Periodic nanogrooves from an unlikely source: nanosecond laser processing on a budget

Materials Research Express PAPER • OPEN ACCESS Periodic nanogrooves from an unlikely source: nanosecond laser processing on a budget To cite this article: Z Fialkova et al 2025 Mater. Res. Express 12 105005 View the article online for updates and enhancements. You may also like Evolution of turbulence and transport in EAST H-mode plasmas with Te/Ti ~1 Yifan He, Jinping Qian, Pan Li et al. - Control of SPP propagation and focusing through scattering from nanostructures P.N. Melentiev, A.A. Kuzin and V.I. Balykin - Ultrafast NbN Superconducting SinglePhoton Detector Integrated in a Parabolic Mirror Nikolay Vovk, Maksim Viktorovich Shibalov, Mikhail Dryazgov et al. - This content was downloaded from IP address 86.49.233.148 on 09/10/2025 at 12:53 Mater. Res. Express 12 (2025)105005 https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ae0d51 PAPER Periodic nanogrooves from an unlikely source: nanosecond laser processing on a budget Z Fialkova 1,2,∗ aa, P Hauschwitz 1 , M Flimelova 1 , H Jelinkova 2 , J Brajer 1 and T Mocek 1 1 Hilase Centre, Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Za Radnici 828, Dolni Brezany 25241, Czech Republic 2 Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering, Czech TechnicalUniversity in Prague, Brehova 7, Prague 11519, Czech Republic ∗ Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: nanostructuring, micromachining, LIPSS, anti-counterfeiting, wettability Abstract Surface nanostructuring holds significant potential for enhancing material properties in various industrial applications, including wettability modification and anti-counterfeiting measures. However, the high costs associated with ultrashort pulse laser systems have limited widespread adoption. In this study, a cost-effective method for fabricating periodic nanogrooves on stainless steel surfaces using a nanosecond fiber laser system priced under 10,000 EUR is presented. Nanogrooves with approximately 1 μm periodicity and depths of 50 to 220 nm were produced under optimized processing conditions, yielding high-quality, uniform structures without defects. The laser-induced nanostructuring significantly enhanced the hydrophobicity of the surfaces, increasing the static contact angle from 74.7°to up to 102.2°, an improvement of about 37%. Additionally, the nanogrooves functioned as diffraction elements for decorative and anti-counterfeiting purposes via image multiplexing. This method demonstrates that functional surface enhancements can be achieved affordably, lowering barriers to industrial adoption and offering a viable alternative for surface nanostructuring across various sectors. 1. Introduction Periodic surface nanostructures represent a phenomenon that is currently undergoing extensive research due to its vast array of applications across various industrial sectors. These nanostructures offer revolutionary possibilities for modifying surface interactions with their surroundings, thereby opening doors to innovations that transcend traditional material science and engineering. In practice, laser nanostructuring is utilized to create surfaces with anti-corrosive [1], anti-reflective [2]or super-hydrophobic surfaces [3], self-cleaning surfaces [4], surfaces aimed at reducing friction [5], enhancing anti-bacterial properties [6]and aesthetic appeal [7]or providing effective anti-counterfeiting purposes [8]. Among these applications wettability modification emerges as a pivotal function, enabling the development of surfaces with self-cleaning [9,10], anti-icing [11–13], anticorrosion [14,15]or enhanced heat transfer [16] properties. These functional surfaces can be originally found in the nature, where many biological materials exhibit an excellent surface wettability, such as lotus or rice leave and butterfly wings [17]. Generally, a certain level surface roughness is necessary to modify wettability. For this purpose a periodic nanostructures, often in form of LIPSS or periodic nanogrooves are commonly used [18]. Furthermore, the precision and control afforded by periodic nanostructuring pave the way for the creation of intricate decorative elements and secure anti-counterfeiting holograms, which play a crucial role in safeguarding brand integrity and consumer trust. Thus, addressing the widespread issue of product piracy that significantly affects the global economy with substantial financial losses annually. In 2021, European customs detected 40 million counterfeited articles