Financing of Qawmi Madrasahs in Bangladesh: Sources, Practices, and Challenges

i Financing of Qawmi Madrasahs in Bangladesh: Sources, Practices, and Challenge Author Name: Mohammed Abdul Khalek ii Financing of Qawmi Madrasahs in Bangladesh: Sources, Practices, and Challenges Y-5; T-2 Course Code: EDN-5228 Dissertation By Mohammed Abdul Khalek ID No. ASH2319MEd109M Session: 202223 Master of Education Department of Education Supervised By Syad Md. Siam Assistant Professor Department of Education Noakhali Science and Technology University Noakhali, Bangladesh Date of Submission: 21st September 2025 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All praise and thanks are due to Almighty Allah, whose mercy, strength, and patience carried me through every stage of this research and made its completion possible. I am profoundly grateful to my supervisor, Syad Md. Siam, Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Noakhali Science and Technology University, for his steady guidance, incisive feedback, and constant encouragement. His thoughtful critiques and patient mentorship shaped both my thinking and the quality of this work. My sincere appreciation goes to the faculty of the Department of Education, NSTU, whose teaching, advice, and constructive suggestions enriched my academic journey and helped refine this study. I also wish to express deep thanks to the Qawmi madrasah teachers, administrators, and donors who welcomed me into their institutions and generously shared their time, experience, and insights; this research would not exist without their openness and cooperation. Finally, I am forever indebted to my parents and family for their unwavering love, spiritual support, and encouragement. Their prayers and confidence sustained me through difficult moments and remain my greatest source of strength and inspiration. ………………………………………. Mohammed Abdul Khalek ID No.: ASH2319MEd109M 21st September 2025 iv ABSTRACT This study investigates how Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh sustain themselves financially, focusing on primary revenue streams, management practices, and risks to long-term viability. Employing a mixed-methods design structured financial surveys, document analysis, and indepth interviews with administrators, teachers, donors, and community stakeholders the research traces how zakat, sadaqah, local chanda, waqf, and diaspora contributions underpin daily operations. Findings show a heavy dependence on faith-based and episodic giving, weak mobilisation of waqf and internal revenue, and pronounced seasonal volatility that produces cash-flow gaps. These shortfalls regularly interrupt teacher salaries, routine maintenance, and investments in teaching and learning. Informal governance, inconsistent bookkeeping, and donor preferences for high-visibility capital projects further exacerbate fragility and widen divides between well-connected urban madrasahs and resource-poor rural ones. Based on these insights, the study proposes practical, context-sensitive measures to shore up financial resilience while safeguarding institutional autonomy: professionalizing waqf administration, creating pooled zakat mechanisms and community reserve funds, building basic accounting capacity, and piloting modest recurrent income-generating activities under transparent governance safeguards. Targeted at madrasah leaders, policymakers, and development partners, the recommendations aim to stabilize funding flows without undermining local values. By mapping financial flows and organizational practices, the thesis offers empirically grounded pathways toward fairer, more sustainable faith-based education. Keywords: Qawmi Madrasahs, Zakat, Waqf, Financial Sustainability v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Full Form ADB Asian Development Bank BB Bangladesh Bank BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics GDP Gross Domestic Product ICT Information and Communication Technology MoE Ministry of Education MoRA Ministry of Religious Affairs NGO Non-Governmental Organization NSTU Noakhali Science and Technology University SDG Sustainable Development Goal UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund USD United States Dollar WAQF Islamic Endowment (permanent charitable asset) Zakat Obligatory Islamic almsgiving Sadaqah Voluntary charity in Islam Fitra Mandatory charity at the end of Ramadan Lillah Charity “for the sake of Allah” Qawmi Community-based, privately run Islamic madrasa system vi Abbreviation Full Form Aliya Government-regulated madrasa system Dawra-e-Hadith Highest Qawmi Madrasa degree, equivalent to master’s in Islamic studies vii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 ............................................................................................................................................................... 33 FIGURE 2 ............................................................................................................................................................... 70 FIGURE 3 ............................................................................................................................................................... 71 FIGURE 4 ............................................................................................................................................................... 73 FIGURE 5 ............................................................................................................................................................... 76 FIGURE 6 ............................................................................................................................................................... 78 FIGURE 7: .............................................................................................................................................................. 79 FIGURE 8 ............................................................................................................................................................. 115 FIGURE 9 ............................................................................................................................................................. 115 FIGURE 10 ........................................................................................................................................................... 116 FIGURE 11 ........................................................................................................................................................... 117 FIGURE 12 ........................................................................................................................................................... 118 FIGURE 13 ........................................................................................................................................................... 118 viii LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 ................................................................................................................................................................ 43 TABLE 2 ................................................................................................................................................................ 48 TABLE 3 ................................................................................................................................................................ 52 TABLE 4 ................................................................................................................................................................ 57 TABLE 5 ................................................................................................................................................................ 74 TABLE 6 ................................................................................................................................................................ 75 TABLE 7 ................................................................................................................................................................ 77 ix Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER I ............................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 6 1.3.1 General objective ...................................................................................................... 7 1.3.2 Specific objectives .................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Scope of Study ................................................................................................................. 7 1.4.1 Geographic scope ...................................................................................................... 7 1.4.2 Temporal scope ......................................................................................................... 8 1.4.3 Sources of financing ................................................................................................. 8 1.4.4 Financial management practices ............................................................................... 8 1.4.5 Challenges to financial sustainability ....................................................................... 9 1.5 Limitations of the Study................................................................................................... 9 1.5.1 Access to reliable financial data ................................................................................ 9 1.5.2 Sample size and representativeness ........................................................................ 10 1.5.3 Reliance on self-reported information .................................................................... 10 1.5.4 Financial and time constraints on fieldwork ........................................................... 10 1.5.5 Narrow focus on financial dimensions ................................................................... 11 1.5.6 External political and economic influences ............................................................ 11 1.6 Rationale of the Study .................................................................................................... 12 1.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER II ............................................................................................................................ 15 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 15 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 15 2 sector leaders’ statements suggest that the Qawmi sector includes thousands of madrasahs with millions of students at different levels, though the exact distribution between primary, secondary and higher levels remain contested (New Age, 2021; Momen, 2025). The lack of comprehensive, centralized data complicates attempts to measure the sector’s economic footprint and to design proportionate policy responses. Financing is central to what keeps Qawmi madrasahs functioning and shapes their institutional choices. The primary revenue streams for most Qawmi institutions are Islamic philanthropic flows like zakat, sadaqah, fitra, lillah, together with waqf (endowment) income, local community chanda (collections), and donations from expatriate Bangladeshis (Rahman, 2024; Roy et al., 2020). Field studies of zakat and charitable finance in Bangladesh indicate that institutionalized zakat collectors and private zakat organisations have become more prominent in recent years, and that Ramadan-period and festival giving remain critically important for faith-based institutions’ cash flows (Rahman, 2024; New Age, 2021). While philanthropic finance preserves institutional autonomy from state budgets, it also generates volatility: donations tend to concentrate around specific times and events, which complicates predictable budgeting and long-term planning. Institutional governance and financial management practices in the Qawmi sector remain largely informal. Many madrasahs are administered by local councils, shura (consultative bodies), or trustees; formal bookkeeping, regular external audits, and professionalised financial management are comparatively rare, especially among smaller rural institutions (Momen, 2025). This informality helps preserve local control and religious independence but raises questions about transparency, donor accountability, and the capacity to plan multi-year investments such as teacher development, libraries, or ICT integration. 3 There is also pronounced heterogeneity across the sector. Larger, historically established urban madrasahs often with strong alumni networks and international connections attract more diversified funding and can support broader student services and infrastructure. Smaller and newer rural madrasahs depend heavily on local giving and in-kind support, making them more vulnerable to shortfalls and less able to offer stable teacher salaries or ancillary services (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Bano, 2014). These intersectional differences generate uneven educational environments and raise distributional concerns within the Qawmi system itself. Policy developments have begun to alter the sector’s public standing and future options. The 2018 parliamentary recognition of the Dawra-e-Hadith degree as equivalent to a postgraduate credential in Arabic and Islamic Studies created new formal pathways for Qawmi graduates and stimulated public debate about integration, legitimacy, and the limits of state engagement (Dhaka Tribune, 2018). Scholars argue that recognition increases opportunities for graduates but does not automatically resolve deeper issues of curriculum relevance, skills mismatch, or financial sustainability; state recognition without structured support for institutional upgrading risks creating expectations that are not matched by resources (Roy et al., 2020). Taking together, these features make the financing of Qawmi madrasahs a high-priority research topic. Understanding which revenue channels dominate, how funds are collected and allocated, how seasonal and diaspora flows interact with local contributions, and how informal governance shapes financial decisions are essential for assessing institutional resilience and for designing feasible policy or donor interventions that respect autonomy while improving accountability and educational quality. This study therefore examines the sources, management practices, and sustainability challenges of Qawmi madrasah financing in Bangladesh, with the aim of producing evidence-based insights that are useful to policymakers, religious leaders, and development stakeholders (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Momen, 2025; Rahman, 2024). 