic dialogue between material and form (Poyraz, 2021, p. 98). After the steel armatures are fabricated and cleaned, Siegel wears gloves to protect her hands from abrasive soluble salts and the chemical effects of colorants. In the subsequent stage, the armatures are completely filled with the Egyptian paste mixture (Figure 2). The recipe she uses consists of glass frit, soluble salts, nepheline syenite, clay, and a small amount of sand to control shrinkage. To prevent surface foaming a common issue in Egyptian paste the amount of soluble salts was reduced, and nepheline syenite was added accordingly. In some cases, a small quantity of lithium carbonate was incorporated to help the surface retain its freshly shaped appearance after firing and to impart a slight gloss. As 24   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART a colorant, she adds approximately 2% metal oxide pigments to achieve the desired hue (Conan, 2014). The ingredients in the Egyptian paste recipe are weighed and mixed with a limited amount of water to form a workable clay body. Subsequently, Siegel uses the back of the steel rod as a guide to fill the interior of the wires with the prepared Egyptian paste clay, meticulously smoothing the surface of the resulting form. During this process, a soft red wooden spatula (Figures 3 and 4), along with a smoothing knife, is employed to carefully refine the surface of the clay. This meticulous surface preparation is a crucial step in ensuring both the aesthetic and structural integrity of the form (Conan, 2014). After the armatures are filled with Egyptian paste and carefully shaped, Siegel places the works in the kiln while still in the wet state and fires them up to a specific temperature (Figure 5). During this firing process, the kiln door is either left fully open or partially ajar to allow controlled release of moisture. This approach differs from traditional Egyptian paste firing techniques, which typically favor a slow, closed drying process to enable the soluble salts to migrate to the surface and form a natural glaze. However, Siegel’s experimental method deliberately departs from convention, enabling the achievement of unique and desired surface textures (https://ceramicartsnetwork.org/ceramic-recipes/recipe/ Deborah-Sigels-Egyptian-Paste-143639, Date of access 25.07.2025). While constructing brick towers inside the kiln, Deborah Siegel installs a support rod at the center of these towers, from which the upper ring of the steel armature is suspended. This support is made from black steel pipe commonly used in gas piping. The forms, referred to as Bursts, exhibit an upright posture due to their single central point of gravity (Figure 6). In her Egyptian paste firing process, the artist carefully controls the kiln temperature, programming a gradual increase to complete the firing. This stage makes visible the interaction between the differing coefficients of thermal expansion of the steel and ceramic materials (Figure 7). The resulting physical incompatibility deliberately facilitates the formation of cracks along specific lines in spontaneous and unique patterns, which are intentionally sought on the surface (Cloonan, 2019). ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   25 Figure 1.Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4.Figure 5. 26   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 6. Deborah Siegel, the Artist’s Egyptian Paste Application Process Conan, M. (2014). “Egyptian Paste: Building Sculpturally with Color”. ceramicartsnetwork.org. https://ceramicartsnetwork.org/daily/article/EgyptianPaste-Building-Sculpturally-with-Color (Date of access 25.07.2025) Figure 7. Deborah Siegel, Wisp, Egyptian Paste – Steel Construction, 2009. (http://deborahsigel.com, Date of access 25.07.2025) ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   27 Figure 8. Deborah Siegel, Flowers, Egyptian Paste – Steel Construction, 2009. (https://chqdaily.com/2018/06/new-vaci-exhibit-roy-g-biv-opens-with-allcolors-of-the-rainbow-in-strohl/, Date of access 25.07.2025) Figure 9. Deborah Siegel, Sequence, Stratum, Egyptian Paste – Steel Construction, 2002, 2004. (http://deborahsigel.com, Date of access 25.07.2025) Deborah Siegel positions the material not merely as a carrier of aesthetic forms but as an active subject that transforms over time and generates meaning autonomously. For her, the material is not a passive tool in the production process; rather, it is a dynamic entity that gains conceptual depth through interactions with time, environmental factors, and physical processes. In this context, Siegel’s artistic approach is founded on a creative process oscillating between chaos and order, control and chance (Figure 8). The combined use of these two materials generates an interaction on both physical and symbolic levels. While assembling them into predetermined forms, 28   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART the artist also allows the materials to respond according to their inherent natures throughout the process (Figure 9). This approach posits that control and chance can coexist simultaneously during the production process. Consequently, Siegel’s works offer an open-ended aesthetic experience that explores the permeable boundaries between material and process. 2.2.RachelLeary Rachel Leary is an artist who carries out her production in a gradually constructed home studio located in the rural area of Northern Ireland. She emphasizes that the organic connection she establishes between her workspace and production process directs her works, with particular interest in how material and process mutually influence and transform each other. This approach is clearly observable in her Egyptian paste forms, which possess both functional and sculptural qualities (https://medalta.org/rachel-leary/, Date of access 23.07.2025). The influence of the rural environment in Leary’s designs is interpreted particularly through aesthetic components such as form and texture. Her sculptural collections present a multilayered visual narrative conveyed through organic shapes, textures, and patterns that draw upon the interplay of nature, science, and materiality. Microscopic plant life serves as a significant source of inspiration in the artist’s creative process. In her work with Egyptian paste, Rachel Leary not only explores the formal and surface potentials of this unique ceramic material but also examines it comparatively alongside other ceramic types, particularly porcelain. Within her practice, the physical properties of the material become fundamental components not only of technical parameters but also of aesthetic and conceptual inquiry. The pronounced contrast between the matte, dense, and crystallized surface of Egyptian paste and the smooth, softly transitioning, and semi-translucent nature of porcelain lies at the core of Leary’s artistic inquiry. The textural and optical differences between these two materials are approached not merely as oppositions but as a relational dynamic with complementary potential. Leary combines both materials within the same form to create works that invite a reconsideration of dualities such as surface and depth, translucency and opacity, artificiality and naturalness. This approach calls the viewer not only to appreciate the aesthetic arrangement of the form but also to witness the multilayered dialogue established through the material’s historical, chemical, and sensory qualities. ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   29 In Rachel Leary’s works with Egyptian paste, the final form is determined not only by the artist’s predetermined interventions but also by unpredictable reactions arising from thermal effects during the firing process. In this respect, the pieces allow for the transformative potential inherent in the material’s nature to emerge, offering an aesthetic experience shaped beyond the artist’s control. This process-oriented approach invites the viewer to focus not on the final form but on its formation, the permeable boundaries between intervention and chance, and the tensions arising from the encounter of different ceramic materials. In this sense, Leary’s practice offers a creative space where the material participates in the production process not merely as a tool but as an active subject. Figure 10. Rachel Leary, Micrology Series, Egyptian Paste – Nichrome Wire, 2014. 30   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 11. Rachel Leary, Micrology Series, Egyptian Paste – Nichrome Wire, 2014. (https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/slideshow-cb4z, Date of access 23.07.2025) In her Micrology series (Figure 11), the artist draws inspiration from the hidden aesthetics of microscopic organisms observable only through a microscope, utilizing Egyptian paste as her medium. These works reveal the formal potential of the imperceptible through ceramic material, offering an aesthetic perspective on the often unnoticed dimensions of the natural world. Through this collection, Leary draws attention to the hidden beauty, intricate patterns, and intense coloration of plant life forms that exist in nature but are imperceptible to the naked eye. In this regard, the works serve not only as visual reproductions but also as a bridge between scientific observation and artistic intuition. ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   31 Figure 12. Rachel Leary, Budding Series, Egyptian Paste – Porcelain, 2015. (https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/blank, Date of access 23.07.2025) The series titled Budding (Figure 12) combines the artist’s profound admiration for nature with her technical and aesthetic explorations on ceramic material. Each piece formally reflects the inner rhythm of nature and its desire for proliferation, focusing on the transformative potential of matter. In her works, the unique melting properties of Egyptian paste are utilized to allow the paste to flow outward from within the forms during firing. This process, reminiscent of organic growth, reveals the spontaneity of life and the distinctive character of natural materials. The interaction between the material, surface, and form blurs the boundaries between controlled artificiality and the intrinsic movement of nature. 32   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART This collection was developed during the artist’s residency at the Guldagergaard International Ceramic Research Center in Denmark as part of the Project Network Residency Program. The production process was nourished by site-specific experiences; relationships with local materials, context, and the natural environment deepened the formal and conceptual aspects of the series. Figure 13. Rachel Leary, Dribble Artworks Series, Egyptian Paste – Porcelain, 2014. (https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/copy-of-commissions, Date of access 23.07.2025) Rachel Leary’s Dribble series (Figure 13) consists of a collection of ceramic works inspired by natural forms such as fungi and lichens. This collection continues the artist’s dialogue between organic shapes and controlled structure, shaped by her deep engagement with the inherent nature of the material. The artist begins the production process by creating simple porcelain molds. Onto these structures, she adds clusters of small hand-shaped clay pockets, which she then fills with her distinctive Egyptian Faience mixture (Figure 13). This mixture is a material composed of clay and glass components. ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   39 Figure 19. Zahed Tajeddin, Nu-Shabtis, Egyptian Paste, 2012, Victoria and Albert Museum. (https://theatkinson.co.uk/exhibition/zahed-taj-eddin/, Date of access 24.07.2025) Nu-Shabtis (Figure 20) in the artist’s practice function not merely as archaeological references bearing historical significance, but also as contemporary metaphors representing the contradictory nature of the modern world, identity crises, socio-political uncertainties, and the individual’s position in the face of these conditions (Roberts, Tajeddin & Price, 2017). Figure 20. Zahed Tajeddin, Nu-Shabtis, Egyptian Paste, 2017, Manchester Museum (https://www.zahedtajeddin.com/exhibitions?lightbox=dataItem-j0bnoa33 Date of access 24.07.2025) 40   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART 3. Conclusion This study aims to reveal how Egyptian Paste, also referred to in the literature as “Egyptian Faience,” one of the original ceramic technologies of Ancient Egypt, is reinterpreted in contemporary art today. Historically, Egyptian Paste is defined as a ceramic mixture characterized by a high content of silica (SiO₂), soluble sodium salts such as sodium carbonate/bicarbonate, and metal oxides, with a low proportion of clay. This composition positions it as a hybrid material exhibiting properties of both ceramics and glass. Since the 19th century, influenced by European-centered archaeological research, this material has been identified through the concept of “faience” and regarded not only as a functional and decorative product but also as a medium reflecting Egypt’s cultural memory and technological knowledge. The works of Deborah Siegel, Rachel Leary, and Zahed Tajeddin selected to examine the contemporary reflections of Egyptian Paste demonstrate how this ancient material is reconfigured in terms of form, technique, and concept within contemporary art practice. These artists engage with Egyptian Paste not merely as a historical form or technical process but also as a medium that establishes a critical, aesthetic, and conceptual dialogue between the past and the present. Deborah Siegel’s works create a tension both formally and conceptually through the contrast established between steel skeletons and delicate ceramic surfaces. The artist’s technique of welding steel rods, which can withstand high-temperature firing, ensures the structural durability of her works while simultaneously highlighting the fragile nature of the ceramic material. In this way, Siegel interprets Egyptian Paste not merely as an aesthetic material but also as a metaphor bridging the resilience of the past with the fragility of the present. Rachel Leary’s works focus on the interaction between nature, science, and materiality. Inspired particularly by microscopic plant life, the organic forms and textures she creates seamlessly integrate with the fluid and transformative properties of Egyptian paste. The hybrid composition she employs a combination of clay and glass components melts at a specific temperature to form spontaneously evolving surface patterns, thereby producing an aesthetic effect that reflects the inherent spontaneity of nature. In this process, the artist establishes a meaningful connection between the ancient material and contemporary representations of nature and science, thus bridging the past and the present. ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   41 Zahed Tajeddin’s artistic approach is nourished by a more direct archaeological context. Through his active involvement in archaeological excavation projects in the Middle East, the artist is intimately familiar with both the physical traces of material culture and their historical and cultural representations. Tajeddin’s intuitive shaping of Egyptian paste clay, his creation of textural diversity on surfaces, and his deliberate use of decorative elements demonstrate an approach that intertwines archaeological experience with artistic interpretation. His works, particularly pieces such as the Djed Pillar and Nu Shabtis, stand as compelling examples of this approach, combining formal simplicity with rich symbolic intensity. These analyses demonstrate that Egyptian paste in contemporary art is not merely a nostalgic reference or an aesthetic choice; rather, it constitutes a significant effort to reconstruct the past through the language of the present. The artists in question transform the material by engaging its historical layers, technological properties, and cultural meanings within contemporary intellectual frameworks, thereby expanding both its physical and symbolic dimensions. In this context, Egyptian paste emerges as a narrative tool that bridges the silence of the past with the critical voice of today, serving as a ground of continuity and as an artistic language that reconfigures the relationships among material, space, and memory. 4. References Acıbal, N. (2023). Antik Mısır pastası çamurlarının üretim yöntemlerinin geliştirilmesi ve form uygulamaları (Yayın No.796919) [Yüksek lisans tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi]. YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi. Ayta, T. (2017). Toprak sanatlarında teknik terimler sözlüğü. Artshop Yayıncılık. Friedman, F. D., Bianchi, R. S., Patch, D. C., Lacovara, P., & Nicholson, P. T. (1998). Gifts of the Nile: Ancient Egyptian Faience. Thames and Hudson. Krygier, T. A. (2005). Late eighteenth dynasty faince and glass from MALKATA: A stylistic and quantitative analysis. (Ph.D., The Johns Hopkins University). https://www.proquest.com/openview/14ebfcf907888c2ecac4ad484 f2d0e50/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y Luyt, M. (2018). The Development of armature based ceramics using South African raw materials. (Ph.D., Nelson Mandela University). https://core. ac.uk/download/pdf/185676787.pdf 42   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Nicholson, P.T. (2009). Faience technology. (Ed. Willeke Wendrich), Ucla Encyclopaedia of Egyptology: Los Angeles, 1-11. Noble, J. (1969). He Technique of Egyptian Faience. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 73, No. 4, 435-439. https://doi.org/10.2307/503999 Poyraz, M. (2021). Seramik bünyede farklı katkı malzemeleri ve artistik uygulamalar. Uluslararası Disiplinlerarası ve Kültürlerarası Sanat, 6(13), 86-103. https://doi.org/10.29228/IJIIA.170 Roberts, L. A., Tajeddin, Z. & Price, C. (2017). ‘Shabtis: Suspended Truth’ exhibition booklet. https://www.academia.edu/32408676/Shabtis_Suspended_ Truth_Exhibition_Booklet_April_2017_ Standen, K. (2013). Additions to clay bodies. The American Ceramic Society. Tajeddin, Z. (2014). Egyptian faience: Ancient making methods and consideration of technical challenges in sculptural practice. (Ph.D., University of Westminster). https://doi.org/10.34737/98936 Yarol, Y. (2008). İslam seramiklerinde kullanılan fritli hamurun incelenmesi ve çağdaş formlarda uygulanması (Yayın No. 219787) [Sanatta Yeterlilik Tezi Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi]. YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi. 5. Internet Resources Cloonan, M. (2014, MarchApril). Push/Pull The Art of Deborah Sigel. Pottery Making Illustrated, p. 22-25. https://studylib.net/doc/18616587/here--- ceramic-arts-daily, (Date of access 25.07.2025). Conan, M. (2014). “Egyptian Paste: Building Sculpturally with Color”. ceramicartsnetwork.org. https://ceramicartsnetwork.org/daily/article/EgyptianPaste-Building-Sculpturally-with-Color, (Date of access 25.07.2025) Cloonan, M. (2019, April 29). Ceramic Arts Net Work Daily. Egyptian Paste: Building Sculpturally with Color Building Forms with Egyptian Paste. https:// ceramicartsnetwork.org/daily/article/Egyptian-Paste-BuildingSculpturallywith-Color, (Date of access 25.07.2025). https://ceramicartsnetwork.org/ceramic-recipes/recipe/Deborah-SigelsEgyptian-Paste-143639, (Date of access 25.07.2025). http://deborahsigel.com, (Date of access 25.07.2025). https://chqdaily.com/2018/06/new-vaci-exhibit-roy-g-biv-opens-with-allcolors-of-the-rainbow-in-strohl/, (Date of access 25.07.2025). https://medalta.org/rachel-leary/, (Date of access 23.07.2025). ARTISTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF EGYPTIAN PASTE BY CONTEMPORARY . . .   43 https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/slideshow-cb4z, (Date of access 23.07.2025). https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/blank, (Date of access 23.07.2025). https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/copy-of-commissions, (Date of access 23.07.2025). https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/2016, (Date of access 23.07.2025). https://zealous.co/rachelleary/project/Rachel-Leary-Ceramics/, (Date of access 23.07.2025). https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/copy-of-spores-and-seedlingsseries, (Date of access 23.07.2025). https://www.rachellearyceramics.com/copy-of-spores-and-seedlingsseries, (Date of access 23.07.2025). https://cream.ac.uk/ceramics-research-centre-uk-old/research/phdresearch/past-phd-researcher-zahed-tajeddin/, (Date of access 24.07.2025). https://www.culfordstudios.co.uk/post/guest-artist-zahed-tajeddin, (Date of access 24.07.2025). https://www.achabrasilia.com/zahed-taj-eddin/, (Date of access 24.07.2025). https://cream.ac.uk/ceramics-research-centre-uk-old/research/phdresearch/past-phd-researcher-zahed-tajeddin/, (Date of access 24.07.2025). https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1310658/shabti-zahed-taj-eddin/, (Date of access 24.07.2025). https://egyptmanchester.wordpress.com/2017/03/26/zahed-taj-eddinsshabtis-suspended-truth-1-april-30th-june-2017/, (Date of access 24.07.2025). https://theatkinson.co.uk/exhibition/zahed-taj-eddin/, (Date of access 24.07.2025). 45 CHAPTER III INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS OF BORON TULLE GLAZES IN CERAMIC BODY Eylül KURTCEBE1 & Pınar Çalışkan GÜNEŞ21 1 (MA), Dokuz Eylül University, eylü[email protected], ORCID: 0009-0003-7621-2587 2 (Assoc. Prof.), Dokuz Eylül University, pinar[email protected], ORCID:0000-0003-1759-0855 1. Introduction Boron tulle glaze first appeared as a glaze defect, and refers to the crystallization process that causes a milky appearance on the glaze surface as a result of the reaction between calcium in the clay body and boron oxide in the glaze. This phenomenon, referred to as devitrification (crystallization) in scientific literature, has been observed to create various aesthetic effects when boron-based glazes are evaluated from an artistic perspective. In this study, recipes were prepared using various raw materials and frits on different clay bodies to investigate the formation of boron-tulle glazes, and experimental applications were carried out. Care was taken to use locally produced raw materials, and experiments were conducted on three different clay bodies: red, white, and chamotte. Both raw glaze and frit-containing glaze compositions were examined in the experiments; a milky appearance was obtained on the glaze surface with the addition of calcium oxide, zinc oxide, and high amounts of boron oxide. Artistic effects were created on the glaze surface by adding oxides that give color to the glaze recipe. Artistic effects were created on the glaze surface by adding oxides that give color to the glaze recipe. The reason for choosing this firing temperature is that red Menemen clay achieves full sintering without deformation, increasing its durability and giving 1 This study was produced from the thesis titled “Boron Tulle Sır Research and Applications” No. 897365, conducted under the supervision of Associate Professor Pınar Çalışkan Güneş. 46   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART it stoneware properties. For this purpose, firing was carried out at 1165°C. Based on previous experiments, it has been determined that red menemen mud has low water permeability at 1150°C due to its low sintering properties. At 1170°C, deformation of the clay body has been observed. Ceramic glaze technology is developing based on experimentation and has a structure that varies depending on chemical reactions. Errors may sometimes occur during the reactions. These defects can occur for various reasons, from the clay preparation stage to the glazing process. Secret-based errors generally occur depending on the composition of the raw materials used, the preparation and grinding process, the application method, and the formation of crystal structures that develop during firing. Although these errors can be largely controlled thanks to today’s advancing technology, some of them can be evaluated from an aesthetic point of view and turned into artistic elements. In this context, glaze types that can create artistic effects include crackle, flake, crystal, and boron tulle glazes. The thickness, texture of the clay body is highly sensitive factors in the formation of boron-tulle glazes. In order to achieve a milky appearance during phase separation and to increase fluidity, boron oxide is required, while oxides such as titanium dioxide are required as opacifying agents (Joe Thompson, accessed: 23.08.2025). Boron tulle glazes are formed by the glass formation (devitrification) of calcium and zinc borates during the transition from the liquid glass phase to the solid glass phase during firing, resulting in a misty, milky appearance on the surface. Boron oxide, which is found in high amounts in the glaze, forms boron blue crystals with the support of silicium. This situation develops due to the absence of crystal inhibitory raw materials such as kaolin and magnesite, which prevent crystal formation in high boron glazes, in the glaze mixture (Tony Hansen, accessed: 23.08.2025). This crystallization phenomenon, which is generally considered an error in the literature, is particularly common in red clay bodies with high calcium carbonate content, but it can also occur in white or chamotte clay bodies. Although it is not known exactly when and by whom boron tulle glazes were first used to create an artistic effect, this defect allows for aesthetically impressive surface effects to be achieved. 2. Devitrification (Crystallization) The word “vitrification” means “glassification,” while “de-” is used as a negative prefix. At the same time, the word “devit” is defined as the growth of INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS OF BORON TULLE GLAZES IN CERAMIC BODY   47 crystal structures on a glass surface (Yurtseven, 2019:77). In this context, it can be considered as a defect caused by the growth of crystal structures on the surface that prevent glass formation in the glass phase of ceramic glazes. When alkali-boron transparent glazes with a high boron oxide content are applied to chamotte and red bodies with a high calcium content, a pinkish or bluish milky appearance occurs on the glaze surface. This is due to the formation of crystalline calcium, zinc silicates or calcium borates in the glazes (Fraser, 2010:112). Devitrification causes the calcium carbonate used as a flux in the clay body to react with the boron oxide contained in the glaze, resulting in the formation of calcium borate crystals and a foggy appearance on the glaze surface (Figures 1 and 2). In addition to the clay and glaze content used in the vitrification error, the cooling time during the transition from the liquid to the solid glass phase during the firing stage is also very important. The slower the glass phase, which undergoes a transition from liquid to solid during cooling, is cooled during the first 200°C (900°C in high-grade vitrified glazes and 750°C in porous products), the more calcium borate crystals that cause boron tulle develop (Fraser, 2010:112). In his book on ceramic defects and solutions, Harry Fraser emphasizes that increasing the cooling rate is a factor that prevents crystal formation. Therefore, keeping the waiting time of the glaze short can prevent the formation of boron tulle. In order to prevent the dissolution of calcium from the body, the biscuit firing must be done at least until the glaze has matured. Thanks to high biscuit firing, the reaction of calcium oxide in the body with boron oxide can be prevented (Fraser, 2010:112). As one of the solutions related to glaze content, it is recommended to use low-solubility glazes instead of alkali-boron glazes. Such reactions do not occur in low-resolution glazes because they contain fritted lead and no boron components. Another solution is to prevent the boron effect by adding kaolin to make the glaze transparent (Arcasoy, 1983:171). Figure 1: Boron Tulle Error 48   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 2: Artistic Boron Tulle Effect Glaze Example 3. Experimental Studies Within the scope of boron tulle effect glaze trials, experiments were carried out with raw and fritted glaze recipes with high boron content. Ulexite, colemanite, borax, zinc borate and whiting, which are primary raw materials belonging to the basic group that support the formation of borate crystals during firing, were added to the raw glaze recipes. In glaze blends, a small amount of kaolin is added to prevent the glaze from settling, and feldspar types such as albite and nepheline syenite are used to increase the melting point. In addition, emphasis has been placed on the use of quartz raw materials with acidic characteristics in order to increase the temperature and enhance glass formation. In frit glaze recipes, frits with alkaline boron content were selected by taking into account the chemical analysis samples (Table 1). Experiments were carried out with various frits, taking into account the proportions of calcium oxide, zinc oxide, aluminum oxide and quartz in the frit glaze content, and the use of local frits was mostly preferred. Table 1: Example of Firit Analysis Suitable for Boron Tulle Formation (Table taken from Gizem Firit Company in 2023.) INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS OF BORON TULLE GLAZES IN CERAMIC BODY   55 Table 9: Tests with F-5 Code Test Glaze Base and Color-Producing Oxide Additives Oxide Additive Red Body Chamotte Body White Body %3 Copper Oxide %3 Titanium dioxide % 3 Copper Carbonate % 3 Titanium dioxide %2 Mangan Oxide %3 Titanium dioxide %3 Iron Oxide %3 Titanium dioxide %0.3 Cobalt Oxide %3 Titanium dioxide %0.01 Chromium Oxide %2 Tin Oxide %3 Titanium dioxide %1 Nickel Oxide %2 Tin Oxide %3 Titanium dioxide 56   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART 4. Conclusion Boron tulle is the name given to the crystallizations formed as a result of the reaction of calcium, zinc and boron oxides in ceramic glazes. These crystals cause a milky or cloudy appearance on the glaze surface. Although boron tulle, called devitrification in the literature, was initially defined as a defect, unique and aesthetic effects were obtained on the glaze surface when used with coloring oxides in experimental studies. To achieve the boron tulle effect, there are many factors affecting the veiling process. Among these, biscuit firing degree, glaze content, application density, glaze maturation phase, waiting time for the transition from liquid glass phase to solid glass phase and cooling phase are important factors. The boron tulle effect was more successful in the red and chamotte bodies used in the research than in the white body. Although different artistic effects were obtained in raw glaze experiments, the boron tulle effect was observed more homogeneously in fritted glazes. Research shows that the biscuit firing temperature plays a critical role in the development of calcium crystals in the clay during glaze firing. The lower the biscuit temperature, the more stable the boron tulle reaction occurs. This situation is particularly noticeable in red bodies. Therefore, the biscuits were fired at 940°C. In glaze firing, closing the observation holes and slowing down the cooling rate during the first 200°C cooling phase before the glaze reaches its maturity significantly increases the formation of boron tulle. It has been observed that different colored veiling effects occur in the reaction of different boron components in the glaze content with raw materials showing different opacity properties. These different colors are related to the reactions with the color-producing oxides. As a result of the research, it was determined that in the experiments carried out at 1165°C to ensure ideal sintering in menemen clay, while the effects of copper oxide with green dominant tones, blue-white veiling, were observed in raw glazes and fritted glazes, copper carbonate created blue-white veiling with green dominant tones in raw glazes, and dark blue and white veiling with blue dominant tones in fritted glazes. In experiments carried out with the addition of manganese dioxide, dominant dirty pink toned yellow, blue and white veiling effects were created in raw glazes, while blue-white, pink-white and yellow color tones were obtained in fritted glazes depending on the applied body feature. In the raw samples with iron oxide addition, blue-white boron tulle effects with yellow-brown dominant tones were observed. In the fritted glaze base, just like manganese dioxide, blue- INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS OF BORON TULLE GLAZES IN CERAMIC BODY   57 white, pink-white and yellow color tones were created depending on the body properties applied. In the fritted and raw glaze bases with cobalt oxide additives, dominant blue tones were obtained on three different bodies and the tulle effects created an aesthetic effect in light and dark blue tones. Depending on the additive ratios of chromium oxide, green-toned mottled effects were observed in raw glazes, while pink color was obtained with tin and titanium oxide support in fritted glazes and a white veiling reaction was observed. Although the same beige tone was obtained in nickel oxide added raw and fritted glazes, the veiling effects occurred in light-dark beige tones and blue-yellow mottled tones depending on the applied body feature. Titanium dioxide provides an optimal opacifying support for the veiling of raw and fritted glazes. Since the opacity level increased due to the use of titanium dioxide in tin oxide added raw and fritted glazes, the boron tulle effect could not be achieved properly. In terms of glaze properties, boron tulle glazes are very fluid glazes and cause cracking due to the high amount of boron oxide in their content. For this reason, they are not recommended for use in eating and drinking vessels. The successful results show that the boron tulle effect, initially described as an error, can be used to achieve artistic effects in ceramic glazes. In addition to artistic effects, the research also provides important information on how to prevent devitrification errors encountered in mass production. 5. References Arcasoy, A. (1983). Seramik Teknolojisi, Marmara University Faculty of Fine Arts Ceramics Department Publications No: 2. Fraser, H. (2010). Seramik Hataları ve Çözüm Yöntemleri, Trans. ZelihaMete-İlker Özkan, İzmir: Karakalem Bookstore Publications: 4 Hansen, T. (2025, 23 August) Clouding in Ceramic Glazes, https:// digitalfire.com/trouble/clouding+in+ceramic+glazes Mete, Z. (2020). Seramik Kimyası, Izmir: Tibyan Publications Redfern, S. A. T. (1987). The kinetics of dehydroxylation of kaolinite. Clay Minerals, 22(4), 447–456. Thompson, J. (2025,23 August) Understanding Floating Blues, Understanding, https://www.oldforgecreations.co.uk/blog/understandingfloating-blues Yurtseven, Ç. (2019). Füzyon Tekniğinde Yaygın Olarak Karşılaşılan Problemler ve Çözüm Yolları, Master’s Thesis, supervised by Prof. Mustafa 58   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Ağatekin, Anadolu University Institute of Fine Arts, Department of Glass Art, Eskişehir. 