worth €1.9 billion, underscoring the need for flexible anti-counterfeiting technologies [19]. aaaaaaaaaaaaa OPEN ACCESS RECEIVED 14 July 2025 REVISED 17 September 2025 ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION 29 September 2025 PUBLISHED 9 October 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s)and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. © 2025 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd Various manufacturing methods such as lithography [20], sol–gel [21], chemical etching [22], and hot embossing [23]have been developed for nanopatterning, but these often involve multiple complex steps, long processing times, and environmentally harmful chemicals. In contrast, laser microand nanostructuring provides a flexible, fast, single-step approach for high-quality, precise nanopatterning without chemical use [24]. In addition to these chemical and laser-based techniques, mechanical approaches have also been explored for microand nanostructuring. In particular, vibration-assisted scratching has been demonstrated as a singlestep, controllable method for fabricating microscale grooves and nanoscale ripples [25]. More recently, dedicated vibration-assisted scratch testers have been developed to investigate material behavior under dynamic loading environments, further extending the applicability of such mechanical structuring methods [26]. Fabrication of periodic nanostructures typically relies on costly ultrashort pulsed (USP)lasers—femtosecond or picosecond systems—capable of highly detailed surface modification. For example, Teutoburg-Weiss et al [27] used picosecond Nd:YAG pulses for security microand nanostructures, Qian et al [28]applied a femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser to produce holographic anti-counterfeiting labels, and Yao et al [29]generated vivid structural colors for both anti-counterfeiting and decoration using femtosecond Ti:Sapphire pulses. Hua et al [30] further demonstrated a femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser to create a superhydrophobic, self-cleaningsurface. Collectively, these studies highlight the predominance of USP lasers, prized for cold ablation and precision beyond the reach of commonly used nanosecond sources [31]. However, the adoption of USP laser systems—often priced above €60,000—poses significant cost barriers, limiting their broader economic viability. Nanosecond laser sources, while offering higher ablation rates and output power, generally lack the precision required for complex nanostructures. This cost–performance tradeoff remains a major obstacle to the wider industrial use of USP systems. Nanosecond Laser-Induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS), however, have emerged as a cost-effective and industrially viable alternative to femtosecond-based methods. While ultrafast lasers offer higher precision and minimal thermal damage, nanosecond lasers enable processing speeds up to 50 mm 2 s −1 has been reported under specific optical configurations [32,33]—making them well-suited for large-area treatments. In this context, the choice of f-theta lens plays a critical role, as longer focal lengths produce larger spot sizes that increase the textured area per pulse and significantly accelerate processing speed [34]. They also require simpler and more affordable equipment, promoting broader adoption in manufacturing environments. Despite producing larger heat-affected zones and typically generating low-spatial-frequency LIPSS, nanosecond lasers still achieve functional results such as 30%–43% reduction in E. coli biofilm formation—a critical outcome for biomedical applications [35]. Both ns and USP lasers can generate LIPSS on pre-roughened surfaces, though mechanisms differ. ns-LIPSS often tolerates higher initial roughness under tuned parameters, while ultrashort pulses are comparatively insensitive to roughness in LSFL/HSFL formation [32,36,37]. For industries prioritizing cost and throughput over nanometer-scale precision, nanosecond LIPSS strikes an effective balance between performance and affordability [36,37]. In this study, we propose a cost-effective approach for creating periodic nanostructures on stainless steel using a nanosecond fiber laser priced under €10,000. This method supports the fabrication of multifunctional surface structures for wettability control, structural coloring, and anti-counterfeiting applications. By leveraging the widespread availability of nanosecond laser sources, this approach may significantly lower the barrier to industrial adoption of surface functionalization technologies. 