Unveiling Nature's Pharmacy: A comprehensive review of Cassytha filiformis bioactive and their therapeutic potential

*Corresponding author: Sagar.A Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Unveiling Nature’s Pharmacy: A comprehensive review of Cassytha filiformis bioactive and their therapeutic potential Sagar A *, Rashmi Jenifer G, D. Visagaperumal and Vineeth Chandy Department of Pharmaceutical chemistry, T. John College of Pharmacy Gottigere, Bengaluru560083, Karnataka, India. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 Publication history: Received on 29 April 2025; revised on 04 June 2025; accepted on 06 June 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.22.3.0549 Abstract The evolution of human civilization has been significantly influenced by medicinal plants. In almost every culture and civilization, medicinal plants have long been used as a source of medicine. Many modern medications are made from medicinal plants, which are considered to be abundant sources of traditional medicines. Medicinal herbs have been utilized for thousands of years to treat illnesses, preserve food, enhance flavor, and stop disease outbreaks. Cassytha filiformis medical plant known for its parasitic nature, attaching itself to host plants to obtain nutrients, it offers a wide range of therapeutic applications. In many regions of the world, this parasitic plant has been utilized for therapeutic and decorative purposes. It has been employed in European, Siddha, Ayurvedic, and Chinese traditional medicine. This review article aims in discussing about Cassytha filiformis historical and traditional use, bioactive components, therapeutic advantages and consolidate current knowledge on the botanical characteristics and ecological roles of Cassytha filiformis. The plant is rich in bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds which contribute to its Vaso-relaxant, Anti-Diabetic, Anti-piratic, Anti-inflammatory, Anti-typomania, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and possible anticancer effects. Keywords: Cassytha filiformis; Medicinal Plants; Parasitic Plant; Traditional Medicine; Bioactive Compounds; Therapeutic Applications; Botanical Characteristics 1 Introduction 1.1 General importance of medicinal plant Throughout history, communities across all continents have utilized a vast array of indigenous plants—ranging from hundreds to thousands—for the treatment of various ailments. Spices and herbs, in particular, are widely recognized for their potent antibacterial and antioxidant activities [1]. Today, many medicinal plants remain integral to modern medicine, serving as essential sources of raw materials for the development of numerous pharmaceutical drugs and therapeutic agents [2]. These plants hold immense value not only for individual health but also for the overall well-being of societies. Phytochemicals are naturally occurring compounds in plants responsible for their color, taste, and aroma. Although they are available as dietary supplements, their most significant health benefits are typically realized through the consumption of the whole plant[3]. (Plant Cassytha filiformis shown in fig .1) World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 296 Figure 1 Cassytha filiformis Well-known for its extensive geographical range and distinct parasitic lifestyle, Cassytha filiformis—commonly referred to as “Love Vine” in English—is a twining, stem-like plant that thrives by attaching itself to other vegetation. It is predominantly found in tropical and subtropical climates, especially in regions like Central and South America, Africa, Asia, and across many Pacific Islands, with a particular affinity for coastal ecosystems where humidity supports its growth [4]. Classified under the Lauraceae family, the genus Cassytha comprises approximately 20 documented species, each with parasitic traits adapted to various environments, because the plant contains only a minimal amount of chlorophyll, it is unable to maintain adequate photosynthesis and thus survives by drawing resources from host species. These host plants often include vital horticultural and commercial trees such as mango, citrus, avocado, nutmeg, and clove, making Cassytha filiformis both ecologically and economically significant. In order to extract nutrients from host plants, Cassytha filiformis forms unique root-like structures known as haustoria—derived from the Latin word haustor, signifying "one who draws or drains." These specialized organs invade the surface of the host plant and extend into its vascular system, particularly the xylem and phloem, to access essential fluids and nutrients needed for growth. The plant exhibits a highly effective method of propagation, as its