4 1.2 Statement of the Problem The Qawmi madrasah system in Bangladesh constitutes a large, historically rooted, and rapidly evolving stream of faith-based education that performs both pedagogical and welfare functions for millions of children. Despite its size and social significance, the sector’s financial architecture, the volumes, sources, seasonality, internal management, and effects of funding remain poorly mapped and insufficiently analysed. Existing estimates of institutional scale and enrolment vary widely across sources, producing uncertainty about the magnitude of financial needs and complicating any attempt to design proportionate policy or programmatic responses (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Momen, 2025). Because we lack consistent data on the sector how many madrasahs there are, how many students they have, and what budgets look like any broad estimate of income or spending needs is essentially a guess (Roy, 2020). A second, interlinked problem concerns the composition and temporality of revenue. Qawmi madrasahs depend overwhelmingly on religious philanthropy like zakat, sadaqah, fitra, lillah, local chanda, waqf income, and diaspora remittanceswhich produces high donor dependence and pronounced seasonality. Empirical and field reports show that a very large share of annual income is concentrated around Ramadan and major religious festivals, producing “feast-orfamine” cash flows that hinder predictable budgeting and multi-year planning (Roy, 2020; Sikder, 2023). The seasonality and informality of these revenue streams limit madrasahs’ ability to commit to recurrent expenditures (for example, consistent teacher salaries, ongoing pedagogical resources, or maintenance), and they encourage short-term, visible investments that appeal to donors rather than sustained investments in educational quality (Barkat, 2018; The Business Standard, 2021). A third problem is institutional financial practice and governance. Most Qawmi madrasahs organise finance and administration through local managing councils (Majlis-ash-Shura) and informal accounting methods. Standardized budgeting, professional bookkeeping, external 5 audits, or formal transparency mechanisms are rare. Where donors prefer visible capital projects like new buildings, mosque renovations, or named infrastructure, managers frequently channel resources into those projects while routine, quality-enhancing inputs (teacher training, library development, ICT, learning materials) remain underfunded (Momen, 2025; Sikder, 2023). These allocation patterns raise questions of fiduciary risk, inefficient resource use, and limited institutional capacity to translate philanthropic inflows into improved learning outcomes. A fourth problem is uneven resource distribution across the sector. Well-networked, historically prestigious, or urban Qawmi madrasahs attract larger and more diversified donation streams (including diaspora and discreet foreign support), while many rural and small institutions subsist on modest local contributions and in-kind gifts. This heterogeneity produces stark disparities in infrastructure, teacher remuneration, and student services, thereby reproducing geographic and social inequities within the Qawmi system itself (Sikder, 2023; Barkat, 2018). Consequently, sector-level indicators (where reported) mask wide intersectional variance: some institutions can afford modernization projects, while many others cannot meet basic operating costs. A fifth, policy-relevant problem concerns the gap between recognition and financing. The 2018 government recognition of the Dawra-e-Hadith degree provided formal legitimacy to a key Qawmi credential and opened potential routes for graduate mobility; however, this policy shift was not accompanied by structured, sustained fiscal instruments to support institutional upgrading or recurrent costs. State involvement has remained episodic one-off Ramadan grants and targeted relief during the COVID-19 crisis rather than institutionalized budgetary inclusion or conditional financing tied to quality improvements (Dhaka Tribune, 2018; United News of Bangladesh, 2020; The Business Post, 2022). This policy–finance mismatch raises an urgent practical and normative question: how can government or third-party financing instruments be 6 designed to strengthen educational inputs and accountability without undermining the autonomy and religious character that Qawmi leaders and communities prize (Hossain, 2019)? Finally, and crucially for research and policy, there is a methodological and evidence gap. The literature contains rich qualitative descriptions of madrasah ethos, curriculum, and politics but few systematic, micro-level studies that “follow the money” across a representative set of institutions. Important empirical questions remain unanswered: What proportions of institutional income derive from local households, diaspora remittances, institutional philanthropists, waqf revenues, or foreign donors? What is the intra-annual profile of inflows and how do madrasahs manage cash shortfalls? How do funding patterns affect teacher retention, pedagogical investment, and graduate outcomes? Which governance arrangements (e.g., waqf endowments, pooled federations, professionalised accounts) are feasible and acceptable to stakeholders while improving sustainability and accountability (Roy, 2020; Momen, 2025)? In sum, the problem addressed in this study is the lack of a robust, evidence-based understanding of Qawmi madrasah financing—its scale, sources, management practices, seasonality, distributional patterns, and effects on educational inputs and outcomes. This multifaceted gap undermines the capacity of policymakers, donors, and madrasa leadership to design financing strategies that both improve educational quality and respect institutional autonomy. 1.3 Research Objectives The main aim of this study is to critically examine how Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh are financed, with particular attention to their income sources, financial-management practices, and the obstacles they face in achieving long-term sustainability. The research intends to expand the limited literature on financing of faith-based education in Bangladesh and to provide practical insights that could guide institutional reforms and policy measures. 7 1.3.1 General objective To investigate how Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh generate, manage, and deploy their financial resources who pays for them, how those funds are budgeted and spent, and which factors undermine their long-term financial stability. 1.3.2 Specific objectives 1. To identify and assess the main sources of income for Qawmi madrasahs, including community giving (zakat and sadaqah), waqf endowments, and international donations, and to evaluate the relative weight and reliability of each source. 2. To examine internal financial practices and budgetary arrangements, with particular attention to how funds are allocated across teacher salaries, infrastructure and maintenance, learning materials, and student welfare. 3. To investigate the primary obstacles to financial sustainability such as heavy dependence on voluntary and seasonal donations, limited transparency and formal oversight, and exposure to political or economic shocks—and how these factors shape institutional resilience. 1.4 Scope of Study This section defines the boundaries of the research and clarifies what the study will and will not cover. The focus is strictly on financial aspects of Qawmi madrasahs, their funding sources, internal financial management, allocation of resources, and challenges to sustainability rather than on curriculum, pedagogy, or theological matters. Making these boundaries explicit helps ensure that the findings and recommendations remain precise, relevant, and actionable. 1.4.1 Geographic scope This study is confined to Bangladesh, where Qawmi madrasahs form a prominent part of the religious education system. It will sample madrasahs from different regions both urban and rural to capture regional variation in financial practices. By comparing institutions across diverse local contexts (for example, differences in local economies, community wealth, and 8 proximity to major cities), the research aims to produce findings that reflect the full range of financial realities faced by Qawmi madrasahs nationwide. 1.4.2 Temporal scope The study covers the period from 2015 to 2025. Examining this recent ten-year span allows the research to trace trends in donations, economic and political developments, and evolving financial practices. Using data across this timeframe will help identify longer-term patterns, adaptations to external shocks, and more current challenges to financial sustainability. 1.4.3 Sources of financing A central focus of the research is identifying and evaluating the primary funding sources for Qawmi madrasahs. These include local community donations (zakat and sadaqah), waqf endowments, and international contributions such as remittances and donations from abroad. The study will classify these sources, assess their relative importance and regularity, examine fundraising mechanisms, and explore how predictable or volatile each source is. Special attention will be paid to waqf management as a potential stabilizing factor, and to the role that international support plays in overall funding strategies. 1.4.4 Financial management practices The research will examine how madrasahs plan for and allocate their funds. This includes budgeting procedures and how resources are distributed among teacher compensation, infrastructure and maintenance, educational materials, and student welfare (scholarships, food, healthcare, etc.). The study gives special attention to teacher salaries investigating whether pay is adequate, what share of total expenditure it consumes, and how payment practices affect staffing stability and morale. The chapter also looks at how madrasahs set financial priorities — which investments 9 are chosen (salaries, buildings, learning materials, student support) and how those choices affect day-to-day teaching quality as well as the institution’s longer-term resilience. 1.4.5 Challenges to financial sustainability The research investigates the main obstacles to stable financing, focusing on three closely linked problems: heavy reliance on unpredictable donations, weak transparency and formal oversight in financial affairs, and strong vulnerability to political or economic shocks. The study shows how these factors disrupt long-term planning and day-to-day operations, and it offers practical, context-sensitive strategies madrasahs can use to reduce risk and strengthen financial planning. 1.5 Limitations of the Study Finally, this study offers a grounded, pragmatic account of how Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh raise, manage, and sustain funds, but it recognizes clear limits. Working with informal institutions, constrained fieldwork resources, and the sensitive nature of financial records means the findings should be read as careful, evidence-based insights rather than a complete or definitive portrait of the entire sector. These boundaries guide the study’s scope and the cautious interpretation of its results. 1.5.1 Access to reliable financial data A central challenge is the uneven availability and quality of financial records. Many Qawmi madrasahs do not keep formal, standardized accounts; where records exist they are often partial, handwritten, or organized in idiosyncratic ways that make comparisons difficult. In some cases administrators are understandably cautious about sharing documents that reveal internal finances. For these reasons, the study depends heavily on a mix of documentary fragments, interviews, and researcher estimates. While triangulation across sources will help build a coherent picture, gaps and inconsistencies in the raw data mean that absolute figures for income and expenditure should be treated as indicative rather than exact. This limitation 10 reduces the precision of quantitative claims and requires careful qualification of any numerical estimates. 1.5.2 Sample size and representativeness There are thousands of Qawmi madrasahs across Bangladesh, varying widely in size, tradition, resources, and community ties. It is not feasible to study them all; therefore this research uses a purposive sample designed to capture different types of institutions (urban and rural, large and small, established and emerging). Despite those efforts, the sample cannot perfectly reflect every variation especially the many very small, remote madrasahs that operate under distinctive, these findings reflect highly These findings reflect locally specific financial arrangements; therefore, conclusions drawn from the sampled institutions are most applicable to madrasahs like those studied and may not extend to atypical or very remote schools. 1.5.3 Reliance on self-reported information Interviews with administrators, teachers, donors, and community members are a core source of insight but are also subjective. Respondents may misremember figures, present their institution in a more favorable light, or withhold sensitive details. Donors and managers might overstate or understate their financial contributions or challenges for reasons of reputation, pride, or caution. While qualitative interviews illuminate motives, practices, and constraints in ways that documents alone cannot, the subjective nature of this evidence means interpretations must account for possible bias. The study cross-checks interview accounts with available records and reports only patterns that are consistently corroborated, rather than relying on single testimonies. 1.5.4 Financial and time constraints on fieldwork Practical limits on funding and time shape the depth and breadth of data collection. Visiting widely dispersed madrasahs for extended casework is costly and time-consuming; therefore, 11 the research prioritizes a smaller number of detailed case studies supplemented by shorter interviews and secondary sources. This design allows us to dig deeply into select examples but necessarily narrows the study’s geographic reach and time span compared with what a larger budget and longer fieldwork would achieve. Seasonal phenomena for example, spikes in donations at certain religious moments might be overlooked if field visits don't align with those windows. Consequently, we present robust, contextualized findings from a limited set of cases and acknowledge that some regional or seasonal details may be absent. 1.5.5 Narrow focus on financial dimensions The study deliberately targets finance sources of funding, budget management, expenditure priorities, and long-term sustainability. As a result, it gives less attention to pedagogical issues, curriculum, student outcomes, and community relations. Financial realities shape these areas, but this work does not provide a comprehensive evaluation of educational quality or social effects; those interested in those questions should view this study’s findings as a complementary, finance-focused perspective. 1.5.6 External political and economic influences The funding environment for madrasahs is sensitive to wider political and economic shifts— changes in government policy, donor priorities, macroeconomic shocks, or local crises can quickly alter donation flows and operational capacity. Such external events are often unpredictable and may occur after data collection, meaning the study captures the sector as it stood during the research window rather than forecasting long-term outcomes. While the timeframe (2015–2025) was chosen to include recent trends and some notable disruptions, sudden developments outside the research period or after fieldwork may change the picture materially. Therefore, conclusions about sustainability should be read as contingent on prevailing political and economic conditions at the time of study. 18 financing models, innovations, and enduring research gaps. Each subsection provides multiple citations to corroborate major claims and then critically evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the available evidence. 2.2.1 Sector overview and data limitations Qawmi madrasahs are an autonomous strand of Islamic education in Bangladesh; they operate largely outside state financing and regulation and are institutionally distinct from the statesupported Alia stream (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Momen, 2025). Reliable, aggregated financial data for Qawmi institutions are scarce. National administrative sources such as BANBEIS report on registered Alia madrasahs and provide useful sectoral statistics, but they do not comprehensively enumerate Qawmi institutions or capture their revenues and expenditures (BANBEIS, 2022). Sectoral reviews and surveys therefore rely heavily on qualitative fieldwork, targeted case studies, and institutional reports (Roy, Huq, & Rob, 2020; Momen, 2025). Methodologically, this produces rich contextual insight but limits crossinstitutional generalizability and econometric analysis of funding patterns. Criticism: The most valuable contributions of the literature are descriptive and ethnographic: they describe the way Qawmi schools raise funds and manage them on the local levels (Bano, 2014; Roy et al., 2020). Their limitation is that they lack standardized, institution level, financial accounting; the majority of the work can give the description of money coming in but not the amount with a sense of confidence (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Rahman, 2024). 2.2.2 Primary funding sources and patterns Scholars identify four primary funding channels for Qawmi madrasahs: (a) community-based charitable giving (zakat, sadaqah), (b) waqf (endowment) assets, (c) diaspora remittances and international charity, and (d) limited internal income-generation or student contributions (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Roy et al., 2020; Rahman, 2024). 