6. Visual Bibliography Figure 1: Boron Tulle Error, Eylül Kurtcebe, 2024 Figure 2: Artistic Boron Tulle Effect Glaze Example, Eylül Kurtcebe, 2024 Figure 3: Raw material weighing, Eylül Kurtcebe,2024 Figure 4: Glaze grinding stage in vibrating mill, Eylül Kurtcebe, 2024 Figure 5: Boron tulle glaze application, Eylül Kurtcebe, 2024 59 CHAPTER IV FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION TECHNIQUE THROUGH THE LENS OF THREE CULTURES Oya Aşan YÜKSEL1 & Duygu KAHRAMAN2 1(Prof. Dr.), Kütahya Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0001-5810-6439 2 (Prof. Dr.), Anadolu Üniversitesi, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0002-5814-4387 1. Introduction Ceramic decoration techniques have been developed across different cultures and historical periods for thousands of years, serving both functional purposes and aesthetic concerns, and they have endured to the present day. These decorative methods vary depending on the type of surface to which they are applied—such as wet clay, underglaze, inglaze, or overglaze— and employ diverse techniques that produce visually rich and aesthetically compelling results. Among these methods, the ceramic inlay technique first emerged in China during the 7th century, subsequently spreading to Korea and Japan, where it evolved into culturally distinctive forms that contributed to the advancement of ceramic art. This article examines the historical development of the ceramic inlay technique in China, Korea, and Japan, evaluating its contributions to these ceramic traditions within the context of intercultural exchange. Employing qualitative methods, a literature review was conducted to explore traditional applications of ceramic inlay and to identify the ways in which this technique was uniquely interpreted in each culture. Furthermore, the study extends to its application in contemporary art, analyzing selected works by international artists. The findings demonstrate that while the inlay technique 60   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART originated in China, it underwent culturally specific transformations in Korea and Japan, and its enduring presence signifies not only regional but also global influence within ceramic art. As a technique practiced from traditional production to contemporary art, ceramic inlay has left a lasting imprint on the global field of ceramics. As one of the oldest art forms in human history, ceramics integrates aesthetics and functionality, offering a medium of expression that bridges utility and artistic intent. Decorative techniques that evolved in various cultures and time periods have become essential elements shaping both artistic and craftbased modes of production. These techniques served not only functional needs but also acted as vehicles through which social and cultural identities articulated their aesthetic sensibilities. As Ayta (2017) notes, “Different styles of ornamentation and their methods of production varied among nations and societies, primarily in terms of superiority, while also reflecting the socioeconomic structures of societies, the widespread aesthetic concerns of nations, their ethnic characteristics, as well as the influence of national and religious customs and ceremonies” (p. 130). Within ceramic art, the inlay technique has held a prominent role, shaping the visual language of China, Korea, and Japan, each of which reinterpreted the method in distinctive ways. It is important to note that inlay is not exclusive to ceramics. The technique has also been applied to wood, metal, stone, and mother-of-pearl, where it is referred to by specific terms such as “wood inlay,” “mother-of-pearl inlay,” or “metal inlay.” Accordingly, in this study, the term “inlay” specifically refers to its adaptation to ceramic material. The inlay technique first appeared in Chinese ceramics during the Tang dynasty and acquired a refined aesthetic dimension in the Song dynasty. Most notably observed in Cizhou wares, the method involved incising designs into the surface and filling them with contrasting dark slips. Through trade and cultural transmission, this ceramic tradition was introduced to Korea, where it was developed into an innovative and distinctive practice known as Sanggam. During the Goryeo dynasty, Sanggam was employed in celadon wares, enriched with motifs such as lotus, cranes, and bamboo, which came to symbolize Korea’s artistic identity. This stylistic development subsequently influenced Japanese ceramics as well (Soung & Jeon, 2011; Jang, 2004, pp. 1-2). Japan, drawing inspiration from Korea, advanced its own adaptation known as the Mishima technique, which introduced a more simplified and geometric approach to inlay. Particularly during the Momoyama and Edo FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION . . .   61 periods, Mishima was employed in tea ceremony vessels and utilitarian wares, merging functionality with aesthetic refinement (Soung & Jeon, 2011, pp. 1012102). Japanese artists integrated this Korea-derived method with their own cultural frameworks, firmly establishing Mishima within the history of Japanese ceramics. This article thus traces the historical trajectory of the inlay technique in ceramic art, from its origins in China to its transformation into Sanggam in Korea and its reinterpretation as Mishima in Japan. In doing so, it evaluates the impact of the technique on the aesthetic sensibilities of these three cultures and highlights the ways in which their practices diverged from one another. By extending the discussion from traditional ceramics to contemporary artistic practices, the study provides a comprehensive analysis of the artistic value, aesthetic significance, and role of ceramic inlay in shaping cultural identities. Ultimately, by examining the ceramic traditions of China, Korea, and Japan, the article reveals that the inlay technique functions not only as a method of decoration but also as a medium of intercultural artistic expression. 2. Ceramic Inlay Decoration Technique and Its Historical Background The ceramic inlay technique is defined as “a decorative method based on carving Uor V-shaped grooves into ceramic surfaces to form patterns, which are then filled with slips of contrasting colors” (Sevim, 2007, p. 76). Although this method has been applied in ceramic art for centuries and has been known by different names across cultures, it consistently relies on similar fundamental principles. Nevertheless, minor variations in its application across cultures demonstrate how the technique was adapted to local aesthetic and craft traditions. Definitions of ceramic inlay in the literature generally share common characteristics, showing a high degree of similarity. In The Potter’s Dictionary, Hamer describes the ceramic inlay technique as a decorative method that involves incising patterns into the surface of leatherhard clay and filling the grooves with a thick, colored slip. Once the slip is applied, the excess material is carefully scraped away to reveal crisp and precise patterns. According to Hamer, “the ceramic inlay technique is not limited to incision and slip filling; it also encompasses the integration of clays of different colors into the main clay body surface” (Hamer, 2004, p. 179). Sıdıka Sibel Sevim, in her book Seramik Dekorlar ve Uygulama Teknikleri (Ceramic Decorations and Application Techniques), explains the ceramic inlay decoration method as follows: 62   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Ceramic inlay decoration is carried out on surfaces that have reached a leather-hard stage. Pre-designed patterns are lightly sketched onto the surface and then carved with pointed tools to create shallow grooves. This process must be conducted carefully, with attention to the wall thickness of the piece. The carved areas are then filled with slips or colored clay prepared in a contrasting tone to the body. The smoothness of the material and the absence of coarse particles are essential to ensure the clarity and precision of the patterns (Sevim, 2007, pp. 76-77). Birks defines the technique as follows: “Slip may be applied over the entire surface of leather-hard clay, upon which decorative patterns are produced either by carving or by scraping down to the underlying body clay. Once the slip has dried, or at least hardened to the same extent as the clay body, the designs can be incised using a needle or a wooden modeling tool” (Birks, 1988, p. 120). Dickerson characterizes ceramic inlay decoration as a method that begins with stamping small-scale motifs onto dark-colored ceramic surfaces using wooden stamps. The impressions are then filled with white slip, and once both the surface and the slip have hardened, a scraper is used to clean away the excess, thereby revealing white patterns against the dark background. Furthermore, according to Dickerson, the technique is not confined to linear designs carved directly into the ceramic surface; it also encompasses the use of stamped impressions filled with slip, as well as the incorporation of clays of contrasting colors into the surface (Dickerson, 1974, p. 82) (Figure 1). Figure 1. Application Stages of the Ceramic Inlay Decoration Technique (Wilson, 1999, p. 112). Information obtained from various sources emphasizes the significance of the contrast between differently colored clays and slips in the ceramic inlay technique. Although this method has been practiced for centuries and referred to by different names across cultures, it retains similar core principles. However, minor variations in application observed among different traditions indicate the adaptation of this method to local aesthetic and craft practices. The similarities FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION . . .   63 among definitions in the literature highlight the historical status of ceramic inlay as a universal decorative method, underscoring its importance within the field of ceramics. In Korean ceramic art, this technique is known as Sanggam, while in Japanese ceramic art it is referred to as Mishima; in the West, it is generally termed inlay. Several studies indicate that the inlay technique successively influenced the ceramic traditions of China, Korea, and Japan. It is widely acknowledged that Chinese ceramics played a decisive role in shaping the development of Korean ceramic culture. Accordingly, research on Chinese ceramic history confirms that between the 9th and 11th centuries— from the late Tang dynasty through the Northern Song dynasty—the evolution of Chinese ceramics significantly contributed to the development of Korean ceramics during the same period (Yeol, 1997, p. 38). The revival of white slip decoration initially concentrated in Kyushu, but throughout the Edo period, inlaid and stamped ceramic production was observed in various kilns across the Japanese archipelago. Although some of these productions were not directly related to immigrant Korean potters, the influence of the Korean ceramic tradition on Japanese ceramic art is evident. Notably, between 1639 and 1718, the popularity of tea ceramics produced in Busan kilns for export to Japan prompted the resurgence of buncheong techniques—including inlay, stamping, and brushed white slip— in Japan. During the late Edo period, Goryeo celadons and the 15th–16thcentury inlaid celadons regained prominence in Japanese culture. This influence was substantiated by the practice of certain masters stamping their works, thereby consciously identifying themselves with this tradition. By the 19th century, imitations of Korean white slip ceramics had become widespread even in Japanese kilns without direct connections to Korean potters, demonstrating the profound historical and technical impact of Korean ceramics on Japanese ceramic art (Soung & Jeon, 2011, p. 119). Yeol, curator of the Ho-Am Art Museum, emphasizes that the ceramic inlay decoration method first appeared at kiln sites dating to the Tang dynasty (618-907) in China. Traces of the technique were discovered at the Huangbao kiln sites in the Yaozhou region of Shaanxi province. Tang dynasty ceramics, characterized by motifs incised beneath black glazes and filled with white slip, were found to exhibit the same technical features as works later produced in Korea. Although this technique was rarely employed during the Tang dynasty, it was further developed during the Song dynasty (960-1279) at the Yaozhou kilns (Yeol, 1997, p. 11) (Figure 2). 64   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 2. Cizhou Ware, Peony-Patterned Vase, Song Dynasty (960-1279), Northern China, V&A Collection (Vase, n.d.). During the Song dynasty in China, tea culture gained immense popularity, leading to a notable increase in the production of tea vessels. Tea became an inseparable element of the elite’s activities—such as appreciating nature, composing poetry, or playing chess—and thus the creation of new porcelain wares specifically designed for tea ceremonies became inevitable. In addition, ceramics were widely employed in architecture, interior decoration, and ritual offerings. The ceramic production of the Song period fostered a highly dynamic culture in terms of the circulation of gift ceramics and the flourishing of ceramic trade (Zhiyan et al., 2010, p. 266). With the circulation of ceramics through trade to neighboring countries, the transfer of the ceramic inlay technique from China to Korea is confirmed, shedding light on the origins of the green celadons of the Goryeo dynasty. Although the technique already existed during the Tang and Song dynasties, it became more widespread in Korea through cultural exchange, ultimately transforming into an intercultural artistic heritage. This demonstrates that, although the inlay method originated in China, it was in Korea that the technique attained greater sophistication and broader application from an aesthetic perspective. During the Goryeo (918-1392) and Joseon (1392-1897) dynasties, Sanggam emerged as an advanced decorative method applied to celadon ceramics. While inspired by Chinese ceramics of the Tang and Song dynasties, Korean artisans developed the technique in a highly distinctive style. Dickerson (1974) evaluates this tradition as follows: “The ceramic inlay technique is of Eastern origin, and although it appears in both Chinese and Japanese ceramic art, it is acknowledged that the Koreans were the most skillful in its use” (p. 84). FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION . . .   71 Table 1. Comparison of the Ceramic Inlay Decoration Technique in China, Korea, and Japan (Prepared by the Author). China (–) Korea (Sanggam) Japan (Mishima) Origin of the Technique The slip inlay technique began during the Tang Dynasty. Developed under the name Sanggam during the Goryeo period. Influenced by Korean ceramics, particularly imported wares from Korea. Period of Prevalence Tang and Song Dynasties (618–1279). Widely practiced in the Goryeo period (918–1392); early Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897). Widely used during the Momoyama and Edo periods (1573–1868). Technical Characteristics Simple incision and slip filling. Incising and stamping, slip filling, refining, and glazing. Incision, slip filling, minimal surface decoration. Application Cizhou stoneware, celadon glaze. Celadon (jade-green glaze), fine slip inlay details. Generally stoneware pottery, tea ceremony vessels, Mishima ware. Motifs Used Floral and geometric patterns. Lotus, cranes, bamboo, waves. Geometric patterns, linear motifs, abstract forms. 3. Contemporary Ceramic Artists Employing the Inlay Technique As one of the traditional ceramic decoration methods, the slip inlay technique has evolved across different cultural and geographical contexts throughout history, producing distinctive aesthetic approaches, as seen in Table 1. Today, this technique is reinterpreted by contemporary ceramic artists as a creative tool that integrates respect for traditional craftsmanship with the expressive modes of modern art, making it widely practiced in current ceramic production. 3.1.ShinSangHo Korean ceramic artist Shin Sang Ho (b. 1947, Gyeonggi Province) has created original works that merge traditional Korean ceramic techniques with contemporary interpretations. Educated in ceramics at Hongik University, Shin developed a distinctive style by combining Buncheong techniques with stone- 72   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART like textures and natural forms. As an educator, he taught ceramics in Korea and abroad, notably at the Royal College of Art (1995-1997), introducing Buncheong techniques to an international audience. His works are housed in prestigious collections such as the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Royal Ontario Museum. His studio-museum in Yangju reflects his commitment to sustaining traditional heritage within a contemporary context (Wikipedia, n.d.). Figure 8. Shin Sang Ho: (a) Vase, Buncheong technique, 1980, stoneware body, 24.3×23.5 cm (Korean Buncheong Ware, n.d.); (b) Abstract animal head, 1992, Buncheong technique, stoneware body, 42×27×34 cm (Figure, n.d.). Shin’s use of floral motifs and color palette demonstrates fidelity to the Buncheong tradition, while his stylized animal head forms reveal contemporary reinterpretations of the technique (Fig. 8 a-b). 3.2.LeeKang-Hyo Lee Kang-Hyo, drawing upon a childhood spent closely connected to nature, creates surface designs that reflect Korea’s four seasons. He emphasizes the impact of natural change on his artistic process, stating, “Nature is the primary source of my work and refreshes my mind, because today’s sky is different from yesterday’s sky.” After completing his ceramics education at Hongik University, Lee trained for four years in the traditional Onggi technique. He has reinterpreted both Onggi and Buncheong traditions through contemporary approaches, enriching his works with dynamic brushstrokes and surface painting methods inspired by these practices. Viewing the ceramic surface as a canvas, Lee often intervenes with spontaneous brush gestures over surfaces adorned with traditional sanggam FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION . . .   73 inlay. In his large-scale works, he merges traditional and contemporary practices, adopting a creative process that focuses on the emotions and thoughts of the present moment (Ceramics and Pottery Arts and Resources, n.d.) (Figures 9, 10 a-b). Figure 9. Lee Kang-Hyo with his large-scale contemporary ceramic works (Soriano, 2022). Figure 10. Lee Kang-Hyo: (a) Oval vase decorated with Buncheong technique, 2016 (London Korean Links, 2016); (b) Flattened bottle form, Buncheong technique, height 37 cm, 2011 (Ceramics and Pottery Arts and Resources, 2015). 3.3.MoriyoshiSaeki Among Japanese artists associated with the influence of Mishima, Moriyoshi Saeki stands out for his distinctive designs and symbolic language. One of the recurring motifs in his work is the keyaki (zelkova) tree, a culturally significant species in Japan. With its brilliant foliage in yellow, red, bronze, and purple during autumn, the keyaki comes to life in Saeki’s tree figures rendered through the Mishima technique (Yellin, 2001). The technique, synonymous with the Mishima style, imparts a strong and personal narrative to his works. Saeki’s oeuvre includes classical forms such 74   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART as round tsubo (jars) and kabin (flower vases), as well as abstract vessels with rugged rims reminiscent of mountain peaks. This distinctive approach grants his ceramics a unique identity (Figures 11 a-b). His tree figures are often depicted as leafless silhouettes (Figure 12). Executed in dark tones against predominantly white grounds, they are created using the Mishima method. To build up layers of color, Saeki employs iron oxide glazes and pigments. His works consistently represent only two seasons— autumn and winter—while spring blossoms, buds, and summer’s deep green foliage are conspicuously absent. When treated in darker hues, the trees acquire a somber, severe, and at times even foreboding atmosphere. This visual language evokes a profound sense of melancholy, often giving viewers the impression that a raven might suddenly take flight from a branch. Such qualities underscore the dramatic narrative power and symbolic depth that define Saeki’s artistic practice. Figure 11. Moriyoshi Saeki: (a) Vase with forest design, Mishima technique, stoneware, 34.4×25×25.2 cm, 2024 (Flower Vessel with Forest Design in Inlay and Glaze Painting, n.d.); (b) Abstract form with forest motif, Mishima technique, stoneware, 29×76×12.6 cm, 2022 (Jar of Irregular Shape with Tree Design in Inlay and Colored Glaze, n.d.). In the forest-themed vase, the artist employed the ceramic inlay technique to create detailed tree motifs, subsequently applying iron oxide through a spraying method to achieve a gradated surface effect. This work stands out for its depiction of seasonal transitions through tree imagery on an abstract form. By concentrating the inlay technique on arboreal motifs and completing the piece with the application of colored glazes, the artist successfully achieved both aesthetic and technical harmony on the surface. FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION . . .   75 Figure 12. Moriyoshi Saeki, Jar with tree design, Mishima technique, stoneware body, h. 30.1 cm, ø 35.5 cm, 2022 (Jar with Tree Design in Inlay and Slip Painting, n.d.). In the work shown in Figure 12, the artist employed the ceramic inlay technique to create tree motifs in varying color tones, deliberately omitting the application of glaze. This approach highlights the natural texture of the material, imparting a distinctive expressive quality to the piece. 3.4.ToyofumiToyoshima Another artist who employs the Mishima technique in his works is Toyofumi Toyoshima. In 1997, he trained under Bizen ceramic artist Yoshimoto Shuho. In 2020, he was awarded the Modern Ceramic Encouragement Prize by the Japan Ceramic Society at the Chūgoku Shikoku Exhibition. In 2022, he was appointed as an official artist of the Okayama Prefectural Art Exhibition (Toyofumi Toyoshima, n.d.). Toyoshima’s works also demonstrate his masterful use of nature-inspired colors, patterns, and motifs in combination with the Mishima technique (Figures 13 a-b). Figure 13. Toyofumi Toyoshima: (a) Stoneware vase, Mishima technique, 44.5×36.5×16 cm, 2012 (Colored Slip Inlay Decoration Flowing Leaves Pattern Vessel, n.d.); (b) Stoneware bowl, Mishima technique, 8.8×51×51 cm, 2010 (Colored Slip Pentagons Inlay Pattern Bowl, n.d.). 76   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART In Figure 13 a, the rectangular prism-shaped vessel departs from traditional ceramic forms, offering a distinctly modern aesthetic. The stylized plant or tree motifs at the center are enlivened through varied tonalities, while the gently curved surfaces and straight lines confer a dynamic structure to the piece. The symmetrical and orderly decorative approach further establishes compositional balance. In Figures 13 a, 13 b, and 14, the artist’s application of the Mishima technique is highlighted through intricately carved patterns. The use of diverse tones and textures across the surface enhances the three-dimensional effect of the form, adding depth through the interplay of light and shadow. The finely incised details characteristic of the Mishima method accentuate the inherent qualities of the material itself. In Japanese ceramic art, nature-inspired motifs are widely employed. In these works, motifs drawn from natural forms—along with wave-like, undulating lines—emerge as narrative elements that reinforce the piece’s connection to nature. The synthesis of the traditional Mishima decorative technique with contemporary approaches to form and composition underscores the artist’s emphasis on bridging the past with the present. Figure 14. Toyofumi Toyoshima, Stoneware vase, Mishima technique, 43.5×25×25 cm, 2014 (Colored Slip Inlay Decoration Flower Vessel, n.d.). 3.5.ChrisCampbell In ceramic art, the integration of multiple decorative methods enhances both aesthetic and narrative depth. In this context, the Mishima and Nerikomi techniques represent significant methods at the intersection of traditional and contemporary practices. In the literature, Nerikomi is often regarded as a FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION . . .   77 derivative of Mishima, and both techniques enable the creation of innovative patterns on clay bodies. American ceramic artist Chris Campbell masterfully combines these two approaches, developing a unique visual language that fuses traditional aesthetics with contemporary expression. Campbell’s works demonstrate how the simultaneous use of Mishima and Nerikomi can generate powerful and dynamic visual effects. By integrating both organic and geometric patterns into ceramic surfaces, Campbell achieves a strong expressive language. These works not only preserve the aesthetic values of traditional ceramic techniques but also highlight the originality of studio ceramics and their connection to contemporary art. In her colored porcelain works, Campbell applies the Nerikomi technique with remarkable skill. She defines Nerikomi as a method of stacking layers of differently colored clay, slicing them, and assembling patterned surfaces onto porcelain forms: “In my work, I use the ancient Nerikomi technique to apply patterns and colors onto porcelain forms. This technique, which originated in Japan, has been practiced with variations in many countries, and each artist interprets the process uniquely, discovering their own artistic language” (Chris Campbell, n.d.). In Figures 15 a and 15 b, Campbell uses Nerikomi to create organic forms adorned with interwoven color transitions. Rather than covering the entire surface, the patterns are concentrated in specific areas, emphasizing negative space and balancing the composition. In Figure 15a, instead of the traditional carved approach of Mishima, the surface is accentuated with seam-like textures and edge terminations, introducing an alternative tactile layer. The soft curves along the rim and the fine vertical lines on the sides clearly reveal the hand-built process. While the cylindrical form suggests a traditional vase or jar silhouette, Campbell’s chosen textures and patterns transform it into a contemporary expression. The organic distribution of Nerikomi patterns across the surface produces a fluid and natural aesthetic rather than a rigid geometry. The work depicted in Figure 15 b further illustrates how the layered chromatic quality of Nerikomi can be combined with the fine detailing and surface emphasis of Mishima, yielding an original interpretation of ceramic decoration. This boundary-pushing approach encourages a reconsideration of the relationship among form, color, and surface in contemporary ceramic art. Campbell’s works, produced as an alternative application of inlay decoration, present an inspiring perspective on the use of color and pattern in ceramic practice. 78   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 15. Chris Campbell: (a) Porcelain forms with Nerikomi and Mishima techniques (Connections, n.d.); (b) Porcelain forms with Nerikomi and Mishima techniques (How to Inlay Patterns, n.d.). 4. Findings The study determined that the ceramic inlay technique first emerged during China’s Tang Dynasty and attained aesthetic refinement in Cizhou ceramics of the Song Dynasty. Transmitted to Korea, the technique was redefined as Sanggam during the Goryeo period, enriched with delicate figurative motifs on jade-green celadons, and became a cultural symbol of the nation. In Japan, the method was adopted as Mishima, characterized by a restrained and geometric aesthetic, and was widely employed in tea ceremony vessels. Although technical similarities are evident across the three cultures, distinctions arise in motif selection, modes of application, and aesthetic approaches. Among contemporary ceramic artists, figures such as Shin Sang Ho, Lee Kang-Hyo, Moriyoshi Saeki, and Toyofumi Toyoshima combine the traditional inlay technique with modern reinterpretations, producing innovative aesthetic forms. Western artists have also drawn inspiration from the method, developing hybrid practices such as combining Mishima with Nerikomi. In conclusion, the inlay decoration technique is not merely a regional craft but a universal expressive medium shaped through intercultural exchange, which continues to influence contemporary ceramic art. The technique serves as an artistic bridge between past and present, preserving cultural heritage while enabling contemporary creativity. As a contribution to the field, this research FROM TRADITION TO MODERNITY IN CERAMIC ART INLAY DECORATION . . .   79 highlights cultural reflections of technical variations, traces the transformation of aesthetic approaches over time, and analyzes the relationship between cultural continuity and artistic transformation in ceramic art. 5. Conclusion The ceramic inlay technique, which originated in China and was subsequently embraced in Korea and Japan, evolved with distinctive interpretations in each culture, leaving a profound impact on ceramic art. In China, the technique created aesthetic richness during the Tang and Song dynasties, marking a significant turning point in East Asian ceramic traditions. However, over time, ceramic inlay decoration in China gradually gave way to the more commonly practiced underglaze techniques. In Korea, throughout the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties, the inlay technique attained a more sophisticated form through delicate motifs and was introduced to Japan via Buncheong ceramics. This interaction fostered the emergence of the Mishima style in Japanese ceramic art during the Momoyama and Edo periods. Japanese artists adopted Mishima not only as a decorative method but also as a medium of cultural expression, embedding it within Zen philosophy, nature-oriented aesthetics, and symbolic narratives—thus transcending mere functionality. Today, the ceramic inlay technique continues to exert influence not only in traditional ceramic practices but also within modern and contemporary art. Artists integrate the technique with their own aesthetic approaches, producing original works that merge heritage with innovation. In conclusion, the ceramic inlay decoration technique endures as a universal method that reflects both the cultural heritage and aesthetic depth of ceramic art. By uniting cultural continuity with creative originality, the technique serves as a bridge between past and present, contributing to both traditional and modern approaches to ceramics. As such, it remains a historically significant, artistically expressive, dynamic, and universal method within the field of ceramic art. 6. References Ayta, T. (2017). Toprak sanatlarında dekoratif uygulama yöntemleri. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Basımevi Tesisleri. Birks, T. (1988). Pottery a complete guide to pottery-making techniques (2. Baskı). London: A&C Black. 80   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Bottle. (n.d.). Collection item 2009CD6892. https://framemark.vam.ac.uk/ collections/2009CD6892/full/735,/0/default.jpg adresinden erişilmiştir. Ceramics and Pottery Arts and Resources. (2015, 19 Temmuz). 03 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://www.veniceclayartists.com/korea-onggi-potter-lee-kanghyo/ adresinden erişilmiştir. Chris Campbell. (n.d.). CC Pottery. 03 Ocak, 2025 tarihinde http://www. ccpottery.com/colored-clay-lessons--chris/complex-forms--chris-campbe.html adresinden erişilmiştir. Colored slip inlay decoration flower vassel. (n.d.). Work 95712. 03 Ocak, 2025 tarihinde https://www.galleryjapan.com/locale/en_US/work/95712/ adresinden erişilmiştir. Colored slip inlay decoration flowing leaves pattern vessel. (n.d.). Work 95713. 03 Ocak, 2025 tarihinde https://www.galleryjapan.com/locale/en_US/ work/95713/ Colored slip pentagons inlay pattern bowl. (n.d.). Work 95707 03 Ocak, 2025 tarihinde https://www.galleryjapan.com/locale/en_US/work/95707/ adresinden erişilmiştir. Connections. (n.d.). CC Pottery. 08 Ocak, 2025 tarihinde http://www. ccpottery.com/_Media/ribbon-vase_med_hr.jpeg adresinden erişilmiştir. Covell, J. C., & Covell, A. M. (1986). Korean Impact on Japanese Culture: Japan’s Cultural Dependence on Korea. Hollym International Corporation. Dickerson, J. (1974). Pottery making a complete guide. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. Figure. (n.d.). Collection item 2006AT8841. https://framemark.vam.ac.uk/ collections/2006AT8841/full/735,/0/default.jpg adresinden erişilmiştir. Flower vessel with forest design in inlay and glaze painting. (n.d.).Work 99083. 03 Ocak, 2025 tarihinde https://www.galleryjapan.com/locale/en_US/ work/103182/ adresinden erişilmiştir. Hammer, F. ve Hamer J. (2004). The Potter’s dictionary of materials and techniques (4. Baskı). London: A&C Black, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. How to inlay patterns. (n.d.). CC Pottery. 08 Ocak, 2025 tarihinde http:// www.ccpottery.com/_Media/diva-vase_med_hr-2.jpeg adresinden erişilmiştir. Jang, N. (2004). The origin and development of ceramics with underglaze iron decoration and white porcelain in the Goryeo Dynasty (H. K. Kim, Trans.). Misulsa Nondan (Art History Forum), 18, 41–71. AESTHETIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, GASTRONOMIC, AND COMMERCIAL . . .   87 and leather sacks. Seals and inscriptions found in archaeological excavations provide important clues to the location of amphorae production and the economic relations of the period. Comprehensive studies on the classification of Roman amphorae were conducted, particularly by Heinrich Dressel in the late 19th century; 45 different types (Figure 3) were identified based on the seals and painted inscriptions (tituli picti) found on amphorae excavated in Castro Pretorio (University of Southampton, 2014). Dressel’s work was followed by studies by Zevi, Carandini, and Panella on the chronology of amphorae, their production centers, and their importance to Roman maritime trade. Figure 3. Amphorae type classification by Heinrich Dressel (Dressel, 2014) The classifications observed reveal not only the commercial functions of amphorae but also their formal and aesthetic evolution. These different forms were developed to suit the transportation of specific products and the fulfilment of ritual or symbolic functions. 88   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Britannica (2025) divides amphorae into two basic types: neck amphorae and monolithic amphorae. In neck amphorae, the neck connects to the body at a sharp angle, while in monolithic amphorae, the neck and body form a continuous curve. While neck amphorae were common from the Geometric Period until 900 BC, monolithic amphorae emerged in the 7th century BC. Amphorae, ranging in height from 30 cm to 1.5 m, were used for transporting foods such as olives, grain, oil, and wine, as well as for funerary ceremonies and tombstones (Scott, 2016). The stylistic differences observed between neck and monolithic amphorae are directly related to the efficiency of transportation and storage. While neck amphorae were suitable for more controlled pouring and transportation, single-piece amphorae provided advantages in transporting large volumes of goods and for long journeys. These formal differences offer visual richness and reflect the tastes of the period in which they were made. A review of the history of commercial amphorae reveals that their origins date back to Western Anatolia and the Aegean Islands around 3000 BC. With the development of Eastern Mediterranean trade from 2000 BC onward, amphorae evolved into commercial vessels suitable for long-distance transport. Phoenician-style amphorae spread due to Phoenicians’ dominance of Aegean and Mediterranean trade. By the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the first Greek commercial amphorae emerged, evolving in technique and form to suit long-distance transport. This development continued until the 13th century AD. Fluted amphorae were produced in Christian monasteries between the 9th and 13th centuries AD to transport wine and olive oil (Akcan, 1995). Fluted bodies, in particular, facilitated the amphorae’s ability to hold together during transport, increasing cargo security. This could be considered a technological and commercial innovation at the time. Furthermore, these flutes added aesthetic rhythm and surface movement to the amphorae, contributing to the vessels’ visual impact. Amphorae, through their size and decoration, reflected the social and economic power of the deceased. Amphorae were generally preferred for women and kraters for men. Over time, vessels became larger and more ornate, and their primary functional functions took precedence over symbolic ones. Prominent examples include the three-handled Nolan-type amphorae of Italian origin, the black-figure Panathenaic amphorae given as prizes, and the longnecked Loutrophoros amphorae for ritual purposes (Britannica, 2025). These examples demonstrate that amphorae were not only functional but also concrete reflections of social and cultural indicators. Through their choices of size, shape, AESTHETIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, GASTRONOMIC, AND COMMERCIAL . . .   