seeds are dispersed over vast distances through natural vectors like ocean currents, birds, and wind, which aids in its widespread colonization [5]. In traditional and folk medicinal systems, Cassytha filiformis is highly regarded for its curative properties and has been incorporated into therapeutic practices across various cultures. Phytochemical screenings of the plant have revealed the presence of diverse bioactive compounds, especially alkaloids, flavonoids, and aporphine-based alkaloids that contribute to its medicinal efficacy. The plant is recognized for a wide array of pharmacological benefits, including vasorelaxant, anti-diabetic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-typomania activities, making it a promising subject for further ethnopharmacological research [6]. This review compries available ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological findings from past research to offer an in-depth perspective on the plant's medicinal properties and therapeutic significance. 2 Taxonomy and botanical description 2.1 Common names of Cassytha filiformis ● English: -Cuscuta, Hell weed, Devil’s gut, Beggar weed, Scald weed, Dodder of thyme, Dodder plant, Lesser dodder, Greater dodder ● Hindi: -Akashbel, Amal bel, Kasus, Agas bel ● Sanskrit: -Akashvalli, Akashbhavana, Akashpavana, Amarvalli, Antravalli, Amaravallari, Khavalli, Nilatara, Vyomavallika ● Bengali: -Akasbel, Swarnalatha ● Marathi: -Nirmuli, Nirmuli akashvela ● Assamese: -Honborialoti, Akashilata ● Arabic: -Kasuth, Tikhme kasus ● Telugu: -Lanjasavaramu, Savarapukada, Sitamapurgonalu, Sitammapogunulu, Sithammasavaram, Sithammapogunulu, Passi teega, Sithamma-savaram World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 297 ● Kannada: -Akasha balli, Amar balli, Bilu balli, Darada balli, Haadaragiththi balli, Janivaara balli, Mangana udidara (Obtained from Planet Ayurveda-Cassytha filiformis.) 2.2 Synonyms ● Cassytha americana var. brachystachya ● Cassytha americana var. brasiliensis ● Cassytha americana var. puberula ● Cassytha aphylla [7]. 2.3 Taxonomical classification of Cassytha filiformis ● Kingdom: Plantae ● Sub kingdom: Tracheobionta ● Super division: Spermatophyta ● Division: Magnoliophyta ● Class: Magnoliopsida ● Subclass: Magnoliidae ● Order: Laurales ● Family: Lauraceae ● Genus: Cassytha ● Species: Cassytha filiformis [7]. 2.4 Description on Morphological characteristics of Cassytha filiformis Cassytha filiformis is a slender, vine-like plant with smooth, thread-shaped stems that range in color from green to orange. Its leaves are highly reduced and appear as tiny, scale-like points, roughly 1 mm long, and are usually visible near the ends of the stems. The plant bears small flowers that lack stalks (sessile) and are grouped in short, spike-like arrangements (spicate inflorescences) measuring about 1–2 cm in length. Each flower is backed by a single ovate bract and two similar bracteoles, which have fine, fringe-like edges (ciliolate). Each flower consists of six petal-like parts called tepals, which are smooth and differ in size. The outer three tepals are egg-shaped and about 1 mm long, while the inner three are longer—about 2.5 mm—and more elliptical, with their tips gently bending inward. The flower also features nine functional stamens arranged in two main groups. The outer six are inward-facing (introrse), wide, hairless, and have short filaments ending in sharp points. The inner three stamens face outward (extrorse) and include two small gland-like structures at their base. Their tips are extended into a thin, beaklike form. Additionally, a fourth set of sterile stamens (staminodes) is present; these are smooth and do not play a reproductive role. The ovary of the plant is spherical (globose) and smooth. As the fruit develops, it becomes enclosed in a floral tube that enlarges along with the fruit (accrescent), while the dried parts of the flower remain attached during the fruiting phase and seeds are about 3.5-6 mm diameter, radicle central, about 2 mm long, oily embryo. 2.5 Comparison between two species of Cuscuta and Cassytha filiformis Most peopele gets confused between Cuscuta and Cassytha filiformis as they have bit smilar appearance, plant of genus Cusuta belongs to the family Cuscutaceae and plants of genus Cassytha belongs to familiy of Lauraceae Two species of Cuscuta (belonging to the Convolvulaceae family and commonly called dodders) look quite similar to Cassytha filiformis and share a comparable parasitic lifestyle. However, they can be distinguished mainly by differences in their flowers and fruits (As shown in fig 2). Cuscuta flowers are tiny, about 2 mm in diameter, and grow one by one along the stem. Its fruit is dry, round, and has a thin outer shell containing several small black seeds. In contrast, Cassytha filiformis produces flowers in small branched clusters called panicles. Its fruit is small, soft, and resembles a berry, usually containing a single round seed. Another difference is in their life cycle and host preference: Cuscuta species are annual plants (completing their life cycle in one season), while Cassytha filiformis is a perennial (living for multiple years). Cassytha filiformis mostly parasitizes woody plants, whereas most Cuscuta species—except Cuscuta exaltata—typically grow on herbaceous (nonwoody) plants [8, 9]. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 298 Figure 2 Differentiation in flower, fruit and seed of (A) Cuscuta and (B) Cassytha genus 3 Geographic distribution and habit 3.1 Habit Mature Cassytha species are perennial and herbaceous in nature, lacking true roots. These plants possess chlorophyll and are obligate parasites, meaning they cannot survive without a host. They do not have tendrils; instead, they attach themselves to host plants through specialized structures called haustoria, which develop along their stems. 3.2 Distribution This species is predominantly distributed across regions such as India (particularly Jammu and Kashmir), Pakistan, Sri Lanka, various parts of Africa, as well as Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. 3.3 Development and Spreading After Cassytha filiformis successfully makes contact with a suitable host plant, its connection to the soil begins to deteriorate. The base of the parasite dries out, causing it to lose its direct link with the ground. From this point forward, the plant relies entirely on its host for all essential resources such as water, nutrients, and food. Specialized structures called haustoria penetrate the tissues of the host—either the stem or the leaves—and begin to draw out these resources. Over time, the host plant becomes weakened due to this constant drain and, in many cases, may eventually die. As the parasite matures, it develops flowers and produces seeds. These seeds are then dispersed through various natural agents such as wind, water, or birds, allowing the plant to spread to new locations and infect new hosts [5, 10, 11]. 3.4 Distribution and Abundance of C. filiformis Based on Soil and Vegetation types Out of all the host plants studied, most were found growing in sandy clay loam soil—about 39 plants, which is 52.70% of the total. Around 30 plants (40.54%) were found in sandy soil, while only 5 plants (6.76%) grew in clay soil(shown in fig 1). The main types of vegetation in the study areas included farmland, grassy woodlands, cashew plantations, bushlands, regular woodlands, areas near rivers, dense shrubs, and wetlands or flood plains. [12] World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 299 (A) (B) Figure 3 A) The main vegetative type associated with C. filiformis host plant species B) Soil types preffered by C.filiformis 3.5 Worldwide Distribution of Cassytha filiformis : Data from the CABI-Invasive Species Compendium reveals that Cassytha filiformis has a widespread global presence, (As shown in fig 4) being reported across most continents except Europe and Antarctica. This highlights the plant’s adaptability and invasive potential across diverse ecosystems. ● Africa (35%): The plant is highly prevalent across 45 African countries, including Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, and Tanzania. It thrives in various ecological zones, from arid regions to tropical forests. ● Asia (16%): In Asia, it has been recorded in 19 countries, including India, China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand. It is often found in agricultural lands, forest margins, and disturbed habitats. ● North America and Surrounding Territories (24%): The species is widely distributed in North America, including the United States, Mexico, and much of Central America and the Caribbean. Countries such as Cuba, Jamaica, Costa Rica, and Puerto Rico report frequent infestations, particularly in warm and humid regions. ● Oceania/Australia (19%): Cassytha filiformis is commonly found throughout Oceania, including Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and several other Pacific Island nations. It is especially dominant in coastal zones and open woodlands. ● South America (6%): In South America, the plant has been documented in countries like Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Bolivia. Although its spread is more limited here, it still poses threats to native vegetation and crops. ● Overall, the extensive geographic range of Cassytha filiformis underscores its ecological flexibility and the urgency for monitoring and control efforts in affected regions.