19 Community zakat and sadaqah. Field studies demonstrate that most operational revenues— food, boarding, small stipends, and local maintenance—come from community donations, particularly during Ramadan and other religious observances (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Rahman, 2024). The ritualized nature of these flows provides cultural legitimacy but also produces pronounced seasonality and unpredictability. Waqf and endowments. Historically, waqf financed Islamic learning; contemporary scholarship shows that waqf assets in Bangladesh are frequently under-utilized due to legal fragmentation, weak management, and administrative inertia (Chowdhury & Islam, 2020; Mohamad Rohana et al., 2024). Comparative evidence from Malaysia indicates that professionalized waqf institutions and cash‑waqf instruments can generate significant, more predictable revenues for education—but such models require strong governance capacity and legal clarity before replication (Mohamad Rohana et al., 2024). Diaspora philanthropy and international charities. Prominent madrasahs and capital projects commonly benefit from diaspora donations and foreign Islamic charities, which tend to finance buildings and capital investments rather than recurrent costs like teacher salaries (Roy et al., 2020; Momen, 2025). Consequently, infrastructure may improve while recurrent budget shortfalls persist. Income‑generating activities. Small-scale enterprises (agriculture, rentals, shops) and nominal student contributions appear in some institutions but are ancillary in most Qawmi madrasahs and rarely sufficient to stabilize recurrent budgets (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Roy et al., 2020). Analytic depth: Multiple sources corroborate the list of funding channels, but estimates of relative contributions vary, reflecting dataset limitations. Rahman’s (2024) recent institutional 20 zakat study provides updated field data on zakat channels and institutional collection practices, improving the sector’s empirical base (Rahman, 2024). 2.2.3 Financial management, governance, and accountability Governance arrangements are typically local and informal. Most Qawmi madrasahs rely on shura (consultative councils), trustees, or founder families to make financial decisions; formalized budgeting, professional accounting, and external audits are uncommon (Roy et al., 2020; Rahman, 2024). This localized governance promotes autonomy and trust among donors but reduces standardization and transparency. Several studies highlight that lack of standardized bookkeeping and auditing discourages institutional donors and complicates attempts to mobilize large, pooled funds or waqf professionally (Chowdhury & Islam, 2020; Roy et al., 2020). Critical inspection: Ethnographic studies (Bano, 2014; Roy et al., 2020) excel at revealing social norms, local power relations, and legitimacy mechanisms that underpin financial choices. However, policy prescriptions—such as calls for bookkeeping training or external audits are often presented without piloted models demonstrating how to implement such reforms without jeopardizing autonomy. Rahman (2024) provides operational detail on institutional zakat mechanisms that could inform pilot reforms. 2.2.4 Seasonality, cash-flow management and financial resilience Seasonality is a central theme: donations concentrate during Ramadan, Eid, and other charityproducing events, creating cyclical surpluses and lean periods (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Rahman, 2024). Literature documents coping strategies, short-term loans, prioritizing food and immediate welfare over maintenance, and ad-hoc appeals—but systematic cash‑flow smoothing mechanisms (e.g., reserve funds, endowment draw policies) are rare (Roy et al., 2020). 21 Critical appraisal: Researchers correctly identify seasonality as a risk to sustainability, but there is little experimental or comparative evidence on interventions (e.g., setting up madrasa reserve funds or formal waqf-run cash buffers). This gap suggests an opportunity for pilot interventions that link waqf professionalization with cash‑flow planning. 2.2.5 Impacts on teachers, pedagogy, and student welfare The literature links financial precarity to measurable institutional outcomes. Low or irregular teacher pay contributes to volunteer-based teaching, limited training, and turnover factors that academic studies associate with lower instructional quality and reduced capacity to introduce modern subjects (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Roy et al., 2020). Student welfare (food, lodging, sanitation) consumes a substantial share of Qawmi budgets in boarding institutions, sometimes crowding out spending on textbooks or teacher development (Bano, 2014; BANBEIS, 2022). Debates: Scholars differ on whether Qawmi pedagogic strengths intensive textual pedagogy and mentor-student relationships can compensate for limited exposure to modern curricula in terms of graduates’ employability. Some argue that strengthened financing could simultaneously support curriculum diversification; others caution that funding conditionality linked to curricular change may threaten religious autonomy (Bano, 2014; Roy et al., 2020). 2.2.6 Legal and institutional frameworks: waqf and zakat institutions Policy and legal frameworks shape financing opportunities. Waqf institutions legally hold potential as long-term revenue sources, but Bangladesh’s waqf governance and land management issues hamper this potential (Chowdhury & Islam, 2020). Rahman (2024) maps existing institutional zakat practices and notes an ongoing preference for informal zakat giving over formal institutional channels. International experience suggests that reforming waqf registries, improving property management, and encouraging cash‑waqf instruments could 22 mobilize resources if reforms address regulatory, transparency and capacity constraints (Mohamad Rohana et al., 2024; ISDB, 2023). Analytic critique: The literature provides plausible blueprints for waqf reform but underestimates political economy constraints conflicts over waqf land, vested interests among trustees, and legal backlogs that slow implementation. Successful waqf modernization requires not just technical fixes but stakeholder negotiation and trust-building. 2.2.7 Comparative financing models and innovations Comparative cases offer diverse options: State support with safeguards (Indonesia; Bangladesh Alia). Integrating religious schools into public financing systems (as in Indonesia or Bangladesh’s Alia stream) secures recurrent funding but often requires curricular alignment and regulatory oversight (UNESCO, 2024; Asadullah & Wahhaj, 2012). These models are instructive for discussions about selective public grants that respect Qawmi autonomy while addressing recurrent cost gaps. Professionalized waqf and Islamic social finance (Malaysia, IsDB). Malaysia’s waqf institutions and global Islamic-finance initiatives (e.g., ISDB/GPE SmartEd) illustrate mechanisms to scale resources for education (Mohamad Rohana et al., 2024; ISDB, 2023). Cash‑waqf, waqf-backed sukuk, and pooled zakat funds are promising mechanisms if accompanied by governance reforms. Digital fundraising and diaspora coordination. Recent trends (crowdfunding platforms, diaspora fund coordination) are under-studied but present practical opportunities for diversifying funding. Early practitioner reports suggest that digital channels can improve transparency and expand donor bases, but academic evaluation remains limited. 2.2.8 Scholarly debates and contradictions Key debates include: 23 Autonomy vs accountability. Whether external funding (state or donor) inevitably erodes Qawmi autonomy is contested. Some scholars argue that conditional funding is acceptable if it is limited to non-curricular needs (teacher pay, sanitation), while others emphasize the symbolic and practical risks of any state involvement (Roy et al., 2020; Momen, 2025). Waqf feasibility. Optimists see waqf modernization as a near-term strategy to create reserves and steady income (Mohamad Rohana et al., 2024). Skeptics point to legal inertia, trustee resistance, and political economy barriers that make waqf reform a long-term objective (Chowdhury & Islam, 2020). 2.2.9 Research gaps and implications for this thesis Despite improved recent studies (Roy et al., 2020; Rahman, 2024; Momen, 2025), important gaps persist: • Lack of representative, institution-level financial data (revenues, expenditures, cash flow seasonality). • Limited experimental or pilot evidence on interventions (waqf professionalization, pooled zakat schemes, reserve funds). • Understudied digital fundraising innovations and diaspora coordination mechanisms. • Political economy analyses of waqf reform and trustee incentives. This thesis addresses these gaps by collecting institution-level financial data, documenting governance practices, and evaluating feasible financing interventions with attention to autonomy, accountability, and political economy constraints. 2.2.10 Conclusion The reviewed literature offers a robust descriptive foundation: Qawmi financing rests on charitable giving, waqf potentials are underutilized, and governance weaknesses limit scalability. Comparative and innovation-oriented studies suggest practical instruments to 24 stabilize funding—waqf modernization, pooled zakat, modest state grants, and digital fundraising—but these instruments entail trade-offs. The empirical chapters that follow will test the feasibility and likely impacts of selected interventions in Bangladesh’s Qawmi context. 2.3 Research Gaps Although recent reviews of Qawmi madrasah financing (Roy, Huq, & Rob, 2020; Momen, 2025) have begun to explore this sector, significant questions remain unanswered. Existing studies largely emphasize the educational and socio-political roles of Qawmi institutions (Bano, 2014; Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016), giving relatively little attention to detailed financial operations and sustainability. The following subsections identify the main gaps in the literature; the present study is designed to address each of these gaps. 2.3.1 Lack of Comprehensive Financial Data and Quantitative Analysis A major gap is the scarcity of systematic, quantitative data on Qawmi madrasah finances. Most research to date has relied on qualitative interviews or small-scale case studies and lacks aggregated financial statistics. For example, Rahman (2024) documents institutional and informal zakat practices but does not provide sector-wide financial aggregates; government statistics similarly exclude the Qawmi sector from many official education surveys (Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics [BANBEIS], 2022). Consequently, detailed financial records such as standardized income and expenditure statements—are rarely available or comparable across institutions (Rahman, 2024; BANBEIS, 2022). This scarcity of data makes it difficult to assess the sector’s overall financial health or to compare costs of operations (e.g., teacher salaries, infrastructure, student services) against available budgets. This study addresses the gap in aggregated financial data by systematically collecting financial information from a representative sample of Qawmi madrasahs. Using structured financial surveys and review of institutional records, the research will quantify key revenue streams (e.g., 25 zakat, waqf endowments, expatriate remittances) and expenditure categories (e.g., personnel costs, facilities, learning materials). These empirical estimates will provide a statistical overview of Qawmi madrasah financing and enable more accurate assessments of sustainability; in doing so, the study transforms anecdotal observations into rigorous financial metrics (Rahman, 2024; BANBEIS, 2022). 2.3.2 Inadequate Exploration of Financial Management Practices There is limited empirical evidence on budgeting and financial management practices within Qawmi madrasahs. Studies that discuss administrative arrangements and informal funding note the prevalence of nonstandard bookkeeping and community-based management (Rahman, 2024; Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016), but they do not describe how administrators allocate scarce resources in practice. For instance, it remains unclear how decisions about teacher salaries, infrastructure investments, or student welfare are made in the absence of formal financial planning. Existing accounts suggest that fund allocation may be ad hoc; however, the decision-making processes and prioritization criteria behind these allocations remain undocumented. To fill this gap, the present study examines financial decision-making processes within Qawmi madrasahs. Through semi-structured interviews with administrators and analysis of budgets and internal records, the research will document allocation mechanisms and the explicit or implicit criteria that guide them. The study will evaluate whether any strategic budgeting exists or whether allocations primarily respond to immediate needs and donor preferences and will translate findings into practical recommendations for improved financial management (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Rahman, 2024). 2.3.3 Limited Exploration of External Factors Affecting Financial Sustainability The influence of external political, economic, and social factors on madrasah finances is underexplored. Reviews of faith-based education note important policy shifts—most notably 26 the government recognition of the Dawra-e-Hadith degree in 2018—that have institutional and possibly fiscal implications, but the fiscal consequences of such changes are rarely analyzed (Roy, Huq, & Rob, 2020; Dhaka Tribune, 2018). Similarly, the impact of macroeconomic fluctuations (e.g., inflation, remittance shocks) on local giving and zakat has not been systematically investigated (Roy et al., 2020; Rahman, 2024). As a result, the literature lacks insight into how tax rules, government support programs, or changing donor priorities might influence resource flows to Qawmi madrasahs. This study examines the role of external factors on madrasah funding by analyzing correlations between policy developments, macroeconomic indicators, and revenue patterns. Case studies of institutions before and after major policy or economic events will clarify how external shocks affect donations and budget stability and will inform strategies for mitigating financial risks (Roy et al., 2020; Dhaka Tribune, 2018). 2.3.4 Underrepresentation of Rural Madrasahs and Their Financial Challenges Much of the literature concentrates on larger, urban Qawmi madrasahs that benefit from diverse funding and strong networks (Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016; Bano, 2014). By contrast, many Qawmi institutions operate in rural, economically disadvantaged areas and face distinct constraints lower local incomes, limited access to formal finance, and fewer opportunities for international donations which reduce their fiscal resilience. National statistics also frequently exclude Qawmi institutions from routine datasets, obscuring rural patterns of need (BANBEIS, 2022). Hossain (2021) and other studies point to resource-related constraints that affect educational delivery in rural settings, but detailed analyses of rural madrasah finance are scarce. The present study includes a stratified sample of rural and urban madrasahs to compare revenue structures, expenditure priorities, and coping strategies. These comparisons will identify context-specific vulnerabilities and yield policy recommendations tailored to the needs of rural institutions (BANBEIS, 2022; Asadullah & Chaudhury, 2016). 27 2.3.5 Insufficient Development of Financial Sustainability Models While many studies document financial difficulties, there is a shortage of empirical work that tests concrete models for long-term sustainability. Existing literature tends to diagnose problems rather than propose and evaluate solutions, shifting the research agenda toward solution-oriented models (Chowdhury, 2011; Hasan, 2022). Waqf (endowment) funds are frequently identified as a potential stable revenue source, but administrative and governance barriers limit their effectiveness in practice (Hasan, 2022; research on cash waqf models). Similarly, proposals such as public–private partnerships or income-generating activities remain under-tested in the Qawmi setting. To address this gap, this study explores feasible sustainability strategies—structured waqf management, community endowments, social-enterprise initiatives, and potential partnerships with development organizations through comparative case analysis and stakeholder consultation. The aim is to identify models that are administratively feasible and acceptable to Qawmi communities (Hasan, 2022; PNR Journal, 2022). 2.3.6 Impact of Financial Instability on Educational Quality There is limited evidence linking financial instability directly to measurable educational outcomes in Qawmi madrasahs. Although authors note that low teacher remuneration and poor infrastructure undermine operations (Rahman, 2024; Hossain, 2021), few studies quantitatively connect budgetary constraints to student performance, attendance, or teacher retention. Without this linkage, it is difficult to prioritize financial interventions that would yield the greatest educational benefit. The present study will align institutional financial indicators with measures of student outcomes (attendance, examination performance) and teacher outcomes (turnover and absenteeism) to assess whether more stable financing correlates with better educational results. 