2. Materials and methods Ytterbium fiber laser (JPT electronics, Wuhan, China)with maximum power of 60 W emitting nanosecond pulses at wavelength 1064 nm was utilized for the fabrication of periodic nanogrooves on the top of mirrorpolished 304 stainless steel samples. The laser beam was guided by a fiber into a telescope increasing the beam width to 6 mm. In the next step the beam passed through the galvanometric scanning head with a maximum scanning speed of 4 m s −1 and passes through the F-theta lens with focal distance of 210 mm, resulting in a 54 μm focal spot diameter on the sample surface. Although the manufacturer specifies the laser output as unpolarized (random polarization), our measurements revealed that the radiation is linearly polarized, with its direction varying depending on the position of the delivery fibre. For all experiments, the fibre position was fixed and the polarization was rotated into a stable horizontal linear orientation using a half-wave plate. To produce periodic nanogrooves, a systematic approach was implemented in order to adjust processing parameters including hatching distance, repetition rate, pulse duration, laser power and scanning speed. Parameter tuning was guided by our internal database of previous experiments and refined through iterative testing using a 2D matrix approach, where parameters were varied stepwise and the resulting morphologies were 2 Mater. Res. Express 12 (2025)105005 Z Fialkova et al evaluated by confocal and SEM microscopy. Based on these preliminary experiments, the ranges of the tested parameters are summarized in table 1. To study the morphology of produced nanogroove scanning electron microscope Tescan FERA 3 at electron energy of 15 keV and laser scanning confocal microscope Olympus OLS5000 were used. The wettability analysis was conducted on a set of samples that were placed inside of a vacuum chamber for 24 h, pumped down to 3 ×10 −4 Pa by HiPace 80 turbopump with backing Duo 3 rotary vane pump (Pfeiffer Vacuum Technology AG). The wettability was analyzed after the vacuum treatment by an optical contact angle measuring device OCA 15EC (Data Physics Instruments, Germany). The static contact angle was analyzed for a water droplet volume of 2 μl. The test results were acquired through an average of 4 measurements on separate locations for every textured surface. 3. Results and discussion In the first experiment, laser and processing parameters were varied to determine the ranges within periodic nanogrooves are likely to form. These parameters were found to fall within the range of repetition rate of laser pulses 90 to 250 kHz, pulse duration from 40 to 400 ns, hatch distance from 6 to 14 μm, laser power from 4 to 5.5 W, and scanning speed from 400 to 550 mm s −1 . Further analysis of obtained surfaces revealed that in some cases, periodic nanogrooves could become distorted or modified (figure 1). To address this, we conducted the following experiment aimed at identifying the conditions under which the nanogrooves exhibited the highest quality and consistency. As depicted in figure 1(a), nanogrooves produced on the sample are in a form of periodic ripples or nanogrooves with a periodicity of ∼1μm and depth in range from 50 to 220 nm based on the used laser and processing parameters. Furthermore, these nanogrooves are oriented perpendicular to the linear beam polarization. Hence, this periodic nanogrooves shows similarity to Low Spatial Frequency LIPSS (Laser Induced Periodic Surface Structure)[30]. As shown in figures 1(b)to (e), the laser structuring process is sensitive to the change in laser and processing parameters. Specifically, the area of periodic nanogrooves can exhibit distortions due to three different phenomena: crack formation (figure 1(b)), decrease in structured area (figure 1(c)), and the formation of circular nanostructures on top of the periodic nanogrooves (figure 1(d)). Further investigations revealed that these distortions relate to changes in pulse duration, scanning speed, laser power and in some cases hatch distance. When the pulse duration was shorter than 60 ns, scanning speed lower than 350 mm s −1 or laser power higher than 5.2 W several surface defects manifested. Notably, a secondary structure of circular nanostructures emerged, disrupting the primary periodic pattern (figure 1(e)). Moreover, when the scanning speed was lower than 350 mm s −1 or laser power was higher than 5.2 W, surface cracks were observed (figure 1(b)). Additionally, utilizing repetition rates outside the optimal processing window of 130–220 kHz led to significant decrease in area covered by nanogrooves (figure 1(c)). The circular secondary structures likely originate from melt hydrodynamics and flows under elevated fluence, combined with interference of scattered and incident waves. Such azimuthal modulations are consistent with ns-LIPSS dynamics [35,36]. To further investigate this phenomenon a series of experiments were conducted in order to investigate the optimal values of power, repetition rate, hatch distance and pulse duration to efficiently cover most of the available surface by nanogrooves, as depicted in figure 2. During the parameter testing, the remaining parameters were constant. As can be observed in figure 2, each parameter has its optimal value with respect to the percentage of structured area. When observing the dependence of area covered by nanogrooves on applied laser power (figure 2(a)), in the range from 4.5 to 4.9 W, the nanogroove coverage was above 40%. The most coverage (73.9%)was achieved when using power 4.8 W. When observing dependence of nanogroove coverage on repetition rate (figure 2(b)), in the range from 115 to 220 kHz, the nanogroove coverage was above 50%. The most coverage (80%)was achieved with 170 kHz. It was determined that the hatch distance in the range from 6 to 9 μm, the nanogroove area coverage was above 50%. The hatch distance, for which the nanogroove coverage was the highest (98.2%) Table 1. Processing parameters. First experiment Second experiment Hatch distance 1–14 μm 6–9 μm Repetition rate 90–265 kHz 120–180 kHz Pulse length 40–400 ns 100–250 ns Power 4.4–5.5 W 5–5.14 W Scanning speed 350–500 mm s −1 400–500 mm s −1 3 Mater. Res. Express 12 (2025)105005 Z Fialkova et al Figure 1. (a)Nanogrooves with minimal defects fabricated with 4.45 W, repetition rate of 190 kHz, pulse duration of 150 ns, scanning speed of 500 mm s −1 and hatch distance of 10 mm; SEM images of distorted or modified periodicnanogrooves. (b)Crack formation on sample irradiated with too short pulse length; (c)Example of a decrease in nanogroove homogeneity of the nanogroove on sample structured with too low repetition rate; (d)Formation of secondary nanostructure on sample irradiated using too much power with inset with a detail of secondary nanostructure (e). Figure 2. : Periodic nanogroove coverage with changing power (a), repetition rate (b), hatch distance (c)and pulse length (d). 4 Mater. Res. Express 12 (2025)105005 Z Fialkova et al was 6 μm. In the range from 50 to 300 ns, the area coverage by the nanogrooves was above 50% (figure 2(d)). The highest nanogroove coverage depending on laser pulse length (95.3%)was achieved with pulse length of 220 ns. Based on these results, an optimal processing window was determined for the fabrication of periodic nanogrooves without any defects and with at least 60% of irradiated area covered by nanogrooves. This optimal processing window includes the laser power in a range of 4.7 to 4.9 W (figure 2(a)), repetition rate in a range of 130 to 220 kHz (figure 2(b)), hatch distance from 6 to 9 μm(figure 2(c)), laser pulse duration in a range of 70 to 300 ns (figure 2(d)) and the scanning speed between 400 and 550 mm s −1 . Utilizing these parameters enables fabrication of uniform and high-quality periodic nanogrooves, as demonstrated in figure 3(a). These highquality nanogrooves exhibited depth around 200 nm (figure 3(b)). In the next step, the functional properties of structured surfaces were analyzed. For observing the change in wettability of the structured surface, three samples with dimensions of 7.5 ×7.5 mm were produced using different parameters and labeled as Sample A, B, and C. Sample A was fabricated using parameters utilized for production of sample shown in figure 3, which resulted in the most uniform, high-quality nanogroove. Sample B was fabricated using parameters that lead to the formation of a secondary nanostructure on the top of nanogrooves (figure 1(d)). Sample C was fabricated using two consecutive passes used for production of sample A. The structuring parameters used for the contact angle analysis are listed in table 2. After the laser nanostructuring was completed, the samples were placed into a vacuum chamber for 24 h, and subsequently, analyzed for the wettability behavior. The static contact angle (CA)was measured by using 2μl water droplets averaging over 4 distinctive measurements in various locations on the structured