[13] Figure 4 Worldwide Distribution of C.filiformis World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 300 3.6 Haustorial Development and Attachment Mechanisms of Cassytha species (Cassytha filiformis) Cassytha plants can move their young stems on their own to find suitable host plants. It’s still unclear if the attachment is triggered by chemicals released by the host, like in Cuscuta, which responds to smell signals from the host [14, 15] Cassytha attaches to host plants using a special structure called a haustorium, and just one plant can produce hundreds of these [16, 17]. These haustoria usually grow on the young parts of host plants, like new shoots or the main stem of compound leaves [18]. The first important step in attachment is twining, where Cassytha wraps around the host. However, twining has not been studied as much as the haustorium. Light and plant hormones control this twining behavior in lab conditions. Blue light and a low far-red to red light ratio help trigger both twining and haustoria formation in Cassytha filiformis. Hormones like auxin and cytokinin also play a big role. Under blue light, seedlings with either auxin or cytokinin can start twining and forming haustoria. With both brassinolide and cytokinin, Cassytha can twine even in the dark. However, brassinolide alone doesn’t trigger twining [19]. This shows that auxin and cytokinin are key hormones that help Cassytha twine around the host and start forming haustoria. The haustorium has two parts: the upper haustorium, which stays on the outside of the host, and the endophyte, which grows into the host tissue [20]. A vertical slice of C. filiformis haustorium on the leaves of Canthium rheedii shows different parts like a vascular core, an interrupted zone, a collapsed layer, and surrounding clasping tissue. Special cells containing small particles (granules) have been seen in the vascular core [21]. When C. filiformis touches a host stem, its outer layer (cortex) quickly starts dividing to form the upper haustorium. These cells grow and push into the host, forming finger-like cells called digitate cells. These break into the host's tissue by pressure and change into tube-like endophyte structures. In the case of C. filiformis parasitizing Morinda tinctoria, the initial attachment was weak, but as the endophyte grew, it formed a strong bond with the host [22]. Li and Yao (1992) studied how haustoria formed on a Salix purpurea (willow) stem. They described four stages: ● Polarity starts ● Formation of a cushion-shaped haustorial plate ● Formation of early haustorium inside the outer host layer, and ● Development of water-carrying tissue (xylem) and its connection to the host’s vessels. ● They didn’t see development of sugar-carrying tissue (phloem). Instead, C. filiformis developed only xylem and dying phloem, suggesting that it mainly takes in water and minerals, not sugars, from hosts like S. purpurea [23]. It’s been found that haustoria of Cassytha usually don’t connect to the host’s phloem, which is a key difference from Cuscuta, another parasitic plant [24]. However, in the case of C. filiformis and M. tinctoria, haustoria did reach the phloem to draw in sugars made through photosynthesis [22]. These differences might depend on the host plant or the stage of infection and need more research. Besides the physical processes, chemical reactions are also important in helping Cassytha attach quickly and successfully to its host. For example, the haustoria of C. filiformis can release acid phosphatase (ACP), an enzyme that breaks down host cells along with mechanical pressure [25]. Also, when Cassytha starts twining around S. purpurea, starch grains build up at the point of contact. As the haustorium develops, the starch decreases and disappears, while protein levels rise in those same regions. This means starch is being broken down to give energy and materials for new cells, while proteins are being made to support growth [23]. In [25] also found that the hormone cytokinin (CTK) plays a major role in haustorium development. For example, when C. filiformis haustoria were attached to Salix integra, the levels of cytokinin forms like isopentenyl adenine (iPa) and zeatin riboside (ZR)were much higher during the early haustorial formation than during the twining or penetration stages. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 301 3.7 Influence of genus Cassytha parasite on host growth, photosynthesis and development Cassytha extracts water and nutrients from the host plant’s xylem, which weakens the host, reduces its growth and reproduction, and lowers its overall biomass. In severe cases, heavy infestations can even kill the host plant [26, 27]. One of the main reasons for this damage is a drop in the host plant’s ability to perform photosynthesis. Infected C. scoparius plants showed lower photosynthetic activity, reduced transpiration, and less efficient use of sunlight energy [28]. C. pubescens also decreased the photosynthetic efficiency and electron transport in U. europaeus across different field conditions. This was linked to reduced levels of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K), and higher levels of iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) in infected plants—likely caused by soil changes due to the parasite (rhizosphere acidification). These changes lead to reduced photosynthesis and eventually cause ongoing light damage known as photoinhibition [29]. 3.8 Metabolities and molecular translocation Metabolites often move and change between parasite plants and their host plants before and after the parasite attaches, usually from the parasite to the host [30]. The energy charge—calculated from ATP (adenosine triphosphate), ADP (adenosine diphosphate), and AMP (adenosine monophosphate)—in young C. filiformis plants was low before they parasitized, but increased a lot after attaching to Ipomoea pes-caprae because of improved energy production. This allowed Cassytha seedlings to grow and develop more. However, the energy charge in the host plant I. pes-caprae did not change, suggesting it could handle the loss of water and nutrients to Cassytha. The types of steroids found in both C. filiformis and I. pes-caprae didn’t change due to parasitism, but the total amount of these steroids did decrease after parasitism. Likewise, most water-soluble compounds (like fructose, glucose, sucrose, and galactitol) in C. filiformis went down after parasitism, likely due to water intake from the host and the hardening of tissues, which increases weight. For the host I. pes-caprae, the levels of fructose, glucose, and sucrose also went down, while galactitol went up, and pinitol, quinate, and organic acids stayed the same after being parasitized by Cassytha [15]. These results show that parasitism didn’t cause major disease-like effects in I. pes-caprae, even though its growth and ability to reproduce were affected. It’s still unclear if this pattern applies to other Cassytha–host pairs, so more research is needed. Cassytha can also take in and store chemical compounds from its host plants. For example, toxic gelsemium alkaloids were found in C. filiformis when it grew on the poisonous plant Gelsemium elegans (also called "heartbreak grass") and absorbed the toxins from the host's sap [31]. This shows the need to check which hosts Cassytha is growing on, especially when the plant is collected for making medicine. Parasitic plants can also take in big molecules like mRNA, viruses, proteins, and phytoplasmas from their host plants. This has been observed in parasites like Cuscuta, Cytinus, members of the Convolvulaceae, and Santalales [32], where they take these macromolecules from their hosts. For example, Cuscuta can spread viruses and phytoplasmas between different host plants, which is why it's often called a “Cuscuta bridge” [33, 34]. Another example of sharing between parasite and host is horizontal gene transfer. It’s not yet confirmed if Cassytha can take in viruses or other large molecules from its hosts, but there is some evidence showing that horizontal gene transfer happens between Cassytha and its hosts [35]. 3.9 Benificial and harmfull of Cassytha host interaction for natural ecosystem and humans 3.9.1 Cassytha filiformis infestation: Damage and control Weeds are a big natural problem that lower crop production [36]. Cassytha species are parasitic plants that grow above the ground and are considered a type of weed [37]. In tropical regions, the parasitic plant C. filiformis damages many important crops like Acacia, Azadirachta, Mangifera, and plants from the Myrtaceae and Theaceae families [6, 38, 39 ]. For example, in Tanzania, C. Filiformis affected 20% of cashew trees and 16% of orange trees. In that region, pests and diseases cause about 30–40% of total crop loss [12, 40]. In southeastern China, more than 15% of forests were damaged by C. filiformis, and in young Camellia oleosa forests in Guangxi Province, damage went as high as 50–60% [41]. In Odisha, India, this parasite was found on 51 plant species from 24 families. It was most commonly seen on Chromolaena odorata, Vitex negundo, and Azadirachta indica, spreading widely in forests, farmlands, and wastelands [42]. Even though parasitic plants like Cassytha make up less than 5% of the total plant mass in an area, they can greatly affect plant communities. They can lower overall plant growth, change how different plant species are balanced, and affect the way plants grow and recycle nutrients