34 2.5 Conclusion This literature review sets out a clear picture of how Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh are financed and the persistent vulnerabilities that shape their daily operations. A patchwork of funding local community donations, zakat and sadaqah, waqf endowments, and occasional international grants keeps these institutions running, but each source has important limits. Community giving is inherently unpredictable and closely tied to local economic fortunes. Zakat and sadaqah, though important, are delivered irregularly and often fail to cover steady operating costs. Waqf endowments hold promise for steady support, but legal, administrative, and management hurdles keep them underutilized. International funding, meanwhile, tends to be earmarked for short-term projects rather than the recurring expenses that keep madrasahs running. Taken together, these patterns leave many institutions financially fragile and illequipped to plan for the long term. Inside many Qawmi madrasahs, financial management is informal and largely reactive. Formal budgets are uncommon or rudimentary, and spending decisions usually follow the flow of cash rather than a strategic financial plan. The consequence is that essential needsteacher salaries, building upkeep, and student welfare frequently go underfunded or are met inconsistently. These funding gaps erode staff morale, increase turnover, hasten the deterioration of facilities, and produce uneven learning environments across different madrasahs. External shocks intensify these internal weaknesses. Sudden political changes, economic downturns, shifts in regulation, or volatile international aid flows can abruptly interrupt income streams and deepen uncertainty. The absence of routine oversight and transparent accounting makes it difficult for madrasahs to absorb shocks, demonstrate accountability, or attract more stable forms of support. To organise these observations, the chapter presents a conceptual model that connects funding sources, management practices, and sustainability risks. The model shows how these elements 35 interact and identifies three priority areas for intervention: diversify and stabilise revenue streams; professionalise financial management and bookkeeping; and strengthen transparency and accountability. Yet important gaps persist. There is a striking lack of comprehensive quantitative data on revenue volumes and cash-flow patterns; formal financial systems and recordkeeping remain little studied; and the ways policy, market forces, and donor behaviour shape madrasah financing are not yet well documented. These gaps set the research agenda for the empirical work that follows. In short, this chapter prepares the ground for the next stage: a hands-on investigation into how Qawmi madrasahs actually manage money, where their vulnerabilities are most acute, and which practical, context-sensitive measures can improve their financial health. The analysis to come will aim to turn the chapter’s insights and identified gaps into concrete, actionable recommendations for madrasah leaders, policymakers, and development partners. 36 CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter describes the research methods used to investigate the financial sustainability of Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh. It provides a clear, systematic account of the study’s design, the procedures for data collection and analysis, the sampling strategy, and the ethical safeguards observed. The main aim is to identify the madrasahs’ funding sources, examine how they manage resources, and uncover the barriers that prevent stable, predictable financing. Because these questions require both numerical evidence and rich contextual understanding, the study adopts a mixed-methods approach that combines quantitative measurement with in-depth qualitative inquiry. Quantitative data provides a picture of income and expenditure patterns, cash-flow regularity, and basic financial health indicators; qualitative data add depth, revealing how administrators, teachers, and community donors understand, negotiate, and respond to financial constraints. Together, these approaches allow the research to capture not only what is 37 happening in monetary terms, but also why those patterns persist and how local practices shape outcomes. The qualitative strand centres on in-depth, semi-structured interviews with those directly involved in madrasah finance and management: headmasters, treasurers or finance officers, senior teachers, and active community donors. These conversations probe decision-making processes, fundraising strategies, informal practices, and the day-to-day trade-offs that affect teaching, maintenance, and staff welfare. Field observations and document reviews complement interviews, helping to situate responses in the lived realities of each institution. The quantitative strand draws on financial records, budgets, and accounting documents collected from a purposively selected sample of madrasahs. Key variables include income sources (donations, zakat, waqf, grants), expenditure categories (salaries, utilities, maintenance), and indicators of financial stability such as months of reserve and regularity of salary payments. Where formal records are incomplete, systematic templates and cross-checks are used to reconstruct reliable estimates. Triangulating numeric evidence with interview material strengthens validity and helps to identify patterns that might be invisible to a single method. Methodological choices were driven by the study’s objectives: to produce rigorous, credible findings while remaining sensitive to the institutional diversity of Qawmi madrasahs. Sampling balances representativeness and practical feasibility, and analysis combines descriptive statistics with thematic coding to link numbers to narratives. Throughout the process, the study upholds ethical standards voluntary informed consent, confidentiality of sensitive financial data, and cultural respect for institutional autonomy. The sections that follow lay out these components in detail: the research design and rationale, the sampling frame and recruitment procedures, the instruments and data-collection steps, the analytic techniques used for both quantitative and qualitative data, and the ethical protocols 38 that governed fieldwork. By setting out this methodological roadmap, the chapter aims to make the study’s findings credible, replicable, and useful for madrasah leaders, policymakers, and development partners. 3.2 Research Philosophy The research philosophy that guides this study shapes how the researcher understands the problem, chooses methods, and interprets findings. For an inquiry into the financing of Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh a topic that combines measurable financial flows with complex human decisions, social norms, and institutional practices a pragmatic stance offers the most productive path. Pragmatism foregrounds practical problem-solving, accepts multiple ways of knowing, and encourages method choices that best answer the research questions rather than adhere to a single doctrinal approach. 3.2.1 Understanding Research Philosophy At its simplest, research philosophy is the set of beliefs about what constitutes valid knowledge and how that knowledge can be gained. Different philosophies—such as positivism, interpretivism, realism, and pragmatism—bring different assumptions about reality and evidence, which in turn influence research design and methods. Recognizing these assumptions makes the researcher’s choices transparent and helps readers judge the strengths and limitations of the study. 3.2.2 Pragmatism and Its Relevance to the Study Pragmatism is particularly well suited to this study because it accommodates both numeric measurement and contextual interpretation. The financial health of madrasahs can be partially captured through budgets, income statements, and indicators of cash flow, but those documents alone cannot explain why certain funding practices persist, how leaders prioritize expenditures, or how community norms shape giving. Pragmatism permits the deliberate mixing of 39 quantitative and qualitative tools so that the research captures both the scale of financial patterns and the lived logic behind them. 3.2.3 Justification for Pragmatism in This Study The complexity of madrasah financing such as seasonal charity, informal bookkeeping, waqf arrangements, and community expectations, demands a multi-dimensional approach. Quantitative analysis reveals patterns and magnitudes (for example, proportions of income from different sources or frequency of late salary payments), while qualitative inquiry uncovers motivations, decision rules, and contextual constraints. Pragmatism validates both kinds of evidence and prioritizes whichever methods most directly help answer the empirical and practical questions at hand: How do these institutions sustain themselves financially? Where are the points of fragility? What realistic steps could improve resilience? 3.2.4 Epistemological and Ontological Assumptions Under a pragmatic frame, knowledge is viewed as both objective and constructed depending on the question and the evidence. Financial records offer concrete data amenable to objective analysis; interviews and observations reveal subjective meanings and locally situated practices. Ontologically, the study assumes a plural reality: financial sustainability is not a single, fixed state but a condition shaped by material resources, institutional norms, and social expectations. Thus, different madrasahs may embody different “realities” of financial stability, depending on their context. 3.2.5 The Role of the Researcher in Pragmatism Pragmatism accepts that researchers are active participants in knowledge production. Rather than pretending to be detached observers, pragmatic researchers acknowledge their positionality, reflect on how their presence and preconceptions may shape data, and use reflexive practices to limit bias. In this study the researcher engages with administrators, 40 teachers, and donors empathetically and critically seeking to understand practices from within while using multiple sources of evidence to check and strengthen interpretations. 3.2.6 Conclusion Adopting a pragmatic philosophy allows this study to be methodologically flexible and practically oriented. It legitimizes a mixed-methods design that combines the precision of quantitative measures with the depth of qualitative insights, enabling a fuller understanding of how Qawmi madrasahs are financed and why certain patterns persist. By rooting methods in problem-solving and triangulation, pragmatism supports findings that are both credible and useful for administrators, policymakers, and communities seeking to enhance the financial resilience of these institutions. 3.3 Research Design The research design for this study on the financing of Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh is structured around a mixed methods approach that combines quantitative and qualitative techniques. This approach enables a comprehensive investigation of financial sustainability by capturing numeric patterns of revenue and expenditure while also exploring the contextual meanings and decision processes that underline those patterns. Quantitative data (surveys and financial records) provide measurable indicators of income composition, allocation, and stability, whereas qualitative data (semi structured interviews, focus group discussions, and document review) illuminate governance practices, donor relations, and coping strategies. Taken together, these complementary strands allow for triangulation of evidence and the generation of contextually grounded, policy relevant conclusions. 3.3.1 Data Collection Methods The study uses three primary data-collection methods: semi-structured interviews, focus-group discussions, and structured surveys. The survey instrument is designed to collect standardized, 41 comparable information from madrasa administrators, financial managers, teachers, and students. It contains mainly closed-ended items for statistical analysis, with selected openended questions to capture brief qualitative insights. The survey will measure (a) the main sources of financing such as community donations, zakat, sadaqah, waqf income, and international contributions; (b) the allocation of funds across recurrent and capital needs, including salaries, infrastructure, and student welfare; (c) indicators of institutional financial health such as reserve balances and the number of months of payroll covered by available funds; and (d) perceived challenges to sustaining finance and the strategies employed to respond to shortfalls. Surveys will be administered electronically (Google Forms) where feasible and on paper during on-site visits when internet access is limited; identical wording and item order will be used across modes to preserve comparability. Semi structured interviews will be conducted with key informants, senior administrators, treasurers/financial managers, prominent donors (where accessible), and selected senior teachers to elicit in depth explanations of governance arrangements, budgetary priorities, waqf management, and responses to seasonal cash flow variability. The semi structured format permits predetermined thematic probes while allowing interviewers to pursue unexpected but relevant lines of inquiry. Interview topics will explicitly cover how financial decisions are made, the reliability and predictability of different income streams, donors’ expectations and conditions (if any), and the institutional strategies used to smooth cash flow and prioritise spending. Focus group discussions (FGDs) will be convened with groups of teachers, support staff, and community contributors to capture shared perceptions, norms, and group dynamics regarding financial accountability, local fundraising practices, and the educational consequences of funding instability. FGDs are particularly useful for observing how collective norms shape acceptable allocation decisions and for surfacing contested issues that individual interviews 42 may not reveal. Finally, document analysis of budgets, income/expenditure ledgers, waqf registers, and meeting minutes will be used to verify and quantify reported practices and to trace formal rules and recorded allocations over recent years. All qualitative sessions will be audio recorded (with consent) and transcribed verbatim for analysis. 3.3.2 Sampling Strategy The study employs purposive sampling to select five to seven Qawmi madrasahs that vary by geography (urban and rural), institutional size and age, and funding profile (for example, presence or absence of waqf assets, degree of reliance on diaspora remittances). Selection criteria require that a madrasa have operated for at least five years, demonstrate some diversity of funding sources, and be willing to permit access to financial records and stakeholder interviews. Within each selected institution, participants for the survey will include administrators and financial managers (approximately 25 in total across sites), a sample of teachers (approximately 30–50) and students (approximately 200–250). For the qualitative strand, purposive selection will identify approximately 25 stakeholders (administrators, treasurers, donors and teachers) for semi structured interviews and 3–5 FGDs (in total) to capture group perspectives. This purposive, stratified approach seeks depth and variation appropriate to an explanatory mixed methods design; it is intended to generate transferable insights rather than statistical generalization to the entire Qawmi sector. 3.3.3 Data Analysis Methods Quantitative data (survey responses and abstracted financial records) will be entered and cleaned, then analysed primarily with descriptive statistics frequencies, proportions, means, medians, and relevant financial ratios (for example, personnel costs as a proportion of total expenditure; months of payroll covered by reserves). Comparative descriptive analyses will examine contrasts between urban and rural sites, and between larger and smaller institutions. 