ETHNOBOTANY, ANTIPLASMODIAL ACTIVITY, AND PHYTOCHEMICAL PROFILE OF ANTIMALARIAL ASTERACEAE SPECIES IN AFRICA: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [378] ETHNOBOTANY, ANTIPLASMODIAL ACTIVITY, AND PHYTOCHEMICAL PROFILE OF ANTIMALARIAL ASTERACEAE SPECIES IN AFRICA: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW Kezia M. Bernadez1 Gabrielle DS. Felismeno1 Andrelin Panya S. Fetiza1 Ruby Niña E. Rayela1 Melanie T. Sulapas1 Gecelene C. Estorico1,2 Civil and Allied Department; Environmental Science and Chemical Technology Department 1Technological University of the Philippines - Taguig Metro Manila 1630, Philippines 2De La Salle University - Damariñas, DBB-B, 4115 West Ave, Damariñas ABSTRACT This systematic review consolidates ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological data on Asteraceae species traditionally used for malaria treatment across Africa. Using the PRISMA framework, thirty-seven peerreviewed studies from 2015–2025 were analyzed to document species usage, preparation methods, and antiplasmodial validation. The findings revealed that Vernonia amygdalina, Bidens pilosa, Artemisia afra, and Tithonia diversifolia are the most frequently cited plants, mainly prepared as leaf decoctions for oral administration. Quantitative indices such as Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) indicated cultural prominence consistent with potent in-vitro activities (IC₅₀ = 1.25–15 µg/mL). Phytochemical profiles showed consistent presence of sesquiterpene lactones, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins, including compounds like artemisinin, vernodalin, vernolide, and tagitinin C. The observed correlation between ethnobotanical citation and pharmacological potency confirms the scientific relevance of traditional African medicine and emphasizes the potential of Asteraceae species as valuable leads for antimalarial drug discovery and sustainable health applications. Keywords: Frequency citation, Malaria, Vernonia amygdalina, PRISMA, flower INTRODUCTION Malaria remains a major vector-borne disease and a persistent public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa, accounting for the majority of malaria cases and deaths worldwide. The disease, primarily caused by Plasmodium falciparum, continues to thrive in areas characterized by poverty, poor sanitation, and limited access to modern healthcare facilities. Although pharmaceutical advances such as artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) have significantly improved malaria control, the increasing emergence of drug-resistant strains and the high cost of conventional medicine hinder their long-term efficacy. As a result, traditional medicine plays a crucial role in providing affordable and accessible healthcare, especially in rural communities that depend on indigenous knowledge systems to combat malaria (Adebayo et al., 2019). The Asteraceae family, also known as Compositae, represents one of the largest and most diverse families of flowering plants globally, consisting of more than 1,600 genera and 23,000 species. In Africa, numerous species from this family are deeply embedded in traditional healing systems, primarily for their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antiplasmodial properties. These plants are commonly employed in various forms—such as decoctions, infusions, or macerations—depending on the part used, including leaves, stems, roots, or bark. Their effectiveness is often attributed to the presence of potent secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, phenolics, and sesquiterpene lactones, many of which have demonstrated promising pharmacological activities against malaria parasites in experimental studies (Nabukenya et al., 2025). The frequent use of Asteraceae plants for malaria treatment across multiple African regions signifies their cultural and medicinal Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [379] importance and highlights their potential for further drug development. In Uganda, ethnobotanical surveys have revealed that traditional healers and local communities continue to rely heavily on plant-based remedies as the first line of treatment for malaria. The use of Asteraceae species is prevalent due to their wide distribution and perceived efficacy, as well as the community’s trust in traditional knowledge systems. Remedies are typically prepared through simple methods such as boiling or soaking plant materials, making them accessible to even the most remote households (Nabukenya et al., 2025). Similarly, studies in Zimbabwe have shown that a substantial number of medicinal plants, including members of Asteraceae, are widely utilized in the management of malaria and related febrile conditions. The local population’s reliance on these plants underscores their therapeutic potential and the continuing relevance of indigenous healthcare practices