in the environment [43]. On the Paracel Islands in the northern South China Sea, C. filiformis was found to reduce the balance and total mass of plants but increased the number and variety World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 302 of plant species growing above ground. It also changed the types of soil animals and microbes in the area [44]. This shows that Cassytha may cause both good and bad effects in nature and might even play an important role in the ecosystem. For example, C. ciliolate does well in areas with many host plants, like the Cunonia plant community in South Africa’s Cape Floristic Region [45]. It's important to control parasitic weeds to protect crops. In places with small infections, C. filiformis can be removed by hand, especially when the plants are young and before they produce flowers or fruits. In areas with a lot of infestation, specific herbicides like Bentazon, used in the right amount, can help remove C. filiformis [38].Overall, more studies are needed to understand how Cassytha spreads and how it affects farming and natural ecosystems. 3.10 Cassytha filiformis role in ecological pest management: Allelopathy is a natural process in which one plant releases chemicals that can affect the growth and survival of other nearby plants [46]. Cassytha filiformis has shown harmful allelopathic effects on three test plants: Oryza sativa (rice), Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyardgrass), and Vigna radiata (mung bean). These effects were proven by applying Cassytha extracts in both powder and water forms during lab experiments, greenhouse trials, and field studies [47]. For example, the dry weight of barnyard grass was reduced by 76.7% in the greenhouse and 42.7% in the field when treated with powdered Cassytha extract. This suggests that C. filiformis could be used as a natural herbicide for controlling weeds in non-rice crops. However, it is still unknown whether it affects other weed species. Similar to Cuscuta, native Cassytha species can also be used to control invasive plant species [48, 49]. For instance, in Florida, the local C. filiformis was part of a strategy to manage the invasive tree Schinus terebinthifolius. When combined with the leaflet-rolling moth Episimusunguiculus, it significantly reduced the growth of the invasive tree for at least two months after the moths were removed [50]. 4 Phytochemical properties of Cassytha filiformis The physical and chemical characteristics of Cassytha filiformis have been analyzed and assessed by various researchers. 4.1 Qualitative analysis for phytochemicals: In [7, 10, 51], different solvent extracts of Cassytha filiformis were tested using qualitative methods to detect the presence of phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, carbohydrates, phenols, and others. The findings are summarized in the below table. Table 1 Qualitative analysis: Phytochemicals MF AF NF Glycosides Strong Very Strong Absent Steroids Absent Absent Moderate Terpenoids Mild Absent Moderate Alkaloids Mild Strong Absent Acidic compounds Absent Mild Absent Carbohydrates Mild Moderate Absent Resins Absent Absent Strong Tannins Moderate Strong Absent Saponins Absent Absent Absent Flavonoids Absent Absent Moderate Proteins Absent Absent Absent Fat and oils Absent Absent Mild MF is Methanolic extract of Cassytha filiformis aerial parts, AF is Hot water extract of Cassytha filiformis aerial parts, NF is n-Hexane extract of Cassytha filiformis aerial parts. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 22(03), 295-311 303 4.2 Quantitative analysis of Phytochemicals [4, 13]: Quantitative analysis of phytoconstituents of Cassytha filiformis had been performed, concentration of each constituent is mentioned in the table. Table 2 Quantitative analysis Phytochemical Compound Concentration Saponin 3.48% Flavonoid 3.70% Tannin 10.47% Phenol 5.233 mg/l Phytate 1.160 mg/l Cardiac Glycosides 2.65% Oxalate 0.132 mg/l Haemagglutinin 12.495 mg/l Alkaloid 3.18% 4.3 Physical content The physical properties (ash value, moisture content, acid-insoluble ash value, swelling index, bitterness value, crude fiber, fixed oil) were evaluated in [52] and are presented in below table. Table 3 Physical content Numerical Standards C. filiformis Swelling index 165.00±10.00 Total tannins 27.30±6.81 Crude fibre 22.40±0.10 Water soluble extractive value 20.60±0.77 Ash value 17.00±1.08 Ethanol soluble extractive value 13.60±0.69 Fixed oil 1.60±0.16 Moisture content 5.50±0.82 Acid insoluble ash 1.00±0.41 Bitterness value 0.23±0.01 4.4 Phytochemistry Phytochemical studies and the isolation of compounds from Cassytha filiformis are still being actively researched. 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