89 and decoration, each amphorae reflected the owner’s status, gender, and ritual requirements. The relationship between the products stored in amphorae and their form is also noteworthy. Dikmen Diriöz & Alkan (2023) emphasize not only the economic value of the olive tree but also its importance in ecological balance, biodiversity, and cultural identity. As reported by Eryılmaz (2021, cited in Dikmen Diriöz & Alkan, 2023), in ancient Greece, the olive tree was considered sacred, so removing a single branch could result in the death penalty. In the Athena Games, winners were rewarded with crowns made from olive branches and an amphora full of olive oil. Gürsoy (2016) emphasizes the commercial function of amphorae, demonstrating their use in both domestic and international trade in antiquity. This demonstrates the strong relationship between the gastronomic content of amphorae and their symbolic value. The nature of the products transported was important in economic and ritual contexts. Excavations in Turkey provide information about the functions and production centers of amphorae. Alkaç (2025) examined the typological and functional characteristics of amphorae from the Tarsus Olive Market excavation and classified Western Anatolian and Aegean production amphorae as “DR 2-4,” “Late Rhodian,” “Kapitän II,” “LR 8,” “LR 2,” and “LR 3.” Smaller amphorae (amphoriskoi or pelikai) were used to transport perfumes and precious liquids (Figure 4, 5). These examples demonstrate that amphorae were used not only for daily transportation and storage but also for commercial and ritual purposes (Aslan, Erdoğan, Orhan, & Kılıç, 2018). Figure 4. Ancient Greece, Amphoriskos (Wikimedia Commons, n.d.) 90   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Typological classifications demonstrate the diversity of amphorae in terms of production technology and aesthetic approach. Smaller amphorae exhibit meticulous decorative workmanship, emphasizing the importance of their precious contents, while larger commercial amphorae prioritized functional durability. Figure 5. Pelike (Pelikai), Greek, of Athenian origin, 4th century BC (Metropolitan Museum of Art, n.d.) Demirci and Akyol (1995) examined ceramic workshops in the Gulf of Sinop and determined that the firing temperature of the amphorae was approximately 700°C. The clay and additives used ensured the durability of the products, demonstrating the advanced nature of ancient production technology. Altınanıt (2015) revealed that the amphorae from the Bozburun Shipwreck (Figure 6) were protected with cork stoppers and resin to prevent their contents from deteriorating during long sea voyages (Figures 7, 8, 10, 11). These findings in the study demonstrate that ancient potters used both technological and chemical knowledge to make the amphorae durable and safe. They also demonstrate that the necessary engineering solutions for commercial transportation were developed. Various graffiti (Figure 9) are also seen on the amphorae, and it is thought that they are a naming or marking of the master who made them. AESTHETIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, GASTRONOMIC, AND COMMERCIAL . . .   91 Figure 6. Bozburun shipwreck site, INA Archive (Altınanıt, 2015, p.9) Figure 7-8. Type 1 and Type 2 amphorae found in the Bozburun excavation, INA Archive (Altınanıt, 2015, p.13) 92   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 9. Graffiti on an amphora (Hocker, 1998; Altınanıt, 2015, p.14) Figure 10-11. Sealing of amphora [Photograph]. INA Archive (Altınanıt, 2015, p.17) 4. Conclusion Amphorae, one of the most significant elements of daily life in the ancient period, represent essential cultural heritage items. They reveal the era’s aesthetic understanding, technological level, commercial relations, gastronomic habits, and belief systems. With the onset of the Geometric period, these vessels gained an additional dimension through their role in funerary rituals, conveying information about the deceased’s status and identity alongside their storage and preservation functions. During the Archaic period, the functional significance of amphorae diminished, coinciding with the transition to kouros and kore statues. Nevertheless, Panathenaic amphorae retained their importance as symbols of reward and honour. The aesthetic and technological aspects of amphorae reflect the ceramic production techniques and artistic sensibilities of their respective periods. AESTHETIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, GASTRONOMIC, AND COMMERCIAL . . .   93 Findings from excavations in Sinop and Tarsus indicate that they were fired in an oxidizing environment at temperatures ranging from 900 to 1000°C with mineral additives; research on Bozburun waste further shows that the inner surfaces were coated with resin and pitch, sealed with cork stoppers. These data suggest that amphorae were produced suitably for long maritime journeys, demonstrating a high level of technological advancement. Functionally, amphorae initially developed for the storage and transportation of staple foodstuffs gradually acquired ritual and symbolic roles. Small-sized amphorae were produced for carrying special liquids such as perfumes, while larger and more ornate amphorae served as emblems of reward and prestige. From a commercial perspective, amphorae functioned as instruments reflecting economic ties between different communities and the prosperity of societies. In this context, the studies conducted by researchers such as Dressel, Zevi, Carandini, Panella, Peacock, and Williams have significantly contributed to the systematic examination of Roman amphorae, elucidating their chronology and production centres. Consequently, amphorae are multidimensional cultural heritage items that, beyond their functionality, illuminate the aesthetic, technological, commercial, and cultural fabric of their time. Research indicates that amphorae, through their technical and formal evolution, have maintained continuity as a fundamental element of Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean trade for centuries, underscoring their enduring significance. 5. References Akcan, Z. (1995, May). Antik çağda amphoralar [Amphorae in the ancient period]. İçel Sanat Kulübü Aylık Bülteni, (36). https://www.yumuktepe.com/ antik-cagda-amphoralar-zeki-akcan/ Alkaç, E. (2025). Aegean and West Anatolian amphorae from Tarsus, Zeytin Pazarı: Roman Imperial and Late Antique periods. Oannes, 7(1), 64–74. Altınanıt, F. E. (2015). IX. yüzyıl Bozburun Batığı ahşap amfora tıpalarının tipolojisi, bozulma durumlarının tespiti, konservasyon yönteminin araştırılması ve koruma-onarım uygulamaları [Typology of wooden amphora stoppers from the 9th-century Bozburun Shipwreck, assessment of their deterioration, investigation of conservation methods, and preservation-restoration applications] [Unpublished master’s thesis]. İstanbul University. Aslan, E., Erdoğan, L. U., Orhan, U., & Kılıç, Y. (2018). Kekova’da bulunan bir grup Rhodos amphorası [A group of Rhodian amphorae discovered in Kekova]. Cedrus, 6, 249–263. https://doi.org/10.13113/CEDRUS.201812 94   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Bulba, M. (1994). Kaunos tapınak terasından ele geçen amfora dipleri [Amphora bases from the Kaunos temple terrace] [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Akdeniz University. Cartwright, M. (2016, August 30). Amphora (C. Güllü, Trans.). World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/tr/1-10730/amfora/ Dikmen Diriöz, E., & Alkan, A. K. B. (2023). Zeytin ağacı: Tarihten gelen önemi ışığında Türkiye ve dünyada korunmasının uluslararası çevresel sürdürülebilirlik kapsamında önemi [Olive tree: Its historical significance and its protection within the framework of international environmental sustainability in Turkey and worldwide]. Bölgesel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 7(2), 545–569. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2025, June 14). Greek pottery. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-pottery Gürsoy, D. (2016). Tarihin süzgecinde mutfak kültürümüz [Our culinary culture through the lens of history]. Oğlak Yayıncılık. Oxford Reference. (n.d.). Amphora. Oxford University Press. https://www. oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095409649 Scott, N. (2016, March 30). Grave markers of the ancient elite. Art 230: Ancient Art Digital Exhibit, Furman University. https://scholarexchange. furman.edu/art231/1/ University of Southampton. (2014). Roma amforaları: Dijital bir kaynak [Roman amphorae: A digital resource] [Dataset]. York: Archaeology Data Service. https://doi.org/10.5284/1028192 Türk Dil Kurumu. (n.d.). Amfora [Amphora]. Türkçe Sözlük. https:// sozluk.gov.tr/ 6. Visual Bibliography Figure 1. Wikimedia Commons. (n.d.). Alonnisos Peparethos Amphora [Photograph]. https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfora#/media/Dosya:Alonnisos_ Peparethos_Amphora.jpg Figure 2. Cartwright, M. (2016, August 30). İspanya’daki Roma Tarraco’sunda (Tarragona) kazılan çeşitli amforalar, MÖ 1. yüzyıldan MS 6. yüzyıla kadar [Various amphorae excavated in Roman Tarraco (Tarragona), Spain, 1st century BCE–6th century CE] [Photograph] (C. Güllü, Trans.). World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/tr/1-10730/amfora/ Figure 3. Dressel, H. (2014). Amphora typology [Dataset]. University of Southampton, Archaeology Data Service. https://doi.org/10.5284/1028192 AESTHETIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, GASTRONOMIC, AND COMMERCIAL . . .   95 Figure 4. Metropolitan Museum of Art. (n.d.). Amphoriskos (oil flask) [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Amphoriskos_(oil_flask)_MET_DP700680.jpg Figure 5. Metropolitan Museum of Art. (n.d.). Amphoriskos (oil flask) [Photograph]. The Met Fifth Avenue. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/ collection/search/254570 Figure 6. INA Archive (as cited in Altınanıt, 2015, p. 9). Bozburun batık alanı [Bozburun shipwreck area] [Photograph]. Figure 7. INA Archive (as cited in Altınanıt, 2015, p. 13). Bozburun kazısında ele geçen Tip 1 amfora [Type 1 amphora from the Bozburun excavation] [Photograph]. Figure 8. INA Archive (as cited in Altınanıt, 2015, p. 13). Bozburun kazısında ele geçen Tip 2 amfora [Type 2 amphora from the Bozburun excavation] [Photograph]. Figure 9. Hocker, F. (1998, p. 5, as cited in Altınanıt, 2015, p. 14). Amfora üzerindeki grafiti [Graffiti on an amphora] [Photograph]. Figure 10-11. INA Archive (as cited in Altınanıt, 2015, p. 17). Tıpalama [Sealing of amphora] [Photograph]. AZULEJO ART IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION   103 These azulejos were made using the alicatado technique, reflecting the Moorish mosaic tradition and the rich geometric aesthetics of Andalusia (Mitchell, 2017). King Manuel I’s visits to Andalusian cities not only shaped political relations but also brought together craftsmen, transforming azulejo art into a two-way cultural transmission process involving technical knowledge, aesthetic understanding, and material use. These developments left a lasting impact on the development of azulejo in Portugal, blending the formal heritage of Islamic art with new interpretations. In short, azulejo developed in Spain, both in terms of technical production and aesthetic understanding, and from there, it was transmitted to Portugal, where it acquired an independent visual language from the 15th century onwards. Figure 5. 14th-Century Mudéjar Examples (Spain) https://www.aragonmudejar.com/zaragoza/utebo/utebo9.html The abstract and geometric form language of Islamic art is evident in early examples of azulejo. However, the perspective and figurative narrative techniques that emerged in Europe during the Renaissance began to manifest themselves in Spanish and Portuguese azulejo panels. This demonstrates that azulejo was not merely a continuation of Islamic art traditions but also a dynamic art form that evolved under the influence of Western aesthetics. A new development period began in Portuguese azulejos from the mid-15th century onwards. Dutch “Delft” ceramics, in particular, influenced the understanding of color and composition in Portuguese azulejos. “Delftware” is a type of ceramic consisting of cobalt blue decoration applied to a white opaque tin glaze and reaching its peak in the 17th century (Wikipedia, 2025). Portuguese azulejos produced during this period produced polychrome panels depicting both figurative and mythological scenes in colors such as cobalt blue, yellow, and green (Figure 6). 104   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 6. Polychrome Panel (Azulejo), 1665-Lisbon Matos, M. A. P. de. (Ed.). (2000). Azulejos: Masterpieces of the National Tile Museum of Lisbon. Chandeigne / Museu Nacional do Azulejo. p. 56. With the aesthetics of the 17th century Baroque period, magnificent and dramatic scenes became widespread in azulejo art, becoming an indispensable element in the interior decoration of churches and palaces. The term “Islamic influence,” frequently encountered in literature reviews on the azulejo, refers to the cultural transmission and technical heritage that influenced the development of the azulejo, rather than a geographical definition. Azulejo art, which developed in the Iberian Peninsula (especially in Portugal and Spain), was shaped by multilayered cultural interactions and historical processes. The development of this art was shaped by the influence of Islamic art, Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococo periods, as well as local traditions, and acquired a unique language of expression through the fusion of different styles. 2.1.HistoricalDevelopmentofAzulejoArt 2.1.1.IslamicInfluenceandItsBeginnings(8th-13thCenturies) The origins of azulejo art lie in the Umayyad and Maghrib periods of the Andalusian Empire. It dates back to the Maghribian period. During this period, ceramic tile applications, particularly those adorned with complex geometric patterns called zellij, developed. Teixeira (2019, p. 594) states that azulejos made during this period were produced using the Mudéjar techniques of cuerda seca (Figure 7) and arista (Figure 8). The geometric, floral, and Kufic script motifs of Islamic art formed the formal and technical basis of the azulejo (Mitchell, 2017). This technical and aesthetic legacy was the starting point of a hybrid visual language that would last for centuries in the Iberian Peninsula. AZULEJO ART IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION   105 Figure 7. A Pair of Spanish Cuerda Seca Tiles https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2009/artsof-the-islamic-world-l09721/lot.77.html Figure 8. Arista Technique A geometric multicolored hexagonal tile forming a Star of David with interlocking equilateral triangles. Spain. http://museoarqueologicobadajoz. juntaex.es/web/view/portal/index/standardPage.php?id=111. 2.1.2.TheInfluenceofMudéjarArt(13th-15thcenturies) As Christian dominance increased in the Iberian Peninsula as Christian kingdoms advanced southward during the “Reconquest,” Muslim masters who remained in the region continued their production, thus giving rise to Mudéjar art. Mitchell defines Mudéjar as “an aesthetic synthesis that allows Islamic motifs to survive within Christian architecture” (Mitchell, 2017, pp. 341-342). (Figure 10). Azulejos produced during this period featured geometric and floral ornaments of Andalusian-Islamic origin, developing a hybrid artistic language (Teixeira, 2019). Stylized vegetal patterns, Kufic inscriptions, and decorative geometric ornaments, also seen in Christian buildings, played a significant role in the evolution of the azulejo. “Alicatado,” one of the fundamental shaping techniques prominent in Mudéjar art, is a mosaic technique employing the 106   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART assembly of small colored ceramic pieces to form geometric patterns (Ekinci, 2024). Except for green monochromes, the colors are tinted with oxides on a white tin-glazed background (Figure 9). It was widely used, particularly in Granada and Seville, Spain. Figure 9. Alicatado Remains of the Plinth of the Dar al-Arusa Palace, La Alhambra Museum, Granada, 13th century. https://www.glosarioarquitectonico.com/glossary/alicatado/ Figure 10. Mudéjar Example Matos, M. A. P. de. (Ed.). (2000). Azulejos: Masterpieces of the National Tile Museum of Lisbon. Chandeigne / Museu Nacional do Azulejo, p. 16. 