area. The reference contact angle (CA)of the polished, unstructured stainless-steel sample was measured as 74.7°. After the laser treatment, the CA increased to 93.7°for Sample A, representing an improvement of approximately 25.4%. For Samples B and C, the CA increased to 101.9°and 102.2°, corresponding to enhancements of about 36.4% and 36.8%, respectively. These measurements are depicted in figure 4. By increasing the contact angle through laser-induced nanostructuring, we enhance the hydrophobic properties of stainless-steel surfaces, benefiting applications like anti-corrosion and ice resistance [12,13]. Additionally, the ability to create periodic nanogratings that function as diffraction elements opens up possibilities for decorative applications and anti-counterfeiting measures. Different orientations of these nanogratings can produce image multiplexing effects, displaying specific messages only at certain viewing angles, as shown in figure 5. Importantly, our use of an affordable nanosecond laser system demonstrates that such functional enhancements can be achieved cost-effectively. This accessibility facilitates industrial adoption, enabling manufacturers Figure 3. (a)Uniform, high-quality nanogrooves fabricated with 4.55 W, repetition rate of 150 kHz, pulse duration of 150 ns, scanning speed of 500 mm s −1 and hatch distance of 7 μm; (b)Confocal microscope measuring of structured surface. Table 2. Processing parameters for contact angle analysis. Samples A Sample B Sample C Hatch distance 7 μm 10 μm 7 μm Repetition rate 150 kHz 150 kHz 150 kHz Pulse length 180 ns 40 ns 180 ns Power 11% 11% 11% Scanning speed 500 mm s −1 450 mm s −1 500 mm s −1 Repeats 1 1 2 5 Mater. Res. Express 12 (2025)105005 Z Fialkova et al to enhance material properties and incorporate advanced features without the substantial investment typically associated with ultrashort pulse laser systems. 4. Conclusion In this study we successfully generated periodic surface nanogrooves utilizing a cost-effective nanosecond laser. These nanogrooves exhibited a period of 1 μm, with depth ranging between 50 and 220 nm. Optimal structural definition was achieved under specific processing conditions, notably a hatch distance of 7 μm, repetition rate 170 kHz, pulse lengths spanning from 150 to 200 ns, scanning speed set at 500 mm s −1 and power from 4.5 to 5 W. The laser-induced nanostructuring effectively increased the contact angle of the stainless-steel surface from 74.7°to up to 102.2°, representing an enhancement of approximately 37% in hydrophobic properties. These modifications have significant implications for industrial applications such as self-cleaning surfaces, anti-corrosion coatings, and anti-icing materials. Additionally, the created periodic nanogrooves were shown to function as diffraction elements, enabling their use in decorative applications and anti-counterfeiting measures through image multiplexing. Overall, this method utilizes an affordable nanosecond laser system, demonstrating that such functional enhancements can be achieved cost-effectively. By lowering the barrier for industrial adoption, manufacturers can enhance material properties and incorporate advanced surface functionalities without the substantial investment typically associated with ultrashort pulse laser systems. Consequently, this approach holds promise for large-scale applications where both performance and cost-efficiency are critical, potentially paving the way for future research and development in surface engineering across various industrial sectors. Figure 4. Contact angle measurements of samples A, B and C. Figure 5. Demonstration of the possibility to use the periodic nanogroove for decorative and anti-counterfeiting purposes by lighting the same sample under different angles to show different images. 6 Mater. Res. Express 12 (2025)105005 Z Fialkova et al Acknowledgments Funding: This work was co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund and the state budget of the Czech Republic (project HiLASE CoE: Grant No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/15_006/0000674)and from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement No. 739573). This work was co-funded by the European Union and the state budget of the Czech Republic under the project LasApp CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004573. Data availability statement All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article (and any supplementary files). 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