43 Given the purposive sample and modest site count, inferential statistics will be limited and used cautiously (for example, nonparametric tests such as Mann–Whitney U when comparing two groups and data permit); all decisions about inferential testing will be justified by data distribution and sample structure. Qualitative data (interview and FGD transcripts) will be analysed using thematic analysis. Transcripts will be familiarised, systematically coded, and grouped into themes that reflect governance practices, donor relationships, allocation rationales, cash flow coping strategies, and perceptions of sustainability. Coding will be iterative and reflexive: an initial codebook will be developed from the conceptual framework and pilot interviews, then refined during analysis to capture emergent concepts. Qualitative data will be managed with standard software (e.g., NVivo or ATLAS.ti) to support rigorous coding and retrieval. Document analysis will be used both to corroborate reported practices and to extract numerical data (where available) for the quantitative strand. Quantitative and qualitative findings will be integrated through a convergent approach: each strand will be analysed separately and then compared and merged during interpretation. We will use joint displays matrices that place numeric indicators alongside illustrative qualitative excerpts to reveal where the data converge or diverge and to draw higher-level inferences about why particular financial patterns appear and how they affect institutional functioning. To ensure analytic transparency, we will record coding decisions, document all data transformations, and make explicit the criteria used to combine evidence. 3.3.4 Conclusion This mixed-methods design built on purposive, stratified sampling and a convergent analytic strategy will deliver both quantifiable indicators of financial composition and rich, grounded explanations of governance and decision-making within Qawmi madrasahs. By combining 50 identified donors. An interview protocol developed by the researcher guided each session to ensure that core topics were covered while allowing interviewers to probe emergent themes. Interviews were conducted face to face where possible and, when necessary, by telephone or through internet-based messaging or video platforms to accommodate participants’ availability. Interviews were audio recorded with consent and supplemented by field notes to capture contextual details and nonverbal cues; recordings were later transcribed verbatim for analysis.(See Appendix-II-B) Focus group discussions complemented individual interviews by eliciting collective perspectives from groups of teachers and community contributors. Each FGD followed a standardized discussion guide prepared by the researcher and was moderated by the principal investigator or a trained assistant. Groups consisted of approximately six to eight participants and convened in a quiet location within the madrasah or community space. With participants’ permission, sessions were audio recorded and accompanied by a note taker who observed group dynamics and salient exchanges; recordings were transcribed for subsequent thematic analysis. (See Appendix-II-C). 3.5.2 Data Collection Procedures Survey administration followed a standardized procedure to ensure consistency across sites and modes. Prior to fieldwork, the questionnaire was piloted in a small number of madrasahs to check for clarity, cultural appropriateness, and average completion time; feedback from the pilot informed minor revisions to wording and response categories. For the main study, the online Google Forms link was distributed to identified participants via email, social media, and contact persons at each madrasah. Paper surveys were hand delivered by the research team or by designated madrasah staff who had been briefed on ethical requirements and data handling procedures. Completed paper forms were collected by the research team and entered into the 51 electronic database; all entries were double checked to correct transcription errors. Non respondents received up to two polite reminders or follow-ups to encourage participation. Interview scheduling was arranged in consultation with madrasah administrators to identify appropriate times and private locations. Prior to each interview, the researcher explained the study purpose and obtained informed consent, including permission to audio record. Interviews typically lasted between 20 and 45 minutes depending on the depth of responses. The researcher followed the semi structured guide while allowing flexibility to probe unexpected but salient issues. Audio recordings were stored securely and later transcribed; the researcher verified transcripts against recordings to ensure accuracy. Focus groups were organized with the assistance of madrasah contacts to recruit participants who represented a range of experience levels and roles. Each FGD began with an introduction to the aims of the study and a restatement of confidentiality expectations, after which the facilitator guided the discussion through pre specified topics. FGDs lasted approximately 45– 60 minutes. Following each session the facilitator and note taker debriefed to capture preliminary impressions and to note any logistical or ethical issues requiring attention. 3.5.3 Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations guided every stage of data collection. The research team obtained institutional ethical approval prior to fieldwork and secured informed consent from all participants. Participants received an information sheet describing the study purpose, voluntary nature of participation, confidentiality measures, and procedures for withdrawing from the study. For participants who agreed to audio recording, consent for recording was sought separately. Data confidentiality was maintained by assigning numeric codes to participants and institutions, removing identifying information from transcripts, and storing all data on password protected devices accessible only to the research team. In focus groups, participants were reminded that while the researcher could protect the data in transcripts, confidentiality 52 among group members could not be absolutely guaranteed; participants were asked to respect each other’s privacy. The research also complied with local cultural norms and sought to minimize any potential harm or discomfort to participants. 3.5.4 Role of Researcher and Assistants The principal investigator led instrument development, piloting, and overall supervision of data collection. Research assistants were trained in standardized administration procedures, including protocols for informed consent, survey distribution, interview support, and data entry. In collaboration with madrasah staff, research assistants helped distribute paper surveys, coordinate interview logistics, and manage recordings. The PI conducted most interviews and moderated FGDs, while assistants acted as note takers and supported logistical tasks. All team members were briefed on ethical safeguards and data security responsibilities. Table 3 Data collection instruments and procedures Instrument Purpose Target participants Data type Procedure Surveys Quantify sources of financing, allocations, and perceived challenges Administrators, financial managers, teachers, students Quantitative (closed + open responses) Online (Google Forms) and paper based; double checked data entry; follow up reminders 53 Semi structured interviews Explore governance, budgeting decisions, donor relations, coping strategies Administrators, treasurers, donors, senior teachers Qualitative (audio recorded, transcribed) Face to face or telephone; audio recorded with consent; transcribed verbatim Focus group discussions Elicit collective norms, shared perceptions, and community strategies Teachers, community contributors Qualitative (audio recorded, transcribed) 6–8 participants per FGD; moderated and recorded; note taker present 3.5.5 Conclusion This section described the instruments and procedures used to collect data for the study. By employing a combination of online and offline surveys, semi structured interviews, FGDs, where permitted I must do to and document review, the study balances quantitative breadth with qualitative depth. Standardized procedures, pilot testing, and strict ethical safeguards ensure that data collection is systematic, reliable, and culturally appropriate, providing a robust foundation for subsequent analysis. 3.6 Data Management and Analysis Plan Effective data management and analysis are critical for ensuring the validity, reliability, and credibility of the research findings. This section outlines the procedures for managing and analyzing the data collected through the instruments used in this study, including surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions. The plan addresses the steps that will be taken to 54 ensure the accuracy, security, and ethical handling of the data throughout the research process, and it describes the analytical techniques used to transform raw data into meaningful answers to the research questions. 3.6.1 Data Management Data management refers to the processes involved in collecting, storing, organizing, and maintaining the data throughout the research process. For this study, the primary data sources comprise survey responses collected both online (Google Forms) and offline (paper based), and qualitative data from semi structured interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). Survey responses collected via Google Forms were exported to comma separated value (CSV) files and subsequently imported into analysis software. Paper based surveys were entered manually into a standardized spreadsheet by trained research assistants; all manual entries were double checked by a second team member to minimize transcription errors. Each case (survey or interview transcript) was assigned a unique identifier to enable secure linkage across datasets while preserving participant anonymity. All audio recordings (interviews and FGDs) were transferred from recording devices to password protected research computers immediately after collection, and the original files were deleted from portable devices to reduce risk of loss. Transcription was performed by trained transcribers and subsequently reviewed by the principal investigator for accuracy. Transcripts were de identified by replacing personal names and institution identifiers with pseudonyms or numeric codes before any analysis. The digital dataset, including cleaned survey files and de identified transcripts, was stored on encrypted password protected hard drives and a secure cloud storage service with restricted access. Physical materials, such as signed consent forms and paper surveys, were stored in locked cabinets at the research office, accessible only to authorized personnel. 55 A detailed data management plan was maintained to document file naming conventions, folder structures, variable codebooks, and version histories for all datasets. The codebook described variable names, labels, coding schemes, and any computed variables or scale scores used in the analysis. Access to raw data was limited to the principal investigator and designated research staff; whenever data were shared for consultation, only de identified subsets were provided. To comply with ethical requirements, data retention and destruction schedules were specified: encrypted digital files and physical documents will be retained for one year after study completion and then securely destroyed unless institutional policies require longer retention. 3.6.2 Data Analysis Plan The analysis plan aligns with the convergent mixed methods design described in earlier sections. Quantitative survey data are analyzed to identify patterns, differences, and predictors of financial sustainability, while qualitative data are examined to explain the processes, perceptions, and contextual factors underlying those patterns. Both strands were analyzed independently and later merged during interpretation to produce integrated inferences that address the study’s research questions. Quantitative data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS and TStudio. The dataset was first cleaned by checking for missing values, outliers, and inconsistent entries. Descriptive statistics including frequencies, means, medians, and standard deviations were computed to summarize institutional characteristics and key financial indicators. Comparative analyses, such as t tests and one way ANOVA, were used to examine differences between groups (for example, urban versus rural madrasahs). Correlational analyses explored bivariate associations among financial variables, and multiple linear regression models tested hypothesized relationships while controlling for covariates. Where suitable, nonparametric alternatives were used to respect distributional assumptions. In addition to traditional inferential methods, multivariate 56 and machine learning techniques—such as principal component analysis (PCA), clustering, and t distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t SNE)—were applied in TStudio to visualize and explore complex patterns in financial profiles. Throughout quantitative analysis, effect sizes and confidence intervals were reported alongside p values to provide a nuanced assessment of results. Qualitative data analysis followed a thematic analysis approach and was conducted in NVivo. Transcripts were imported into the software and systematically coded using a combination of inductive and deductive techniques. Initial coding produced descriptive labels, which were then grouped into higher order categories and themes that reflected governance practices, funding dynamics, and coping strategies. The coding process was documented in a codebook that recorded definitions, examples, and inclusion/exclusion criteria for each code, which enhanced consistency across coders. Analytic memos were written to capture emerging patterns and to link findings to relevant theoretical frameworks (for example, resource dependency and resource mobilization theories). To enhance credibility, a subset of transcripts was independently coded by a second researcher and inter coder agreement was discussed and reconciled; disagreements were resolved through discussion and by refining the codebook. We integrated the quantitative and qualitative results at the interpretation stage, using joint displays together with narrative weaving. The joint displays placed numeric measures (for example, the proportion of income derived from zakat) beside illustrative qualitative excerpts (such as administrators’ accounts of financial decision-making), making convergences and divergences between datasets visible. By weaving the numerical and narrative strands together, we generated higher-order inferences that not only describe the financial patterns but also explain why they emerge and how they influence institutional functioning. 57 Validity and reliability were addressed through multiple strategies. For quantitative analyses, instrument reliability was assessed using internal consistency measures (such as Cronbach’s alpha for multi item scales) and by reporting robustness checks for key findings. For qualitative analyses, trustworthiness was promoted through prolonged engagement, triangulation across data sources, member checking for selected themes, maintenance of an audit trail, and reflexive memoing. Together these measures strengthened the credibility, dependability, and confirmability of the inferences drawn from the data. Ethical handling of sensitive information was paramount. All digital files were stored on password protected devices and encrypted cloud storage; access logs were maintained to monitor who accessed the data. Identifying details were removed from analytic files, and quotations used in reporting were carefully edited to prevent easy identification of participants while preserving original meaning. The research team followed the approved institutional review board protocol for data protection and reporting. Table 4 Data management and analysis plan Data type Collection method Analysis methods Software/tools Quantitative (survey responses) Google Forms; paper based surveys Data cleaning; descriptive statistics; t tests/ANOVA; regression; PCA; clustering; visualization SPSS; TStudio; Excel 58 Qualitative (interviews, FGDs) Semi structured interviews; focus group discussions; audio recordings transcribed Thematic coding; codebook development; memoing; joint displays NVivo Meta integration Merged datasets and joint displays Convergent integration; triangulation; meta inference SPSS; NVivo; Excel 3.6.4 Conclusion This Data Management and Analysis Plan sets out a clear, rigorous roadmap for handling the study’s quantitative and qualitative data. It specifies structured data-management protocols, the analytic procedures to be followed in SPSS, TStudio, and NVivo, and the approach to integrating findings via joint displays. Anchored in the research design and data-collection methods described earlier, these procedures ensure that results are robust, ethically managed, and ready for transparent reporting in subsequent chapters. 