2.1.3. Transition to Portugal and Renaissance Influence (15th–16th century) Azulejo migrated from Spain to Portugal in the late 15th century. In his publication Portuguese Art: Portuguese Azulejo (2017, pp. 346-349), Mitchell AZULEJO ART IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION   107 notes that azulejos were rapidly adopted as decorative elements, particularly in palaces, monasteries, and churches, and that perspective figurative panels became widespread under the influence of the Italian Renaissance. Francesco Niculoso Pisano, an Italian ceramic master who worked in Seville from the late 15th to the early 16th century, introduced the Italian majolica technique to Spain, pioneering the production of the earliest figurative azulejo panels on the Iberian Peninsula. Francesco Niculoso Pisano’s introduction of the Italian majolica technique in Seville is cited as a turning point in azulejo production in this region (Teixeira, 2019). With Portuguese colonialism, azulejo art was brought to the region known today as Goa, on India’s west coast, from the 16th century onwards. Goa, which came under Portuguese rule in 1510, was for a long time the most important Portuguese colonial center in Asia; this location made it a strong point of contact between European decorative arts and South Asian visual culture. Azulejos produced in Goa combine local motifs with depictions of Indian flora and fauna, in particular, to create a hybrid aesthetic (Figure 11). V. Teixeira states that the transfer of weaving aesthetics from Islamic art to tile and mosaic designs is one of the fundamental factors shaping the azulejo’s visual identity. In Goa’s azulejo examples, borders reminiscent of carpet or fabric edges are common. This demonstrates that azulejo is not solely inspired by ceramics, but is a multilayered form of cultural expression that develops through interaction with different materials and disciplines (Teixeira, 2019). Figure 11. Anonymous, 17th century, Silk and Linen. Ventura Teixeira, C. (2019). A palimpsest of ornaments: the art of azulejo as a hybrid language. Renaissance Studies, p. 612. 108   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART 2.1.4. The Influence of Chinese Blue-and-White Porcelain and Delft PotteryonPortugueseAzulejos In the 17th century, blue-and-white porcelain from China’s Ming Dynasty was highly sought after in Europe. The popularity of Chinese porcelain led to the abandonment of polychrome ornaments in Europe and the spread of the blue-white palette (Mitchell, 2017). This influence determined not only the development of Dutch Delft ceramics but also the stylistic transformation of Portuguese azulejos (Figure 12). Delft workshops imitated Chinese porcelain and produced white The country produced cobalt blue tiles; some Chinese decorative elements, such as floral patterns and cloud and wave motifs, were brought to Portugal via the Netherlands. Thus, from the 17th century onward, the blue-and-white palette became dominant in Portuguese azulejos, and the Chinese aesthetic became an important component of European ceramic art (Figure 13). Figure 12. Dutch (Delft) Tile https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O89367/tile-unknown/ Figure 13. Example of a Blue-and-White Portuguese Azulejo AZULEJO ART IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION   109 Matos, M. A. P. de. (Ed.). (2000). Azulejos: Masterpieces of the National Tile Museum of Lisbon. Chandeigne / Museu Nacional do Azulejo. p. 92. 2.1.5.BaroqueandRococoPeriods(18thCentury) Azulejo became an integral part of Portuguese architecture in the 18th century. During the Baroque period, scenes from the Bible, historical battles, mythological stories, and depictions of daily life were detailed on the massive panels that adorned church and palace facades. During the Rococo period, more elegant ornamentation, sinuous forms, and intense decorative details came to the fore in compositions. Azulejos of this period evolved into an art form that combined both decorative aesthetics and narrative power, affecting the viewer visually and emotionally (Mitchell, 2017, Meco, 1990). 2.1.6.TheIndustrialRevolutionandModernistApproaches(19th-20th Centuries) In the 19th century, under the influence of the Industrial Revolution, the development of mechanized production techniques and the increased economics of production paved the way for the mass production of azulejo art. This enabled the azulejo to be used on a larger scale in architecture, for both functional and decorative purposes. In the early 20th century, the azulejo was reinterpreted under the influence of modernist art. Artists blended this traditional form with a contemporary narrative language, paving the way for individual expressions and abstract approaches. The early development of azulejo art was influenced by tin glaze and luster techniques, transmitted from the ceramic tradition of the Islamic world to Iberia, and the blue-and-white décor style inspired by China. These cultural and technical influences transformed Spain and Portugal into leading ceramic centers in Europe (Coentro, 2017). In the modern era, artists such as Antoni Gaudí reinterpreted the azulejo aesthetic and integrated it into contemporary architecture. Gaudí’s trencadís technique is defined as “creating new meaning through the reassembly of broken ceramic pieces” (Wikipedia, 2025). The artist’s dismantling and reconstructing of traditional azulejos has transformed the azulejo into an innovative language of expression within the artistic understanding of the modern era. 2.1.7.AzulejoArtToday Azulejo art is important both for preserving traditional techniques and for reinterpreting them within contemporary design approaches. Today, many 110   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART artists are bringing this tradition up to date by applying modern graphic patterns, typographic works, and abstract compositions to azulejo panels. With these approaches, artists consider the azulejo not merely as an architectural element but as an independent art object. As Teixeira states, “Hybrid aesthetics are not static; they develop as living traditions, connecting the past and the present” (Teixeira, 2019, p. 590). Here, the term hybrid aesthetic refers to the merging of motifs, colors, and techniques from different cultures to form a new unity, and to the azulejo, a dynamic art form that sustains intercultural dialogue, contributing to today’s creative productions. Helvacıkara emphasizes that azulejo art is not only an aesthetic decorative element but also a powerful tool for conveying social memory. (Helvacıkara, F.T., pp. 2335-2336) The religious themes, mythological stories, and historical events depicted on azulejo panels leave a deep mark on society’s visual memory. In this respect, azulejo plays an active role in not only fostering intercultural dialogue but also in the construction of local identity. He states that the adornment of churches, palaces, train stations, and even residential facades in Portugal with azulejo panels reinforces this art’s decisive role in establishing public and architectural identity, becoming an indispensable element of urban aesthetics, especially from the 19th century onwards (Helvacıkara, F.T., 2023). Today, azulejos continue to be a prominent feature in both restoration and contemporary design in Spain. Workshops in the Triana district of Seville use azulejos, produced using traditional techniques, in architectural restorations and modern decoration projects. Contemporary azulejo panels are found in public spaces such as Madrid Metro stations and Seville Santa Justa Train Station; in Barcelona, this tradition is blended with the post-Gaudí concept of mosaics and applied in public art projects. In Valencia, azulejos are used both in cafe and restaurant decorations and in public art applications that enhance urban aesthetics. 3. Shaping and Patterning Methods Used in Azulejo Art in the Context of Cultural Interaction The techniques used in azulejos bear the traces of cultural interactions ranging from Islamic and Andalusian ceramic traditions to Chinese porcelain and European majolica. Therefore, azulejo can be defined as the product not of a single culture, but rather of a collective memory formed by the merging of techniques and styles circulating in different geographies for centuries. The primary techniques used in azulejo production have developed under the influence AZULEJO ART IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION   111 of Islamic ceramic traditions. “Alicatado” (geometric mosaic) reached its peak in Granada and Seville in the 14th and 15th centuries; the “cuerda seca” technique allowed different colors to be separated on the same surface using oil contours. Arista and luster techniques, on the other hand, increased aesthetic diversity and became widespread in the 15th and 16th centuries (Coentro, 2017). The raw materials used in azulejo production are generally a mixture of highly plastic white clay, quartz, and feldspat. While this production process is essentially derived from traditional methods, workshops in Portugal and Spain developed their technical approaches. The colors used in azulejo art varied depending on the period in which it was produced. While colors such as blue, green, brown, and yellow were dominant in the 15th and 16th centuries, cobalt blue came to the fore in the 17th century. Coloring was generally done using a brush, and this method allowed for detailed shading of figurative compositions. Azulejos are generally fired at temperatures between 900°C and 1000°C. After the first firing, a glaze is applied, followed by a second firing. In some periods, a third firing, gilding, was also applied. 3.1.TinGlazeandMajolicaTechnique As can be understood from the definition of azulejos as “painted and tinglazed ceramic tiles” (Helvacıkara, F.T.,2023, p.2323), the tin glaze composition provided a defining basis for both Portuguese azulejo art and Italian majolica production. A glossy surface is achieved by using a white opaque glaze with tin oxide additives. To enhance the patterns, the tiles are colored with oxides such as blue (cobalt), green (copper), and brown (manganese) (Figure 14). Figure 14. Tin Glaze Technique. Ceiling Tile. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/187931 112   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART The circulation of surface decoration techniques used in azulejo art also bears traces of intercultural interaction in this context. When considered within this framework, the tin glaze technique (tin-opaque glaze) is a surface coating technique developed in the Islamic world and transmitted to Western Europe via Andalusia. Thanks to the joint production tradition of Muslim and Christian masters in the region, the knowledge of tin glaze was carried to the north of the Iberian Peninsula and from there it spread to Portugal and Italy. In Portugal, tin glaze became the basic technique of azulejo panels used on architectural surfaces; in Italy, ceramics produced with the same technique were known as majolica. In the 15th century, when porcelain and high-grade clays did not yet exist in Europe, an opaque white glaze layer added with tin oxide was applied in order to hide the color of low-grade red clay. The majolica technique, which came into use in Spain with the Mudejar influence, continued its development in terms of pattern diversity during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Brush masters who achieved a high level of mastery during this period were defined as “majolica artists”. Essentially an in-glaze decoration method, majolica distinguishes this technique from other in-glaze methods; It allows the glaze to serve as a base for decoration. Furthermore, one of the most distinctive differences from majolica is that it relies solely on brush-painted decoration (Sevim, Hakan Dönmezer, Hakan Martinez, Sevim & Çöl, 2017). Although both production methods are based on the same technical foundation, the application of tin glaze, they have developed with different formal orientations. In this context, the “tin glaze technique” is not only an element of Islamic ceramic heritage, but also a body of knowledge at the core of the technical transmission chain extending from Andalusia to Portugal and Italy. 3.2.LusterTechnique Luster is a special decorative technique that creates metallic sheen and iridescent effects on ceramic surfaces, historically developed through the interaction of technical knowledge and aesthetic understandings of different cultures. It is achieved by applying metal oxides such as silver, bismuth, and copper within, under, or on top of the glaze in a reducing or oxidizing atmosphere (Kılıç, 2024). This technique, which was brought to Europe from medieval Islamic geography, has been applied in various interpretations in Andalusian, Italian majolica, Iranian, and Ottoman ceramics, becoming an expression of intercultural richness both technically and visually. 119 CHAPTER VII RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART İsmet YÜKSEL1 1 (Prof. Dr.), Kütahya Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0002-1686-4749 1. Introduction In the 20th century, the plastic arts underwent a significant transformation with the emergence of new movements and ideas that questioned and reshaped traditional rules. In this process, the conceptual dimension of the artist came to the forefront, and the use of different materials, formal deformations, and experimental approaches paved the way for radical changes in the understanding of art. This transformation, brought about by experimental tendencies, enabled the development of art’s conceptual dimension, and ceramic art was also affected by this change. In ceramic art, as in other art disciplines, randomness has gained an important place in the artist’s creative process. The unpredictability inherent in the nature of ceramic material has created aesthetic and conceptual diversity for artists. This situation has led to a dynamic creative practice where the process guides the artist just as much as the artist intervenes in the process. This study first addresses the concepts of chance and randomness within a theoretical framework and then examines their place in art production processes. The function of randomness in art and its role in the artist’s creative practice is analyzed, with a particular focus on how it is operationalized in ceramic art. The study discusses how the variability inherent in the nature of ceramic material and the random formations that occur during the process guide the artist’s aesthetic decisions. Finally, the position of the randomness approach in contemporary ceramic art is evaluated, and its effects on the artist’s creative process are examined in this context. The word “rastlantı” (chance/contingency) expresses the unpredictability of a situation in the face of possibilities. According to the Turkish Language 120   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Institution (Türk Dil Kurumu), the word “rastlantı” is defined as a “meeting that occurs without relying on knowledge, desire, rules, or a specific reason” (Türk Dil Kurumu, n.d.). In the TDK social sciences dictionary, this word is defined as “a characteristic that is not inherent in events but is part of the influence of other events on a specific event and may or may not emerge” (Türk Dil Kurumu, n.d.). In a literature review, while there are similar definitions for the concepts of chance and randomness, it is seen that these concepts are handled in various contexts across different disciplines. In various fields, the concept of chance/randomness is shaped around certain common points and is used to describe similar situations. However, it can be said that each discipline approaches randomness from different angles according to its own methodological framework, and the conceptual content varies depending on the context. Randomness is a quality attributed to events and objects that lack a predictable order or specific purpose. According to Gregory Bateson, no system (mechanical or organic) can produce anything new without randomness. He defines this situation as, “In the stochastic processes of evolution or thought, newness can only arise from randomness” (Bateson, 1988, as cited in Diaz, 2011: 22-23). Randomness is considered not only a scientific and philosophical concept but also a social and cultural phenomenon. In this context, Serge Moscovici states that chance has different social representations. The most prominent of these representations is the association of chance with fate. Although an individual’s actions or what happens to them may appear to be shaped within uncontrolled chaos, they may unconsciously perceive it as part of a predetermined flow. This situation resembles a chain of events that gain meaning in retrospect and are difficult to notice in the flow of life. According to Noël (1989, as cited in Aydınlı, 2024: 3), this dynamic, which causes humans to question the boundaries between fate and chance, reveals the seemingly random nature of events that are actually repetitive and develop within a certain order. In essence, randomness can be handled within two different conceptual frameworks. The first is the randomness encountered in natural phenomena. Even if all factors are known, all these elements cannot be controlled. The second is a scientific and abstract understanding of randomness, where randomness is consciously produced through equations and transformations. The randomness observed in nature emerges because of concrete and complex systems. While this type of randomness is attempted to be understood within the framework of RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART   121 general laws, it is not possible to predict specific details in advance (Verbeeck, 2006: 14). Innovative ideas and transformations can only emerge and develop through unpredictable processes that are not tied to a specific order. In this context, randomness functions as a driving force in the creative processes of various disciplines such as art, science, and philosophy. Both spontaneously occurring events and consciously produced abstract randomness enable the development of new ways of thinking and aesthetic approaches. 