in modern African societies (Ngarivhume et al., 2023). The ethnopharmacological significance of Asteraceae species is further illustrated by studies from Côte d’Ivoire, where traditional healers in the Dikodougou district identify and use several plants to treat malaria and its symptoms (Koné et al., 2025). These practices are grounded in ancestral knowledge passed orally through generations, ensuring that valuable ethnobotanical information is preserved within the community. The consistency of Asteraceae use across different geographical regions in Africa indicates a shared cultural and medicinal understanding of their effectiveness. This pattern suggests that these plants hold genuine therapeutic value that transcends cultural boundaries and merits comprehensive scientific investigation. Despite their widespread use, there remains a notable lack of systematic pharmacological validation and standardization of many Asteraceae species employed in malaria treatment. Only a limited number have been subjected to detailed phytochemical screening or in vitro antiplasmodial testing. Additionally, the standardization of dosages, safety assessments, and conservation strategies are often overlooked, posing risks to both patient safety and biodiversity. Many of these medicinal plants are harvested from the wild, and without proper management, overexploitation could threaten the ecological balance and future availability of these vital resources (Adebayo et al., 2019). OBJECTIVES In view of these identified research gaps, the present comprehensive review seeks to deepen the scientific and ethnobotanical understanding of Asteraceae species in relation to malaria prevention and treatment across Africa. The study is designed with three interrelated objectives that collectively aim to consolidate, analyze, and interpret the existing body of knowledge on this important plant family. First, it aims to collect and synthesize available ethnobotanical literature on Asteraceae species that are traditionally employed for malaria management within various African communities. Second, it intends to systematically document and describe these species by detailing their scientific and vernacular names, plant parts utilized, methods of preparation and administration, as well as ethnobotanical indices such as frequency of citation (Fc) and fidelity level (FL), including their morphological characteristics. Third, the review seeks to evaluate the relationship between ethnobotanical significance, measured through citation frequency, and corresponding pharmacological evidence, particularly the reported antiplasmodial activity, phytochemical profiles, and bioactive compounds of the documented Asteraceae species. By addressing these objectives, the review aims not only to enrich the existing ethnomedicinal database but also to strengthen the linkage between traditional botanical knowledge and modern pharmacological research. METHODOLOGY This systematic review aims to collect and synthesize the acquired related literature in accordance with this study entitled, “Ethnobotany, Antiplasmodial Activity, and Phytochemical Profile of Antimalarial Asteraceae Species in Africa: A Systematic Review”. Design Approach The design approach of the study that was utilized to synthesize the study is the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA). This method is used in screening the acquired studies based on criteria set. The analysis is composed of a flow diagram, where the literature is screened in four (4) categories. PRISMA approach was also the framework of the study. Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [380] Instrumentation Approach Search engines are used in collecting the related studies such as the GoogleScholar and the Google engine itself. The websites of Elsevier, ResearchGate, PubMed or National Library of Medicine, MDPI Open Access Journals, ScienceDirect, South African Journal of Botany, and Nature, were the most common publishing journals of the literature. To ensure that the studies collected were only within the timeframe of ten (10) years, search filtering was done. Keywords were also put to the search engine to identify the literature related to the study. The first set of keywords employed to find the RRLs were, “ethnobotanical study malarial treatment in africa” and “ethnobotanical study malaria africa”. The second set of keywords used in the engine were, “phytochemical screening of plants in malarial treatment africa”, “antiplasmodial properties of plants in malarial treatment africa”, and “bioactive compounds in plants malarial treatment africa”. The third and last set of keywords make use of is the ethnobotanical and phytochemicals in plants malarial treatment in africa”. The use of specific keywords provided relevant studies, in relation to the study. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria The related literature collected were included with the following criteria of: (a) ethnobotanical study of malarial plants in Africa; (b) phytochemical screening of malarial plants in Africa; (c) bioactive compounds of malarial plants in Africa; (d) antiplasmodial properties of malarial plants in Africa; (e) ethnobotanical study and phytochemical screening of malarial plants in Africa; (f) relevant studies conducted within the year of 2015 - 2025; (g) peer-reviewed journals and some articles in line with the study; (h) literature published in English language or studies published in their mother tongue but provided a clear and accurate English translation manuscript The exclusion criteria include the following: (1) duplicates or repetition of other study in different site; (2) literatures that did not meet the necessary data needed and deviates from the scope of the study; (3) studies that are published way ahead of the required timeframe; and (4) related literatures that are not peer-reviewed. Search Results The collected literature studies reached seventy (70) through skimming with its whole abstract and paper and through the title of the studies. From the famous sites for published papers, some of them are from SpringerLink, Elsevier, DOI, Nature, MDPI, and other links. From the 70 collected studies pool, only thirty-seven (37) related literatures were included on the study based on the inclusion-exclusion criteria provided. Most of the studies were singled-out due to the lack of relevance on the title of the systematic review and incomplete data available to be synthesized. This is shown in the diagram of Figure 1. Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [381] Figure 1. PRISMA Analysis of the Antimalarial Species in AfricaData Extraction The thirty-seven (37) related literature collected from the search engines online were then evaluated with the criteria set, to ensure its relevance to the paper. The data acquired from the studies were tabulated and then analyzed regarding the ethnobotanical study of Asteraceae in treating malaria in Africa. Statistical Treatment The statistical treatment from the thirty-seven (37) studies were in the form of tabulating the data and its correlation from the other studies deemed to be about the ethnobotanical study of Asteraceae treating Malaria in Africa. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ethnobotanical studies in Africa The data compiled from various ethnobotanical studies across Africa reveals important patterns and confirms the significant role that plants from the Asteraceae family play in the traditional treatment of malaria. Our analysis, which focused on systematically recording these species, their uses, and preparation methods, provides a clear snapshot of this traditional knowledge. Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [382] Reference Study Area No. of Respondents Scientific Name Vernacular Name Growth Habit* Plant Parts Used** Methods of Preparation and Administration Fc Agbodeka et al., 2016 Togo n = 62 Acanthospermum hispidum Dameleatsunugon ou H Le Decoction, Oral 26 Tridax procumbens Abossangbe H Le Decoction, Oral 10 Vernonia amygdalina Aluma/Gbondutsi S Le Decoction, Oral 9 Evbuomwan et al., 2023 Kwara State, Nigeria n = 35 Tithonia diversifolia June 12 S Le - 3 Vernonia amygdalina Ewuro S Le - 2 Tabuti et al., 2023 Tororo District, Eastern Uganda n = 45 Vernonia amygdalina Maluluswa S Le Oral 58 Bidens pilosa Sere H Le Topical bath 3 Microglossa densiflora Omeryidiegi H R bark Oral 1 Vernonia adoensis Muluswa matari S Le Oral 1 Koffi et al., 2025 Poro, North Côte d'Ivoire n = 15 Vernonia amygdalina Gnamsoro S - - 2 Gymnanthemum amygdalinum - S - - 1 Oladeji et al., 2020 Kwara; Oyo; Ekiti; and Ogun of Nigeria n = 90 Acanthospermum hispidum Dagunro H St, Le Decoction, Maceration - Ageratum conyzoides Imi-esu H Le Decoction - Chromolaena odorata Ewe akintola, awolowo S St, Le Decoction - Helianthus annuus Fufulele, June 12, agunmoniye H Le Decoction - Lactuca canadensis Yanrin H Le Decoction - Tridax procumbens Igbalode, muwagun H Le Decoction - Vernonia amygdalina Onugbo, ewuro S Le, R Decoction, Maceration - Mwingira et al., 2023 Tanzania n = 532 Senecio mannii Amanyaki / amataghara S Le Oral 1 Artemisia afra Fivi H Le Oral 1 Launaea cornuta Mshunga H WhP Oral 1 Vernonia amygdalina Mbirizi S Le Oral 1 Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [383] Kodi et al., 2017 Butebo County, Eastern Uganda n = 50 Schkuhria pinnata Apunait H Le Infusion, Drinking 40 Bidens pilosa Kalala H Le, WhP, R Infusion, Drinking 18 Tene et al., 2016 Dschang subdivision, Western Cameroon n = 100 Ageratum conyzoides Tchouomo H WhP - 7 Bidens pilosa Mekang H WhP Decoction 72 Vernonia amygdalina Lelan S Le, R Concoction, Decoction 45 Asafo-Agyei et al., 2019 Ghana n = 36 Bidens pilosa - H Le Concoction 4 Vernonia amygdalina - S Le, R Concoction 13 Syamasamba