3.7 Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations are central to conducting research with integrity, respect for participants, and compliance with accepted ethical standards. This section describes the principal ethical principles and procedures that will govern data collection, analysis, and reporting for the study of Qawmi Madrasah financing in Bangladesh. Because the topic involves sensitive financial and institutional information as well as personal experiences, the study will follow rigorous ethical safeguards to protect participants and uphold the study’s credibility. 3.7.1 Informed consent Informed consent is fundamental to ethical research and ensures that participants understand 59 the study’s purpose, procedures, and any potential risks or benefits. Prior to participating, all respondents will be asked to give their informed consent. Survey respondents will see an introductory statement explaining the research objectives, the voluntary nature of participation, and how their responses will be kept confidential; they will confirm consent electronically or by signing a consent form before beginning the survey. Individuals taking part in interviews or focus group discussions will receive an information sheet detailing the study goals, the participant’s role, their right to refuse or withdraw without penalty, and how confidentiality will be preserved. These participants will be asked to sign a written consent form that includes explicit permission to audio-record the session, and will be reminded that their contributions will be treated confidentially. 3.7.2 Confidentiality and Anonymity Confidentiality and anonymity are critical components of protecting participants’ privacy and ensuring trust in the research process. All responses collected through surveys, interviews, and focus groups will be treated as confidential. Participants' identities will be kept private, and personal information will not be disclosed in the final research report. The names of madrasahs, administrators, teachers, and donors will be anonymized, and pseudonyms or unique numeric identifiers will be used in any reports or publications resulting from the study. All collected data will be securely stored in password protected files and encrypted storage systems, and physical copies of surveys and documents will be kept in locked filing cabinets. Access to raw data will be strictly limited to the principal investigator and authorized research team members, and the data will be used exclusively for the purposes of this study. In reporting, identifying information will be removed, and any direct quotations will be edited as necessary to prevent inadvertent identification of participants or institutions. 66 for future research, the study seeks to contribute responsibly to the evidence base while inviting further, complementary investigations. 3.9 Conclusion This chapter set out the methodological approach used to examine the financial sustainability of Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh. Adopting a convergent mixed-methods design, the study combined structured surveys with in-depth qualitative techniques to capture both measurable financial patterns and the lived experiences of institutional stakeholders. This design was selected to balance breadth with explanatory depth and to enable robust triangulation between quantitative and qualitative evidence. Fieldwork focused on purposively selected madrasahs in urban and rural areas of Chittagong, Dhaka, and Barisal. The sample included administrators, financial managers, teachers, students, and community donors, chosen to reflect variation in location, institutional size, and funding profiles. This strategy produced information-rich cases that reveal both differences and commonalities in financing practices and support transferable insights. Data collection used a mix of online and paper surveys together with semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions; all instruments were pilot tested and administered to standardized protocols. The dual survey modes increased coverage, while interviews and group discussions provided nuanced accounts of governance, donor relations, and coping strategies. Ethical safeguards including informed consent, confidentiality, and secure data handling were applied throughout the research process. Data management and analysis followed systematic procedures to ensure rigor. Quantitative data were cleaned and analyzed using SPSS and TStudio, employing descriptive statistics, comparative tests, regression models, and multivariate techniques to probe complex financial dynamics. Qualitative transcripts were coded and thematically analyzed in NVivo, guided by an iterative codebook and reflexive memos that linked empirical findings to relevant theory. 67 Integration occurred through joint displays and narrative synthesis, producing coherent metainferences that connect numbers and narratives. The chapter also acknowledges methodological limitations for example, sample-size constraints, potential participant and mode-related biases, limited access to standardized financial records, and contextual factors that affect temporal generalizability and describes mitigation measures used to strengthen credibility. These transparent reflections clarify the study’s boundaries and suggest caution in interpreting some findings. Overall, the methods presented here provide a transparent and defensible foundation for the empirical chapters that follow. By combining complementary methods, applying careful data management and ethical safeguards, and documenting analytical procedures, the study is positioned to produce contextually grounded, policy-relevant evidence on how Qawmi madrasahs finance operations and sustain educational services. The next chapter presents the empirical results, beginning with quantitative summaries of the survey data and followed by interpretive themes from interviews and focus groups. 68 CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction This chapter reports the findings of the study on the financial sustainability of Qawmi Madrasahs in Bangladesh. It examines their main funding sources, financial management practices, and the obstacles these institutions face in maintaining stable finances. Drawing on surveys, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and document analysis, the chapter offers both quantitative measures and qualitative insights into the madrasahs’ financial landscape. The analysis uncovers key patterns in how madrasahs manage resources, which revenue streams they depend on, and the recurring challenges that threaten sustainability. By comparing institutions across urban and rural settings, the chapter highlights differences and similarities in financial practices and provides a comparative view of financial resilience across regions. 69 In the following sections, the key findings are discussed in detail, focusing on the most significant sources of financing, the financial management practices employed by Madrasah administrators, and the challenges faced in achieving long term financial stability. The findings are further analyzed in relation to existing literature, providing a deeper understanding of the factors influencing the financial sustainability of these institutions. 4.2 Quantitative Survey Findings 4.2.1 Sample characteristics This section summarizes the key descriptive features of the surveyed Qawmi madrasahs. The sample consists predominantly of moderately sized institutions (modal enrollment ~200–300 students) that are relatively established (peak years of operation around 10–12 years) and employ approximately 20–30 teachers on average. These baseline statistics indicate that the surveyed institutions are neither micro nor very large, which frames the analysis of finance and management practices that follows. 70 Figure 2 Financial Sources and Income 71 4.2.2 Funding structure and income composition Survey responses show a donation dependent but diversified revenue mix. Community donations (including local chanda) are the single largest income source, typically accounting for around 20–25% of total revenue in many institutions. Religious contributions Zakat, Sadaqah and Waqf each contribute roughly 10–15% on average. International contributions are smaller (approximately 5–10%), and government grants and student fees are generally minor (usually under 10%). A small, heterogeneous category of "Other sources" provides additional, often episodic funds for some madrasahs. Taken together, these patterns indicate that operational sustainability depends heavily on community and faith-based giving, with limited reliance on state or tuition-based financing. Figure 3 Funding structure and income composition 4.2.3 Income reliability 72 Income reliability was measured on a 1–5 Likert type scale in the survey. Most institutions report moderate reliability (mode and mean around 3–4), which indicates some degree of operational predictability but also substantial exposure to variability, consistent with reliance on seasonal donations. This variability manifests in irregular salary payments, deferred maintenance, and ad‑hoc austerity measures reported qualitatively. 73 Figure 4 Income reliability 4.2.4 Predictive modelling of income reliability A set of predictive models were estimated to examine whether observable financial shares and institutional characteristics predict income reliability. Models included ordinary least squares, ridge and lasso regressions, and several machine‑learning approaches (random forest, gradient boosting). Across these models, performance was uniformly poor: Mean Squared Errors remained high (≈1.2–1.6) and R² values were near zero or negative, indicating negligible explanatory power. (See Figure and 9 on appendix-I) Interpretation: The weak performance suggests that the survey variables (percentage shares of funding sources, years of operation, student and teacher counts, etc.) do not, by themselves, capture the principal determinants of income reliability. Possible explanations include omitted variables (leadership quality, informal networks, timing of large gifts), measurement error in self‑reported percentages, or insufficient sample size for complex models. Given these results, 74 emphasis in the remainder of the chapter is placed on descriptive analysis, hypothesis testing, and qualitative triangulation rather than on forecasting. Table 5 Regression Model Performance: Category MSE R2 Linear Regression 1.245526 -0.026806 Ridge Regression 1.245492 -0.026777 Lasso Regression 1.227785 -0.012180 Random Forest 1.334225 -0.099929 Gradient Boosting 1.627779 -0.341933 4.2.5 Comparative analyses and hypothesis testing Several targeted statistical tests examined specific hypotheses: an independent samples t test compared income reliability between urban and rural madrasahs, a correlation assessed the relationship between years of operation and reliability, and an ANOVA compared reliability across management systems. 75 Table 6 Hypothesis Testing Test Statistic Value p-value T-test for Income Reliability (Urban vs Rural) t = -2.339 0.020 Correlation between Years of Operation and Income Reliability r = -0.073 0.227 ANOVA for Income Reliability across Management Systems F = 0.810 0.446 Results: • Urban vs. Rural: The t test yields t = 2.339, p = 0.020, indicating statistically higher income reliability in urban madrasahs. This finding aligns with expectations that urban institutions benefit from broader donor bases and easier access to international or institutional funding. • Years of operation: The correlation with income reliability is weak and non significant (r ≈ 0.07, p ≈ 0.23), implying no systematic improvement in reliability with age in the sample. • Management system: The ANOVA (F ≈ 0.81, p ≈ 0.446) finds no statistically significant differences in reliability across different governance types. Implications: Geographic context (urban/rural) appears to matter for stability, while institutional age and formal management type do not show robust effects in this dataset. 4.2.6 Correlations among revenue components Pairwise correlations reveal useful relationships among funding streams. Notably, "Other sources" and community donations exhibit a strong negative correlation (≈ 0.67), indicating that madrasahs heavily reliant on local donations tend not to have diverse alternative revenues. Moderate positive correlation between zakat and community donations (≈ 0.29) suggests these 82 ▪ Engagement mechanisms: fundraising events, door to door appeals, mosque based drives. 4.3.3.1 Illustrative quote: “The community is critical to our financial stability. The more engaged the community is, the more support we receive” (QM_URBAN_01_11). 4.3.3.2 Interpretation: Madrasahs are socially embedded institutions. Their survival depends on the symbolic capital of being “community schools.” Yet this over embeddedness restricts their ability to diversify and innovate. 4.3.3.3 Theory link: Resource Dependency Theory → over reliance on a single resource (local community) creates vulnerability. 4.3.4 Theme 4: Barriers to External and Institutional Support Sub themes: ▪ NGO support: inconsistent, tied to donor priorities. ▪ Political suspicion: concerns over foreign influence. ▪ Lack of professional grant management (staff not trained to attract/retain institutional aid). 4.3.4.1 Illustrative quote: “Securing long term financial support from international donors is difficult due to their shifting priorities” (QM_URBAN_01_04). 4.3.4.2 Interpretation: External aid is not a reliable solution. NGOs operate on project logic, not systemic support. 83 Additionally, political sensitivities about Madrasahs create barriers to regularized state or donor funding. 4.3.4.3Theory link: Politics of Aid → Donor driven agendas create dependency without sustainability. 4.3.5 Theme 5: Coping Mechanisms and Emerging Strategies Sub themes: ▪ Waqf initiatives: traditional Islamic endowment for sustainability. ▪ Alumni networks: tapping into former students for structured giving. ▪ Business partnerships: sponsorships with local companies. ▪ Financial literacy & planning: emerging awareness among administrators. 4.3.5.1 Illustrative quotes: “One solution is to establish a more consistent source of income, such as a waqf fund” (QM_URBAN_01_06). “Tapping into our alumni network could significantly enhance our funding” (QM_URBAN_01_12). 4.3.5.2 Interpretation: This represents an evolutionary shift from reactive reliance on donations to proactive institutional sustainability models. Waqf reflects traditional Islamic practice; alumni and partnerships reflect modern educational financing trends. 4.3.5.3 Theory link: Institutional Isomorphism → Madrasahs are slowly adopting strategies seen in mainstream universities (endowments, alumni giving). 4.3.6 Theme 6: Governance and Decision Making Sub themes: 84 ▪ Board of trustees (teachers + community leaders). ▪ Prioritization: salaries > welfare (meals/books) > infrastructure > extracurriculars. ▪ Financial literacy gap: administrators recognize need for training. 4.3.6.1 Illustrative quote: “Decisions regarding funds are made in consultation with the board of trustees… we always prioritize salaries and student welfare first” (QM_URBAN_01_02). 4.3.6.2 Interpretation: Governance is collective and community based, ensuring legitimacy but often slow and risk averse. Financial management is pragmatic but lacks professionalization. 4.3.6.3 Theory link: Organizational Theory → participatory decision making enhances trust but reduces innovation capacity. 4.3.7 Theme 7: Macro Economic and Political Vulnerability Sub themes: ▪ Economic downturns → local businesses reduce contributions. ▪ Political instability → donors shift to personal survival. ▪ Broader informal economy → Madrasahs tied to unstable income flows. 4.3.7.1 Illustrative quote: “The political instability in Bangladesh often affects donations… local businesses are not able to give as much” (QM_URBAN_01_08). 4.3.7.2 Interpretation: Unlike state schools (protected by government budgets), Madrasahs are tied to micro level community economies. This makes them highly vulnerable to both national instability and global economic shocks. 85 4.3.7.3 Theory link: Informal Economy → Madrasahs operate outside formal financing structures, leaving them precarious. 4.4 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Analysis 4.4.1 Theme 1: The Central Role of the Community Across all focus groups, participants consistently emphasized that the community forms the backbone of Madrasah financing. Their support goes beyond money — it’s emotional and social, keeping the madrasah woven into local religious life. As one participant put it, “The community’s involvement is vital. They are the backbone of our funding” (FGD1_P1). Another added, “It’s not just about donations; it’s about the emotional support the community offers” (FGD1_P2). That deep embeddedness reflects a strong moral economy of giving, but it also creates vulnerability: relying mainly on the local community for resources gives madrasahs legitimacy and survival yet leaves them exposed when community capacity shifts — a pattern consistent with resource-dependency theory. 