2. Randomness In The Field Of Art In the 20th century, art entered a radical period of change with new movements and intellectual approaches that questioned and transformed its traditional rules. This transformation centered the intellectual dimension in the artist’s creative process and brought about radical innovations in forms of expression by incorporating different materials and experimental techniques into artistic practice. Artists who moved beyond traditional forms explored a wide range of material use, from industrial materials to improvisational elements, leading art to become not only a visual but also a conceptual field of inquiry. Randomness is a quality attributed to artworks produced as a result of an artistic act that was not precisely planned beforehand. This approach was not common before modern art. Today, since art is considered an intuitive and passionate activity, it is not seen as a difficulty for an artwork to be determined by a precise, pre-established process. Some artists argue that art should emerge not only from rational thought but also from a creative process guided by intuition and emotional processes (Sözen M., Tanyeli U., 2001: 199). In the field of art, the design process is a structured process that aims to achieve a coherent and meaningful result through conscious decisions. At first glance, the inclusion of elements such as randomness, chance, and experimentation in this process may seem illogical, as it could lead to a loss of control. However, randomness plays a crucial role in artistic practice by providing conceptual depth, creating what is difficult to achieve with traditional methods, and developing original forms of expression. In particular, elements that cannot be precisely copied by hand and unpredictable formal transformations enable randomness to be functionalized as a creative tool in art and design processes. Randomness is considered a principle that goes beyond traditional production methods, bringing new possibilities and increasing formal diversity to artistic practice. In this context, randomness can be evaluated not only as a loss of 122   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART control but also as a method that increases the diversity of artistic expression and provides originality. Throughout history and in different disciplines of art, randomness has been a powerful source of inspiration that has sparked human creativity. Pliny wrote that the Greek artist Protogenes took his inspiration from the accidental touch of a sponge. The 8th-century calligrapher Zhang Xu used his own hair as a brush to write while he was drunk. In his 1651 work, Treatise on Painting, Leonardo da Vinci advised artists to get inspiration from “stained walls” (Ugander and Epstein, 2024: 2). The use of random, that is, unintentionally created structures in the visual arts, probably dates back much further than the Italian Renaissance. The use of random elements in art extends from the “blotting” technique of artists such as Alexander Cozens and Claude Lorrain in the 18th century to produce landscape and cloud compositions, to the automatic painting techniques developed by the Dadaist and Surrealist movements at the beginning of the 20th century. In this context, Max Ernst’s Frottage (Brass Rubbing) and Décalcomanie techniques are among the examples where randomness is consciously used in art. Similarly, Duchamp’s concepts of “Objets Trouvés” (found objects) and “Ready-Mades” (ready-made works) demonstrate how randomness undergoes a transformation in the creative process (Kostner, Schubert, and Schönlieb, 2010: 467). One of the most well-known examples of modern art where the artist does not have complete control of the process is Jackson Pollock’s “Drip Paintings” series (also known as Jack the Dripper) (Figure 1). These works by Pollock exemplify a creative process where the artist’s conscious intervention and randomness are combined (Taylor, Micolich, and Jonas, 1999: 422). Pollock explains this situation as follows: “The source of my painting is the unconscious. I approach painting the same way I approach drawing. So the drawings I make without direct preparation are related to my painting, but they are not for it” (Harrison and Wood, 2011: 611). For Pollock, drawing is part of a creative process guided by random elements; it is shaped by the direct reflection of the unconscious on the canvas. RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART   123 Figure 1: Jackson Pollock, 1950. Oil and enamel paint on canvas, 269.5×530.8 cm (The Museum of Modern Art, n.d.). There is a long-standing tradition of using randomness as a direct creative, driving force in art, and this approach became particularly prominent in the first three decades of the 20th century. Experiencing the destructive effects of World War I, European artists began to see reason and rationalism as the culprits for the chaos society was plunged into (Malone, 2009: 85). Rationalism and reason, which had dominated European thought since the Age of Enlightenment, began to be seen by some artists as part of a corrupt order in the face of the destructive effects of war. For this reason, Surrealist and Dadaist artists consciously abandoned control and logic, aiming to use randomness and nonsense not only as a source of inspiration but also as an active guide in the creative process. In this context, Jean Hans Arp’s work Untitled, created between 1916 and 1917, is a significant example that pushes the boundaries of this method. Arp created this work by randomly tearing papers, letting them fall to the floor, and then gluing them where they landed (Figure 2). Figure 2: Jean Hans Arp (1916-1917) Untitled (Arp, 1916-1917). 124   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART According to sources on Jean Hans Arp’s understanding of randomness, the artist, finding it difficult to create the composition he desired, tore his papers into pieces and threw them on the floor. While examining the resulting arrangement, he realized that he could achieve with this method the composition that his conscious efforts could not. This approach is based on the artist avoiding conscious intervention in the creative process and using his subconscious as a source of inspiration. Thus, he allowed randomness to become a decisive element by pushing individual control to the background in the artistic production process (Diaz, 2011: 22-23). According to Arp, who aimed to glorify chance as a philosophical principle in artistic production by eliminating the artist’s will and direct intervention, the most successful artist is the one who is sensitive to external influences. Because “in modern art, randomness is not a coincidental element, but a gift from the muses” (Durham, 2002: 574-575). In addition to the views of Durham and Diaz, Robertson argues that Arp’s work includes certain interventions. The arrangement in Arp’s collage creates a feeling of a composition that is far too regular and conscious. All the pieces have similar orientations, many are aligned, and none overlap. Therefore, even though Arp tried to incorporate randomness into his artistic practice, it is believed that he consciously directed and controlled this randomness (Robertson, 2006: 32). This example shows that it is not always possible for an artist to completely let go of chance and that randomness is sometimes limited by aesthetic concerns. Discussions about how and to what extent randomness should be controlled in art became an important element that shaped aesthetic understandings in the second half of the 20th century. Over time, Ellsworth Kelly moved away from a results-oriented approach in his art and adopted an approach that centered the process. In 1951, while trying to capture the glitter of the Seine River in an abstract composition, he decided to investigate randomness at the encouragement of Jean Arp. In his work “Seine,” Kelly directly applied the principle of randomness, determining the location of the black and white squares by drawing lots (Ugander and Epstein, 2024: 3-4) (Figure 3). RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART   125 Figure 3: Ellsworth Kelly, Seine 1923-2015 (Philadelphia Museum of Art, n.d.). Ellsworth Kelly’s geometric forms transform everyday images into bold and colorful abstractions. Traveling to Paris in the late 1940s with the G.I. Bill, Kelly explored different ways of transferring the shapes and landscapes around him to the canvas. Inspired by windows, shadows, and buildings, he focused on the fundamental relationship between color and form. In France, he met avantgarde artists and interacted with contemporaries such as John Cage and Merce Cunningham. When he returned to New York in the 1950s, he developed bolder compositions where black, white, and color were prominent. Kelly aimed to capture the effect of the world on the eye and mind rather than representing it. The artist’s works continue to be a source of inspiration for artists and viewers (Philadelphia Museum of Art, n.d.). However, it is seen that he predefined the color distribution and his systematic approach. During this period, “random aesthetics” became widespread in art circles, and artists tried to reduce the influence of their individual preferences by sampling from defined systematic processes. After “Seine,” Kelly moved away from impressionistic elements in his art, producing collages and paintings based entirely on mechanical randomness, free from shadow, light play, and directly observable images (Ugander and Epstein, 2024: 3-4). The concepts discussed by Jorge Luis Borges in his 1941 story, The Library of Babel, coincide with randomness (Borges, 1999, as cited in Ugander and Epstein, 2024: 5). This library, created by Borges, offers an infinite collection containing all possible books. However, the vast majority of these books are meaningless and disordered. This analogy provides an important critical framework for what randomness means in art and how it affects the 126   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART creative process. As in Borges’s library, Kelly’s experiences also show that randomness should not be considered an absolute principle in art, but rather a tool for discovery that guides the artist’s creative process. In this context, randomness functions as a source of inspiration that moves the artist away from predictability (Ugander and Epstein, 2024: 3-4). Roxy Paine questions the creative element of the machine in the art production process by allowing his sculptures to be shaped by spatial conditions. The precision in the artist’s calculations is balanced with the random factors involved in the production process, creating sculptures and paintings that address the dilemma between industrial production and originality. Jackson Pollock, on the other hand, used the inherent randomness of the physical system as a creative element and produced his works by reacting to this effect. Gestural painting, despite having a certain intention, does not include an expectation of a predetermined form, thus creating a dynamic dialogue between the artist’s intention and the result of the process (Verbeeck, 2006: 8-9). At the beginning of the 20th century, as part of the Dadaism movement, artists actively used randomness and chance in their artistic production. Dada artists placed chance at the center of the creative process as a reaction against the traditional understanding of art and the concept of mastery. According to the web archive of the “Dada” exhibition held at the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C., the main motivation of Dada artists was to question the traditional perception of art and the artist and to show that art is based on arbitrary decision-making processes (National Gallery of Art, 2006). Another work produced with this conscious randomness approach is Marcel Duchamp’s “ready-made” objects. Duchamp worked with objects found in daily life and presented as works of art with minimal intervention. One of the most famous of these is his work “Fountain,” an upside-down urinal. According to the artist, because ready-made objects are already completed, they are beyond the artist’s control. The use of this uncertainty in art has allowed the artist to become independent of aesthetic taste and habits. In Duchamp’s words, “I had to choose an object that would not leave any impression on the artist and stay away as much as possible from the intervention of aesthetic pleasure or ideas” (Durham, 2002: 598-599). The use of randomness in artworks adds two important dimensions to the art production process. First, it moves the origin of art away from a completely planned and predetermined conceptual framework toward a structure that is more spontaneous, coincidental, and shaped by the nature of the process. This RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART   127 allows the artist to partially release control in the creative process and allows the material and the process to be shaped by their own dynamics. Second, the conscious use of randomness in art directs the viewer toward a more intellectual and experiential form of perception rather than technical mastery. In this context, the viewer is confronted with a work that is not based on traditional art rules, but rather a multi-meaning, open-ended, and sometimes seemingly inconsistent aesthetic experience. Randomness in art can be considered not only an aesthetic choice but also a conscious strategy of the artist. This strategy allows art to evolve in an unpredictable, improvisational, and open-to-change structure, while also enabling the viewer to question their traditional expectations about the artwork and rebuild their own world of perception. 3. Randomness In Ceramic Art To understand the concept of randomness in ceramic art, one must consider the experimental, coincidental, and intuitive movements that occur within its abstract framework. This unpredictability, arising from the nature of the materials and technical processes, has allowed for the development of aesthetic and conceptual diversity in ceramic art and has added a dynamic dimension to the artist’s creative process. In ceramic art, randomness has manifested through uncontrollable elements such as the firing process, form deformation, and glaze drips on the surface. During firing, variables like temperature distribution, oxidation, and reduction atmospheres within the kiln can create unexpected effects on ceramic surfaces. Form deformation, particularly unwanted warping and shrinkage resulting from body movement at high temperatures, has become an aesthetic language guided by the artist’s unconscious. In decorative applications, natural transitions, a sense of depth, and original textures on the surface occur due to the melting point, viscosity, and flow of the glaze. Glaze dripping is also a significant reflection of randomness in this context; it creates unpredictable color changes, textures, and effects on the ceramic surface, giving the work a unique and experimental narrative. All these processes require the artist to manage the delicate balance between control and chance while simultaneously allowing them to embrace randomness as a form of artistic expression. 