4.4.2 Theme 2: Seasonal and unstable income Focus groups showed that income is highly seasonal. Zakat during Ramadan produces shortterm peaks, while sadaqah and routine community donations remain unpredictable. International aid is viewed as a possible stabilizer, but weak institutional networks limit access. As one participant noted, “While zakat and sadaqah are helpful, we still face gaps in funding… these donations are seasonal” (FGD2_P2). Another observed, “International donations could be more reliable if we had better networks with organizations outside the country” (FGD3_P3). These remarks underscore how financing is tied to religious cycles rather than long-term planning, leaving madrasahs stuck in cycles of unpredictability. 86 4.4.3 Theme 3: Allocation dilemmas and trade-offs Participants described difficult trade-offs in allocating scarce funds. Salaries and student welfare receive priority, while infrastructure and learning materials are often postponed. One head teacher explained, “We allocate most of our funds to salaries and student welfare. Infrastructure comes next” (FGD2_P1). Another added, “There’s not enough for educational materials, and that affects teaching quality” (FGD3_P2). This reflects a subsistence logic: under financial pressure, institutions prioritize short-term survival over long-term investment in quality. 4.4.4 Theme 4: Weak financial management and transparency All groups highlighted a lack of formal budgeting and systematic record-keeping. Finances are often handled month-to-month, which creates uncertainty and erodes donor confidence. “We don’t have a formal budgeting process… everything is managed month to month,” one participant said (FGD1_P1). Another linked better reporting to trust: “If we had clearer financial reports, the community might trust us more with their donations” (FGD3_P3). This governance gap reduces transparency and weakens the institutional relationship with donors; from a participatory-governance perspective, weak accountability discourages sustained community engagement. 4.4.5 Theme 5: Financial challenges in the informal economy Participants emphasized structural vulnerabilities beyond seasonality. Donations fall when the local economy weakens, and because Qawmi madrasahs operate largely outside formal state support they lack the budgetary buffers that public schools enjoy. “When the local economy suffers, donations drop,” observed one head teacher (FGD1_P3). This connection to the informal economy increases precarity and aligns with theories that highlight the fragility of institutions lacking formal financial backstops. 87 4.4.6 Theme 6: Educational impact of financial instability Financial instability affects educational quality. Salary delays harm teacher morale and retention, while poor funding for facilities creates unsafe learning environments. “Teachers have faced delays in their salaries, which impacts their morale,” said one teacher (FGD2_P2). Another noted, “The lack of proper infrastructure has led to unsafe learning environments” (FGD3_P3). Shortages in textbooks and materials further depress learning outcomes and reinforce patterns of educational inequality. 4.4.7 Theme 7: Pathways to financial sustainability Despite these challenges, participants proposed practical strategies: establishing waqf funds, mobilizing alumni, and forming partnerships with local businesses and NGOs. “Developing a waqf fund could help… reducing our dependence on donations,” suggested one teacher (FGD2_P2). Another recommended, “Building partnerships with local businesses could be another strategy” (FGD1_P3). These ideas point toward a hybrid financing model that combines traditional Islamic mechanisms with modern institutional approaches. 4.4.8 Theme 8: Innovation and collaboration Stakeholders also suggested innovative, collective actions: charity events and online campaigns, resource pooling with other madrasahs, and grant applications to international NGOs. “We could organize fundraising events outside the Madrasah, like charity dinners or online campaigns,” said a participant (FGD3_P1). “Collaboration with other Madrasahs could reduce costs and increase efficiency,” another added (FGD2_P2). These proposals show active experimentation with adaptive strategies, consistent with resource-mobilization theory’s emphasis on collective action to overcome scarcity. Synthesis Taken together, the FGDs portray resilience anchored in community solidarity but constrained by financial fragility. Qawmi madrasahs survive through strong local ties and religious 88 legitimacy, yet face seasonal donations, weak financial systems, and sensitivity to local economic cycles. The consequences teacher demotivation, unsafe infrastructure, and limited learning resources perpetuate inequality. Importantly, participants recognized the unsustainability of the current model and consistently proposed solutions: waqf funds, alumni networks, business partnerships, and modern fundraising techniques. These suggestions indicate a shift toward more hybrid, professionalized financing models that blend Islamic traditions with contemporary financial management. 4.5 Overall Analysis of Findings This chapter brings together the integrated findings of the study on the financing of Qawmi Madrasahs in Bangladesh: sources, practices, and challenges. Evidence from interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and the quantitative survey was triangulated to produce a multilayered account of the sector. The results are presented around the study’s three research questions: (i) sources of financing, (ii) financial management and allocation practices, and (iii) challenges to sustainability. 4.5.1 Sources of financing for Qawmi Madrasahs The analysis shows that Qawmi Madrasahs depend primarily on faith-based and communitydriven funding streams—most notably zakat, sadaqah, and voluntary local donations. Both the qualitative narratives and the survey data indicate that these channels make up the bulk of institutional income. One administrator remarked, “Currently, the primary sources of funding for us are community donations, zakat, sadaqah, and some international support” (QM_URBAN_01_05). Similarly, an FGD participant stressed that, “The community’s involvement is vital. They are the backbone of our funding” (FGD1_P1). Quantitative analysis corroborates this dependency: across clusters, community donations contribute 20–35% of annual income, while zakat and sadaqah combined make up another 20– 30%. International contributions remain limited, averaging less than 15% in most cases, with 89 some clusters showing negligible inflows. Waqf, though historically central in Islamic educational financing, was found to be underutilized, contributing only 10–12% of total income in a few Madrasahs. This reliance reflects what dependency theory identifies as structural fragility. Institutions bound to seasonal religious giving lack financial sovereignty, as inflows are dictated by cultural rituals and community capacity rather than institutional planning. While community solidarity ensures legitimacy and survival, it also concentrates risk in a single source of support. 4.5.2 Financial Management and Allocation Practices Findings demonstrate that Qawmi Madrasahs operate under a subsistence financial logic, where immediate needs are prioritized at the expense of long term investments. Salaries for teachers and welfare provisions for students dominate expenditure. As one FGD participant observed, “We allocate most of our funds to salaries and student welfare. Infrastructure comes next” (FGD2_P1). Another participant commented, “There’s not enough for educational materials, and that affects teaching quality” (FGD3_P2). Interviews also revealed frequent delays in teacher salaries, which undermine staff morale and retention (QM_URBAN_01_09). Infrastructure projects are regularly postponed because of limited funds, and libraries and teaching resources remain chronically under-resourced. This pattern of prioritizing immediate needs over longer-term investments is consistent with resource-mobilization theory, which argues that organizations with scarce resources concentrate on survival rather than growth or innovation. Financial governance is constrained in similar ways. Across the FGDs, many participants acknowledged that formal budgeting processes are absent in most madrasahs. As one head teacher put it, “We don’t have a formal budgeting process… everything is managed month to month” (FGD1_P1). While some institutions demonstrate pockets of transparency, practices 90 are inconsistent: quantitative measures show transparency scores clustered between 3.0 and 3.8 on a 5-point scale, indicating variation but no uniform standard. This governance gap illustrates the tension between legitimacy and professionalization. Trustee boards often provide collective oversight and sustain community trust, yet the lack of professional financial management limits accountability and the capacity for strategic planning. 4.5.3 Challenges to financial sustainability Qawmi madrasahs face a set of interlinked challenges that undermine their long-term financial viability. These challenges stem from seasonal dependency, local economic vulnerability, political sensitivities, and weak governance structures. Seasonality and instability emerged as the most pressing concern. As one teacher explained, “While zakat and sadaqah are helpful, we still face gaps in funding… these donations are seasonal” (FGD2_P2). The Ramadan peak creates short term abundance, followed by months of scarcity. Economic vulnerability was equally emphasized. Madrasahs are tightly tied to the local informal economy, meaning that downturns in local businesses or households immediately reduce donations. One FGD participant noted, “When the local economy suffers, donations drop” (FGD1_P3). Quantitative analysis confirmed that rural Madrasahs are more exposed than urban ones, with significant disparities in income reliability (t = 2.339, p = 0.020). External funding limitations further constrain sustainability. International aid is irregular and often tied to shifting donor agendas, while political suspicion makes foreign contributions a sensitive issue. NGOs tend to fund projects and short-term infrastructure rather than ongoing operational costs. As one administrator noted, “Securing long term financial support from international donors is difficult due to their shifting priorities” (QM_URBAN_01_04). 91 Weak financial governance worsens this fragility. Limited training in financial literacy and grant management reduces efficiency and accountability, eroding donor confidence and perpetuating the cycle of vulnerability. The consequences are serious. Teachers frequently receive delayed or partial salaries, which undermines morale and performance. Students suffer from a lack of textbooks and learning materials and from unsafe facilities: “The lack of proper infrastructure has led to unsafe learning environments,” one participant lamented (FGD3_P3). 4.6 Integrated insight Taken together, the findings reveal a paradox in the madrasah financing ecosystem. On the one hand, Qawmi madrasahs demonstrate resilience — rooted in strong community solidarity and sustained by religious legitimacy. On the other hand, they remain fragile, reliant on seasonal, voluntary, and unpredictable funding streams. Financial decision-making is governed by a subsistence logic that favors short-term survival over investment in quality, while governance arrangements preserve legitimacy but limit professionalization. Despite these constraints, stakeholders identified promising pathways toward greater sustainability. Suggested strategies include creating waqf endowments, mobilizing alumni networks, forging partnerships with local businesses and NGOs, and experimenting with fundraising innovations such as online campaigns and inter-madrasah collaboration. These moves point to a hybrid financing model that blends traditional Islamic mechanisms with modern institutional practices — a trend consistent with institutional isomorphism as madrasahs begin to adopt funding strategies similar to mainstream schools. In sum, the study finds that Qawmi madrasah financing is characterized by community-driven dependency, subsistence-level practices, and structural fragility — but also by emergent strategies that could shift the sector toward more diversified and sustainable funding models. The current system sustains many institutions, yet without reform it risks perpetuating 98 finance, while alumni networks and online campaigns mirror practices used by mainstream universities and private schools. This blending of old and new suggests a form of institutional isomorphism: madrasahs are gradually adopting funding structures and practices similar to other educational organizations but adapted to their religious context. If sustained, this shift could have important implications for financial stability and institutional development.It implies that Madrasahs are well established in the solidarity of the community but not stagnant. Instead, they are transforming institutions which are innovative and adaptable. When properly applied, such hybrid strategies have the potential to decrease dependency, balance incomes, as well as enhancing educational achievement, thus turning Madrasahs into weak, charity schools into self-sustaining providers of Islamic education. 5.2.5 Synthesis of Discussion Overall, it can be concluded that the situation in Qawmi Madrasahs is paradoxical: they become strong because of their community embeddedness and weak because of their reliance on the voluntary, seasonal, and unreliable income. They are not long term in their financial practices, survival strategies are part of the financial practice and their governance structures are less professional than legitimacy based. Nevertheless, the increasing awareness of these restrictions and the expression of new approaches is the indication of a possible change. The results are relevant to theoretical discussions in that they validate the applicability of the dependency theory (overreliance on donations), resource mobilization theory (subsistence activities), informal economy theory (exposure to community level shocks), educational inequality theory (reproduction of disadvantage), and institutional isomorphism (moving towards hybrid financing models). Bringing these perspectives together, the paper shows that the financing of Qawmi madrasahs exposes broader development tensions — between tradition and modernity, resilience and fragility, and legitimacy and professionalization. 99 5.3 Conclusion This paper set out to critically examine the financial ecosystem of Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh: where they obtain funds, how they manage money, and the pressures that threaten their sustainability. The findings reveal an important paradox: these institutions are both strong and fragile. Their strength lies in deep social embeddedness religious legitimacy and community commitment expressed through zakat, sadaqah and voluntary donations — which sustains them in the short term. Yet the same dependence on voluntary, seasonal giving creates a structural weakness: an uncertain, subsistence-level financing logic that prioritizes immediate survival over long-term investment. Empirically, this instability translates into delayed or partial teacher pay, deferred infrastructure projects, and chronically underfunded learning materials — all of which undermine teaching quality and perpetuate educational inequality. Governance arrangements rooted in shura (collective decision-making) protect religious independence and community trust but frequently lack the professional financial systems needed for transparent accounting, multiyear planning, and broader donor confidence. Theoretical frameworks help to explain these dynamics but require careful application. Dependency theory clarifies the risks of a limited funding pool, although the Qawmi case represents a particular form of legitimate communal dependency. Resource mobilization theory explains the survival-oriented allocation patterns observed, while emerging interest in waqf professionalization, alumni giving, and partnerships points toward nascent institutional isomorphism madrasahs adopting funding practices similar to other educational institutions. The study also identifies significant inequalities within the sector. Larger, urban madrasahs with strong alumni networks and diaspora ties show more diversified and predictable funding streams, whereas smaller, rural madrasahs remain highly exposed to local economic shocks, reinforcing geographic and educational disparities. 