128   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART Figure 4. Takuro Kuwata, Untitled (2015-2016) Installation, Hayward Gallery, London (McEwan, 2023). In the installation shown in Figure 4, when randomness is evaluated in the context of material limits and experimental form production, it represents a radical investigation into the nature of the material in contemporary ceramic practice. In the work, the dense textural layering on the surfaces, in addition to the amorphous and organic forms, emphasizes both the plastic qualities of the ceramic material and the unpredictable results that emerge from the firing process. The dense glaze layers and the resulting drips and irregular crusting observed on the surface reveal an aesthetic understanding shaped by the physical and chemical reactions of the ceramics. It is seen that the artist handles the material not only through form but also through the surface transformations created by the fluidity, melting point, and atmospheric changes of the glaze. This can be considered an approach that incorporates the dynamic relationship between conscious intervention and the spontaneous processes of the material itself into the artistic practice. In his article, “The Fascinating and Challenging Nature of Contemporary Ceramics,” McEwan (2023) examines how the exhibition Strange Clay reveals technical and conceptual transformations in ceramic art. The visual impact and inclusive approach of the exhibition make it accessible to a wide audience while also serving as an important reference point for art historians and researchers conducting academic studies on ceramic art. The innovative approaches developed by contemporary artists, pushing the boundaries of ceramic material, highlight the role of randomness in artistic production and reveal the capacity RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART   135 process to be evaluated as a self-evolving aesthetic component in addition to conscious control. The artist describes the random element in his works as follows: “For me, the creative process is a dynamic collaboration between the artist, the ceramic material, and fire. This collaboration involves understanding the nature of the ceramic material and revealing its inherent aesthetic potential; just like how natural processes shape the forms around us. Sand ripples formed by the movement of the wind, rock formations created by landslides, or cracks and patinas that develop over time on the wall of an old building all gain a unique beauty through the random intervention of nature. Fire, on the other hand, is the most unpredictable component of this creative process. I hope that it will be a supportive element in the process, but I also know that it will always transform the ceramic material in unpredictable ways” (Satake, n.d.). Figure 11: Jun Kaneko, Untitled. (Ceramic Brussels, 2025). The work in Figure 11 can be considered an important example where the drips in the decoration form an aesthetic process based on the principle of randomness. Although the cobalt blue dots applied to the surface are placed in a certain order, the dripping of the cobalt downwards reveals the dynamic interaction between conscious design and uncontrollable physical processes on the ceramic surface. Variables such as the viscosity of the glaze, surface tension, atmospheric conditions, and firing temperature were decisive in the formation of the decorative drips. In this process, the artist’s initial composition was transformed as the glaze melted and changed direction during firing, gaining 136   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART its final form within an unpredictable aesthetic structure. This can be evaluated as an experimental approach that shows how randomness in ceramic art is integrated with the nature of the material and the firing processes. The work offers a conceptual framework that reflects the coexistence of geometric order and fluid deformation. The artist’s initial intervention and the spontaneous effects of the firing process stand out as two fundamental elements that determine the final form of the work. In this context, randomness should be considered not only a technical result but also an aesthetic component related to the production processes of ceramic art (Brown, 2016). Figure 12: From Monika Patuszynska’s Genealogy / on adjusting series. 2019. (Patuszynska, n.d.) The work in Figure 12 represents an experimental approach that investigates the physical limits of the material and random transformations on the form. Shaping the clay at different wall thicknesses leads to the material deforming under its own weight during the drying and firing process, pointing to an unpredictable form creation process. The balance between the artist’s conscious intervention and the randomness inherent in the nature of the ceramic material forms the conceptual basis of the work. The asymmetry, collapses, twists, and wrinkles in the form go beyond a controlled shaping process, creating an organic structure that shows how the ceramic material reacts to time and physical conditions. This emphasizes the tension between the material’s resistance and fragility while also showing that the artist adds a conscious element of randomness to the production process. The layered textures, separations, and irregular lines on the surface make the deformation processes inherent in ceramics visible, forming the aesthetic identity of the work. The color transitions, the tension created by surfaces of different thicknesses, and the volumetric imbalance created by the collapse of the material during firing point to an approach that rethinks the RANDOMNESS IN CERAMIC ART   137 traditional forms of ceramics. This work represents a contemporary ceramic practice that treats the random transformation of form as an artistic process and adopts the natural variability of the material as a conceptual tool. Monika Patuszynska has an approach that consciously incorporates elements that are seen as problems in the traditional production processes of porcelain into her artistic practice. She explores the technical difficulties that most ceramic artists avoid, embracing them as a creative element. Her experiences in porcelain factories led her to realize that the mold marks and edge marks that appear during the casting process are integrated with the natural tendencies of the material. Accordingly, the artist breaks and reassembles the molds to create new forms, consciously emphasizing the broken textures and random marks on the surface. She treats the process like a jigsaw puzzle where intricate and mismatched pieces are brought together. The resulting forms are shaped by the material’s reactions during the process, while the ability of porcelain to exist with contrasting thicknesses and textures is based on the artist’s knowledge and mastery of the material (Patuszynska, n.d.). The direct relationship the artist establishes with the material transforms the production process of the work from a mere technical process into an experimental investigation that turns the transformations of ceramics into an aesthetic narrative. 4. Conclusion The concept of randomness is addressed from various perspectives in different disciplines, but it is fundamentally based on the idea of unpredictability and the absence of a specific order. In the literature, chance is sometimes interpreted as a completely coincidental phenomenon and sometimes as part of a predetermined flow within a network of unknown connections. As Bateson emphasized, innovation is not possible without randomness; therefore, it is seen as a creative and dynamic element in both nature and scientific processes. Randomness, addressed by Moscovici in the context of social representations, causes humans to question the boundaries between fate and chance, while within a scientific framework, randomness stands out as a concept that is consciously produced and given meaning through equations. Although the randomness observed in nature is attempted to be explained within the framework of general laws, it is not possible to precisely predict specific events. In art, randomness stands out as an approach that accepts the effect of uncontrollable elements in the creative process and evaluates this uncertainty as an aesthetic tool. The role of chance in artistic practice is considered not only a production technique but 138   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART also a conceptual inquiry into how the artist directs the interaction between material, process, and unpredictability. Ceramic art is one of the fields where random changes resulting from the physical and chemical properties of the material are most visibly observed. Atmospheric changes during the firing process, deformations on the surface, and glaze drips are elements that the artist cannot control but that directly contribute to the aesthetic quality of the work. As Lauson emphasizes, for artists, this unpredictability is not a challenge but an integral part of the creative process. In the specific context of ceramic art, randomness is evaluated as a reflection of the dialogue the artist establishes with the material and the spontaneous dynamics of the process itself. 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The art of randomness: Sampling and chance in the age of algorithmic reproduction. Harvard Data Science Review, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.1162/99608f92.f5dcab1a Verbeeck, K. (2006). Randomness as a generative principle in art and architecture [Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology]. MIT Libraries. Woodfired (n.d.). Untitled. Retrieved February 19, 2025, from https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5164bf24e4b046996180 afe8/1674852029032-7DLCIOYRZ56B8DWO6E4D/312798438_1022465780 9206565_7569447998856451132_n.jpg?format=1000w 141 CHAPTER VIII PABLO PICASSO’S CERAMIC FORMS Serkan TOK (Asst. Prof. Dr.), Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, [email protected], ORCID 0000-0002-7241-1875. 1. Introduction Pablo Picasso, as one of the most influential and innovative figures of 20th-century art, is known not only for his pioneering works in painting and sculpture but also for having brought about a significant transformation in ceramic art. Picasso’s acquaintance with ceramics dates back particularly to the post-Second World War period, specifically to 1946. During this time, the artist focused not so much on the creation of ceramic forms themselves but rather on the process of working on and decorating existing forms (Witek, 2024). At the Madoura workshop, he reinterpreted everyday objects such as plates, pitchers, cups, and vases, produced by craftsmen, through his own artistic vision; by adding portraits, figurative motifs, and natural elements, he introduced a new aesthetic to ceramic art. In this production process, Picasso creatively utilized the interaction between painting and form by revealing the hidden figures within traditional ceramic forms (Aslan, 2013). Thus, painting ceased to be merely a decorative element added onto ceramics and was transformed into an original mode of expression derived from the ceramic itself. In this context, Pablo Picasso’s approach to ceramic art is to examine the interaction between painting and ceramics, as well as the formal contributions he made in this field. In particular, the artist’s understanding of three-dimensional ceramic form, his process of shaping figurative images, and the impact of this process on modern ceramic art will be explained in detail. Furthermore, it is aimed to reveal how the aesthetic understanding he established in painting and sculpture was reflected in his ceramic productions and its significance in terms of contemporary ceramic aesthetics (Wertenbaker, 1967). 142   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART The study covers Picasso’s ceramic works carried out after 1946 at the Madoura workshop. In this context, examinations have been made of the geometric forms, linear structures, and contour drawings used in the artist’s works. At the same time, the process of transforming figurative images designed on twodimensional surfaces into three-dimensional ceramic forms has been addressed from an iconographic perspective. Qualitative methods have been used in the research; academic sources, exhibition catalogues, and visual documents have been comprehensively reviewed. The geometric and linear elements in the works have been analyzed in detail, and the meanings carried by the figures and motifs have been researched within an iconographic framework (Ramié, 1985). In addition, formal and narrative parallels between Picasso’s ceramic and painting works have been comparatively revealed. The findings show that the geometric shapes and linear forms Picasso used in his ceramic works are in a clear formal relationship with his Cubist painting style. The artist’s way of simultaneously constructing three-dimensional expression on two-dimensional surfaces was successfully applied in ceramics as well. These figurative images were not merely surface decorations but were evaluated as original artistic forms that enhanced the expressive power of ceramics (Lynch, 2012). Indeed, Pablo Picasso’s ceramic productions hold a unique and innovative position in the history of modern art. The formal language he developed in painting and sculpture was creatively transferred into ceramics; thus, ceramics were transformed from being merely functional objects into an art form with high expressive capacity. This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of Picasso’s formal language and aesthetic contributions in ceramic art, thereby shedding light on his artistic legacy (Soyer, 2019). 1.2.Method This research addresses Pablo Picasso’s ceramic works together with their contributions to ceramic art, while also considering their potential to serve as a guiding resource for future ceramic artists. During the study process, a literature review was conducted to gather information about the artist’s works in the field of ceramics, and academic sources, exhibition catalogues, and written documents in this area were examined. Based on the information obtained from the literature review, the general characteristics of Picasso’s ceramic productions, their place in his artistic approach, and the innovations he brought to ceramic art were evaluated. In addition, the relationships between the artist’s ceramic works and his works in other disciplines (painting and sculpture) were PABLO PICASSO’S CERAMIC FORMS   143 addressed through literature-based comparisons. Rather than conducting any direct work analysis or descriptive study, the research aims to compile existing sources in order to reveal Picasso’s contributions to ceramic art and to provide an inspiring framework for artists in the future. 1.3.SimilarStudiesintheField Picasso’s ceramic works influenced many artists and inspired his contemporaries. Art Deco artists such as Rene Buthaud and Jean Mayodon, inspired by Greek, Persian, and Eastern ceramics, transferred primitive and classical elements onto their own ceramic vessels. Picasso’s approach of transforming two-dimensional designs into three-dimensional forms through the use of geometric and linear forms provided a new perspective for later artists. In such works, the impact of figurative images on ceramic form and the potential of these images to add depth are frequently examined. 2. The Life of Pablo Picasso Pablo Picasso is regarded as one of the most important and influential artists of the first half of the 20th century. In the art world, his name is most often associated with pioneering Cubism together with Georges Braque. However, Picasso also created collage art and made significant contributions to the Symbolist and Surrealist movements. Although he considered himself primarily a painter, his sculptures were also highly impressive, and he deeply engaged in other art forms such as printmaking and ceramics. Şemsettin Ziya Dağlı, in his article “Forms of Work, Line and Drawing Understanding in Picasso’s Life”, states the following about Picasso: Picasso was born in Malaga, Spain, and encountered art at an early age. His father, a painting teacher, laid the foundation for his passion for art. His mother was of Italian origin, and his family’s interest in art played a role in developing Picasso’s talents. The painting lessons he received at a young age and his early drawings revealed his gift for observation and color use. He opened his first studio and began to attract attention in the art world through exhibitions held in Madrid. He studied at the San Fernando Academy, where he had the opportunity to meet various artists. During an illness that forced him to spend time in a small village, the works he produced won him awards. He later went to Paris, where he was influenced by important artists of the period and produced works focusing particularly on the lives of the poor. Over 144   INTERDISIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN CERAMIC ART time, the artist began signing his works simply with his surname, “Picasso.” By working on traditional themes, he established his artistic identity, and the social and cultural influences of the period were reflected in his works. Thus, he became one of the most influential artists of his time (Dağlı, 2016). In 1946, Picasso visited the annual ceramic exhibition in Vallauris, where he met Suzanne and Georges Ramie. The Ramie family were the owners of the Madoura ceramic workshop in Vallauris. Realizing his interest in ceramics, Picasso began working at the workshop to explore this new art form in depth. Picasso was so fascinated by ceramic art that he followed this passion with determination. After moving to Vallauris in 1948, he lived in this small and picturesque French town between 1948 and 1955 (Barr & Ed., 1939). He purchased Les Fournas, a former perfumery, and converted it into a studio. Vallauris was famous for pottery, and during his time there, Picasso experienced an extraordinarily productive period. In this period, he created numerous ceramics, sculptures, linocuts (printmaking art using the carving technique), and paintings, including his masterpiece War and Peace—a diptych (an artwork consisting of two panels placed side by side, usually designed to convey a unified narrative or theme)—installed in 1959 in the chapel of Vallauris Castle. In his art, he particularly turned toward different artistic materials such as ceramics and linoleum (floor covering material), and his interest in the possibilities offered by these materials deeply affected his aesthetic understanding and mode of production over time. John Finlay, in his book Picasso’s World, explains Picasso as follows: In his early period, Picasso mastered both realist and modernist artistic approaches he encountered in Spain and Paris. After settling in Paris, his art underwent a major transformation under the influence of movements such as Spanish Symbolism and French Impressionism. During this process, he experienced the creative phases known as the Blue and Rose Periods, gradually strengthening his power of visual expression. His vivid imagination led him to pursue traces of primitive art; this search culminated in his groundbreaking and innovative work Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, regarded as a turning point in modern art history (Finlay, 2011). At the Madoura Ceramic Studio, working with Suzanne and Georges Ramie, Picasso produced thousands of ceramic works. Collaborating with skilled ceramicists, he created plates, bowls, vases, pitchers, and other earthenware objects. He decorated these works with enamels and metal oxides. Picasso was particularly fascinated by the unpredictability offered by metal oxides, since when working with these materials, it was impossible to fully anticipate how