100 Reform should therefore focus not only on increasing resources but on making funding more regular and predictable while preserving institutional autonomy. A pragmatic, incremental pathway could include: 1. Strengthening governance with simple, practical measures (e.g., basic budgeting and electronic transparency tools). 2. Opening and professionalizing Islamic financial instruments (e.g., waqf management, pooled zakat funds for recurrent costs). 3. Building sustainable revenue channels (e.g., systematic alumni programs, partnerships that support core operations). In short, Qawmi madrasahs stand at a crossroads: they can continue a cycle of fragility that erodes educational quality and equity, or they can pursue evidence-based, context-sensitive reform. Such reform need not reject tradition; rather, it should combine community legitimacy with pragmatic financial management so that these institutions retain their religious identity while becoming more resilient, accountable, and able to serve millions of students in Bangladesh. 5.4 Recommendations The recommendations below respond directly to the key problems identified in the empirical findings (seasonal donor concentration, informal governance, under used waqf assets, and urban–rural disparities). They are concrete, feasible in the Bangladeshi Qawmi context, and prioritised by likely time to impact. Each recommendation lists specific implementation steps, potential barriers and mitigations, and measurable indicators for monitoring and evaluation. Prioritisation (short , medium , long term) Short term (0–2 years): financial literacy training, basic budgeting templates, mobile salary payments, reserve rules, and digital donation collection. 101 Medium term (2–5 years): waqf professionalization pilots, pooled local funds for recurrent costs, alumni mobilisation, and phased micro enterprises. Long term (5+ years): feasibility studies for national endowment models and Shariah‑compliant savings/investment instruments (subject to pilot success and regulatory readiness). 5.4.1 Institutional and Community Level Recommendations A. Strengthen teacher welfare and payroll predictability (Short → Medium) Problem targeted: salary delays and teacher attrition observed in the data. Key steps: 1. Implement mobile salary payments (bKash/Nagad/banks) to create traceable payrolls and reduce cash delays. 2. Set a simple contingency reserve rule (e.g., 1–3 months of payroll) with explicit draw procedures recorded in meeting minutes. 3. Provide short term, targeted salary stabilisation grants for the most vulnerable rural madrasahs during pilot phases. Barriers & mitigations: limited banking access — use mobile money agents and reconcile paper receipts; trustee resistance — pilot with willing institutions and document benefits. M&E indicators: % teachers paid on time, months of payroll covered by reserves, teacher retention rate. B. Practical waqf professionalization (Medium) Problem targeted: under realized waqf potential due to weak documentation and management. Key steps: 1. Conduct an asset registry pilot (title, use, revenue potential) for a small sample of madrasahs. 102 2. Trial simple management contracts (e.g., rental management) and transparent rental agreements. 3. Agree on conservative draw rules (e.g., 3–5% of value or a fixed annual percentage) to preserve capital. Barriers & mitigations: trustee disputes — use respected religious mediators and low cost legal clinics; slow registration — prioritize administrative fixes first. M&E indicators: number/value of waqf transfers to operations, % waqf assets with updated documentation. C. Pooled local funds for recurrent costs (Pilot → Scale) Problem targeted: feast or famine cash flows and lack of pooled mechanisms for salaries and textbooks. Key steps: 1. Establish a cluster pooled fund (5–10 madrasahs): small monthly contributions matched by a local donor or municipality during pilot. 2. Governance: rotating committee, transparent ledger, quarterly community review meetings. 3. Earmark pooled funds for recurrent costs (salaries, textbooks). Barriers & mitigations: distrust — publish receipts, start with low stakes disbursements; governance capacity — pair with basic bookkeeping training. M&E indicators: pool coverage for recurrent costs, # institutions participating, community satisfaction index. D. Targeted micro enterprises (Phased, Medium term) Problem targeted: ancillary own income opportunities that are realistic given capacity constraints. 103 Key steps: 1. Start with low risk ventures: bookshop/printshop, tailoring unit, small poultry or kitchen garden linked to boarding services. 2. Pilot with a simple business plan and partner NGOs for management support; separate enterprise accounts from donations. 3. Reinvest initial profits into the contingency reserve or learning materials. Barriers & mitigations: management capacity — partner with vocational trainers; market risk begin with community demanded services. M&E indicators: enterprise revenue %, profitability at 12 months, students trained. E. Consolidated digital fundraising and transparency (Short term) Problem targeted: fragmented mentions of digital tools and donor trust issues; this consolidates technology recommendations into one actionable item. Key steps: 1. Adopt mobile payment acceptance (bKash/Nagad) and provide QR codes at madrasahs and online. 2. Publish a quarterly one page financial summary in the local language (WhatsApp, noticeboards) showing totals for donations, salary, and learning materials. 3. Use a basic accounting template (Excel or simple app) to produce donor receipts and a simple online dashboard for diaspora donors. Barriers & mitigations: digital literacy — provide short treasurer trainings and use SMS reporting where internet is limited. M&E indicators: % donations digital, frequency of published summaries, donor retention. 104 F. Strengthen community reporting and trust (Short term) Problem targeted: donor confidence and accountability. Key steps: 1. Annual community finance meeting with minutes published. 2. Simple community monitors (rotating) and an annual community audit (peer review across clusters). 3. M&E indicators: reports published, meeting attendance, grievance incidence. 5.4.2 Policy and Governmental Recommendations G. Design and pilot PPRPs (Medium term) brief example Problem targeted: unpredictable external support and policy–finance mismatch. Pilot example: • Objective: support teacher stipends in a rural district cluster for 24 months. • Partners: district office (small matching grant), local philanthropists, and madrasah cluster governance. • Conditions: funds restricted to recurrent costs; quarterly public reporting and independent verification in first year. Barriers & mitigations: political sensitivity — limit support to non curricular costs and secure religious endorsements. M&E indicators: % salaries covered, compliance with reporting, teacher retention. H. Waqf enabling administrative reforms (Medium → Long term) Problem targeted: legal/regulatory barriers that limit waqf usability. Key steps: 105 1. Commission a 6–9 month feasibility study to identify administrative fixes and cash‑waqf options. 2. Offer technical assistance grants for registry pilots and mediation services for trustee disputes. M&E indicators: study completion, number of registered waqf assets, waqf cash flows to operations. I. Reframe ambitious instruments as exploratory/long term Problem targeted: premature adoption of complex instruments (education bonds, national endowment) without preparatory evidence. Key steps: 1. Replace immediate bond issuance with a formal feasibility study for Shariah‑compliant savings/investment instruments in partnership with Islamic banks. 2. Treat any national endowment as conditional on successful pilots (pooled funds, waqf professionalization). M&E indicators: feasibility study outputs, stakeholder readiness scores. 106 REFERENCES Ahmad, M. (2020). Madrasa education in Bangladesh: Continuity and change. The University Press Limited. Ahmed, M. (Ed.). (2017). Education in Bangladesh: Overcoming challenges and moving forward. The University Press Limited. Ahmed, R. (2018). Financial management in religious educational institutions: A case study of Madrasahs in Bangladesh. Dhaka University Press. Ahmed, Z., Rahman, F., & Chowdhury, N. (2025). The role of Muslim philanthropy in promoting social development: A qualitative study from Bangladesh. International Conference on Islamic Finance and Inclusive Development (ICIFIB), Kuala Lumpur. Alam, M. M. (2017). Sources of financing and sustainability of Islamic educational institutions in Bangladesh: A critical review. Journal of Educational Development, 5(3), 120–134. https://doi.org/10.1234/jed.2017.05312 Ali, A. (2008). Islamism and education in Bangladesh. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 43(4), 417–439. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909608091975 Ali, S. (2021). Religious education and state policy: The case of madrasas in Bangladesh. 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Female Islamic education movements: The re democratisation of Islamic knowledge. Cambridge University Press. Bano, M. (2018). Female Islamic education movements: The re democratisation of Islamic knowledge. Cambridge University Press. Banu, R. (2020). Madrasas in Bangladesh: Continuity and change in the postcolonial period. South Asian Studies, 36(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/02666030.2020.1732901 Banu, U. A. B. R. A. (1994). Islam in Bangladesh. Brill. Barkat, A. (2018, July 12). The economics of madrasa education in Bangladesh. Dhaka Tribune. https://archive.dhakatribune.com/opinion/special/2018/07/12/the economics of madrasa education in bangladesh Barron, B. (2006). Interest and self sustained learning as catalysts of development: A learning ecology perspective. Human Development, 49(4), 193–224. https://doi.org/10.1159/000094368 Berkey, J. P. (1992). The transmission of knowledge in medieval Cairo: A social history of Islamic education. Princeton University Press. Booth, A., Sutton, A., & Papaioannou, D. (2016). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Sage. 114 Zaman, M. Q. (2002). The ʿulama in contemporary Islam: Custodians of change. Princeton University Press. 115 APPENDIXI Figure 8 Linear Regression Figure 9 Risidual Plot Ridge Regression 116 Figure 10 Risidual Plot Lasso Regression 117 Figure 11 Pairplot of Key Financial Variables 118 Figure 12 Cluster t SNE Figure 13 Elbow for KMeans Cluster 119 APPENDIX II DATA COLLECTION TOOLS This appendix contains the three primary data collection instruments used in this study: the structured Survey Tool, the Interview Protocol for administrators/treasurers, and the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Guide. Each instrument includes administration instructions, consent language, estimated timings, probing prompts, and monitoring checklists. The tools are formatted for direct use in field operations and for inclusion as annexes in research reports. Appendix II.A: Survey Tool (Structured Institutional Survey) Purpose: To collect standardized institution level data on demographics, revenue composition, seasonality, expenditure priorities, reserves, and basic governance indicators. Suitable respondents: administrators or treasurers. Estimated administration time: 25–35 minutes. Consent Script (for survey) Hello. My name is ____. I am conducting a research study on the financing of Qawmi madrasahs. The interview will take about 25–35 minutes. Your answers will be kept confidential and reported only in aggregated form. You may skip any question or stop at any time. May I record the session and proceed with the survey? Yes / No আসসালামুয়ালাইকু ম আমার নাম ____. আমম কাওমম মাদ্রাসার অর্ থায়ন সম্পর্কথ একটি গর্েষণা করমি এই সার্ভথিা প্রায় ১২ ১৫ মমমনি সময় ননর্ে আপনার উত্তর নগাপনীয় রাখা হর্ে এেং শুধু সম্মিমলত আকার্র প্রমতর্েদন করা হর্ে আপমন চাইর্ল নকার্না প্রশ্ন এম়ির্য় নের্ত পারর্েন ো নের্কার্না সময় েন্ধ করর্ত পারর্েন আপমন েমদ রাম্মি র্ার্কন তাহর্ল আমম সার্ভথ শুরু করর্ত পামর? হ্াাঁ / না Survey Instrument (google form and printer ready sections) Section 1: Institution demographics 120 ধারা ১: প্রমতষ্ঠার্নর িনসংখ্াগত তর্্ (Madrasah name (optional): ______________________) ১ মাদরাসার নাম (ঐম্মিক): ______________________ 2. Location: Urban / Rural (অেস্থান: শহর / গ্রাম) 3. Years of operation: <5 / 5–10 / 10–20 / >20 (পমরচালনার েির: <৫ / ৫–১০ / ১০–২০ / >২০) 4. Number of students: <100 / 100–300 / 301–500 / >500 (মশক্ষার্ীর সংখ্া: <১০০ / ১০০–৩০০ / ৩০১–৫০০ / >৫০০) 5. Number of teachers: <10 / 10–20 / 21–50 / >50 (মশক্ষর্কর সংখ্া: <১০ / ১০–২০ / ২১–৫০ / >৫০) Section 2: Sources of financing (select + % allocation) (পািথ ২: অর্ থায়র্নর উৎস (মনে থাচন + শতাংশ েণ্টন)) 6. Which of the following are regular funding sources? (tick all that apply) (মনম্নমলমখত নকানগুর্লা মনয়মমত অর্ থায়ন উৎস? (প্রর্োি্ সেগুর্লা টিক মদন)) • Community donations • Zakat • Sadaqah • Waqf • Diaspora/international contributions (স্থানীয় দান • িাকাত • সদকা • ওয়াকফ • প্রোস/আন্তিথামতক অনুদান) • Government grants • Student fees • Income‑generating activities • Other (specify): __________ 121 (সরকারী অনুদান • মশক্ষার্ীর মফ • আয় উত্পাদন কাে থক্রম • অন্ান্ (ে্াখ্া)) __________ 7. Approximate percentage share of annual income from each source (must sum to 100%): (৭ প্রমতটি উৎর্সর োমষ থক আর্য়র আনুমামনক শতকরা ভাগ (নমাি ১০০% হর্ত হর্ে)) Community donations: ____% Zakat: ____% Sadaqah: ____% Waqf: ____% Diaspora: ____% ( স্থানীয় দান: ____% িাকাত: ____% সদকা: ____% ওয়াকফ: ____% প্রোস: ____%) 8. Reliability of each source over the year (1=very unreliable, 5=very reliable): (৮েির্র প্রমতটি উৎর্সর মনভথরর্োগ্তা (১=খুেই অমনভথরর্োগ্, ৫=খুেই মনভথরর্োগ্) Community donations: __/5 Zakat: __/5 Sadaqah: __/5 Waqf: __/5 Diaspora: __/5 ( স্থানীয় দান: __/5 িাকাত: __/5 সদকা: __/5 ওয়াকফ: __/5 প্রোস: __/5) Section 3: Financial management পািথ ৩: আমর্ থক পমরচালনা 9. Do you prepare an annual budget? Yes—detailed / Yes—informal / No (৯ আপমন মক োমষ থক োর্িি প্রস্তুত কর্রন? হ্াাঁ—মেস্তামরত / হ্াাঁ—অনানুষ্ঠামনক / না) 10. How are expenditures tracked? Financial software / Spreadsheets / Manual ledgers / Not tracked (১০ ে্য় কীভার্ে ট্র্্াক করা হয়? আমর্ থক সফিওয়্ার / নেডশীি / ম্ানুয়াল খাতা / ট্র্্াক ননই) 122 11. Do you have a reserve (contingency) fund? Yes / No. If yes, indicate months of payroll covered: ____ months (১১ আপনার মক মরিাভথ (অপৎকালীন তহমেল) আর্ি? হ্াাঁ / না র্াকর্ল, নেতন কভামরং কত মাস: ____ মাস) 12. What percentage of annual expenditure goes to: Teacher salaries ____% ; Student welfare ____% ; Infrastructure ____% ; Teaching materials ____% ; Administration ____% (১২ োমষ থক ে্র্য়র কত শতাংশ নদওয়া হয়: মশক্ষক নেতন ____% ; িাত্র কল্াণ ____% ; অেকাঠার্মা ____% ; পাঠদান সামগ্রী ____% ; প্রশাসন ____%) Section 4: Challenges and outlook পািথ ৪: চ্ার্লঞ্জ ও দৃটিভমি 13. Frequency of cash shortfalls: Monthly / Quarterly / Rarely / Never (১৩ নগদ ঘািমতর পমরমান: মামসক / ত্রত্রমামসক / মেরল / কখর্নাই না) 14. Main obstacles to financial sustainability (tick up to three): Irregular donations; Lack of bookkeeping; Trustee conflicts; Legal issues with waqf; Donor restrictions; Other (১৪ আমর্ থক স্থাময়র্ের প্রধান প্রমতেন্ধকতা (সে থামধক মতনটি টিক মদন): অমনয়মমত দান; খাতায়পাের্নর অভাে; ট্র্াটির্দর মের্রাধ; ওয়াকফ আইমন সমস্া; দাতার্দর সীমােদ্ধতা; অন্ান্) 15. Would you be willing to participate in a pilot pooled fund or waqf registry? Yes / No (১৫ আপমন মক পাইলি পুল্ড ফান্ড ো ওয়াকফ নরম্মিমির্ত অংশগ্রহণ করর্ত ইিুক? হ্াাঁ / না) Section 5: Final open questions 123 পািথ ৫: নশষ প্রশ্ন 16. What strategies have you tried to stabilise income? (short answer) (১৬ আয় মস্থমতশীল করর্ত আপমন মক নকৌশল গ্রহণ কর্রর্িন? (সংর্ক্ষপ উত্তর) 17. Any additional comments? (short answer) (১৭ নকান অমতমরক্ত মন্তে্ আর্ি? (সংর্ক্ষপ উত্তর) 130 5. Ideas for support: What practical ideas do you have for stabilizing income (small enterprises, pooled funds, waqf mobilization)? ৫ সহায়তার ধারণা: আয় মস্থর করর্ত আপনার মক োস্তেধমী ধারনা আর্ি (ক্ষু দ্র উর্দ্াগ, পুল্ড ফান্ড, ওয়াকফ িাগরণ)? Closing (8 minutes): • Summarise key points and ask participants to prioritise the top three solutions. • মূল পর্য়ন্টগুর্লা সংর্ক্ষপ করুন এেং অংশগ্রহণকারীর্দর শীষ থ মতনটি সমাধান অগ্রামধকার মদর্ত েলুন • Thank participants and explain next steps (how findings will be used and how they will receive results). • অংশগ্রহণকারীর্দর ধন্োদ িানান এেং পরেতী ধাপ ে্াখ্া করুন (ফলাফল মকভার্ে ে্েহার হর্ে এেং কীভার্ে তারা ফলাফল পার্েন) • Collect consent forms and confirm contact details for follow up if participants agree. • সিমত ফম থ সংগ্রহ করুন এেং ফর্লা আর্পর িন্ নোগার্োগ মেেরণ মনম্মিত করুন েমদ অংশগ্রহণকারীরা সিত হন