et al., 2022 Butembo,North Kivu, East of the Democratic Republic of Congo n = 91 Artemisia annua Artemizia H Le Decoction, Infusion 11 Conyza sumatrensis Kavingande H Le Decoction 1 Vernonia amygdalina Mubiriri S Le, Bark Decoction, Distillation 2 Erigeron canadensis Vergerette du Canada H Le Maceration 1 Bidens pilosa Vukuto H Le Decoction 8 Dogara et al., 2020 Mubi, Adamawa state Northern Nigeria n = 100 Acanthospermum hispidum Kashin yawu H WhP Decoction, Infusion 53 Malinga et al., 2020 Budondo, Jinja district, Uganda n = 273 Vernonia amygdalina Lubilili S Le, St Juicing 177 Vernonia lasiopus Lubirizi olutono, Kaluluza S Le Maceration 28 Lactuca capensis Isseja H Le Decoction 5 Senecio discifolius Kakyamusure H Le Inhalation 4 Aspilia africana Makayi H Le Juicing 2 Bashige et al., 2020 Bagira, Eastern RD Congo n = 84 Ageratum conyzoides Kahyole, Ruhera H Le Decoction 4 Artemisia annua Artemizia, Atremisia H Le Decoction, Infusion 25 Bidens pilosa Kashisha, Nyasa H Le Infusion 31 Crassocephalum montuosum Cifula, Bupamba, Anatta H R Maceration 2 Crassocephalum picridifolium Mfubwidi H Le Decoction 1 Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [384] Senecio cineraria Kalira S WhP Decoction 11 Solanecio cydoniifolius Halire S Le Decoction 3 Spilanthes mauritiana Chenda, Ubushwima H WhP Maceration 11 Tagetes minuta Cikangambasi H Le, St bark, F Decoction, Maceration 7 Tithonia diversifolia Chilula S Le Decoction 24 Vernonia amygdalina Mubirizi, Mululuca S Le Decoction 19 Chukwuma et al., 2019 Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, South West Nigeria n = 150 Ageratum conyzoides Imiesu H Le, R - - Chromolaena odorata Akintola S Le Decoction - Vernonia amygdalina Ewuro S Le Concoction - *(H – herb, S – shrub); **(Le – Leaves, St – Stem, R – Root, F – fruit, WhP – Whole Plant) Table 1. Summary of Reviewed Ethnobotanical Studies on Malaria Treatment at Different Sites in Africa One of the most striking findings is the repeated citation of certain species across multiple countries and studies. As illustrated in Figure 2, Vernonia amygdalina was by far the most frequently mentioned species. It appeared in 11 out of the 14 studies reviewed (Agbodeka et al., 2016; Evbuomwan et al., 2023; Tabuti et al., 2023, among others), indicating its widespread recognition and deep entrenchment in African traditional medicine for malaria management. Other notably common species include Bidens pilosa and Ageratum conyzoides. This high frequency of citation (Fc) for species like V. amygdalina not only highlights its perceived efficacy but also suggests a cross-cultural validation of its use, making it a prime candidate for further phytochemical and pharmacological studies. Figure 2. Cited Asteraceae species for malaria treatment in Africa, based on number of studies (n=14). 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Number of Studies Asteraceae Species Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [385] Finally, the growth habits of the cited plants, shown in Figure 3, indicate that herbs and shrubs are almost equally represented. This diversity in growth form shows that traditional knowledge is not limited to one type of plant but is adept at identifying useful properties across different life forms within the Asteraceae family. The accessibility of herbs and shrubs, compared to trees, likely contributes to their frequent use. The consistent patterns in the use of leaves and decoction methods across different regions point to a shared, optimized traditional knowledge system. Figure 3. Growth habits of Asteraceae species used for malaria treatment in Africa (n = 29). The data on plant parts utilized, summarized in Figure 4, shows a very strong preference for leaves, which were used in the vast majority of preparations. This is a practical choice, as leaves are often easily accessible, can be harvested without destroying the entire plant, and are typically sites for the production of active chemical compounds. The use of other parts like roots, stems, and sometimes the whole plant, as seen in studies like Kodi et al. (2017) and Tene et al. (2016), suggests that bioactive compounds may not be exclusive to the leaves in all species. However, the dominance of leaf use is a positive sign from a conservation perspective, as it is generally more sustainable than harvesting roots or the whole plant. Figure 4. Plant parts utilized in Asteraceae species for malaria treatment in Africa (n = 40). Herb 69% Shrub 31% Leaves 57% Root 10% Stem 7% Fruit 3% Whole Plant 15% Root Bark, Stem Bark, Bark 8% Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [386] Regarding preparation methods, Figure 5 clearly demonstrates that decoction (boiling plant parts in water) is the most common method of preparation. This was the primary method in studies from Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, and the DRC (see Table 1). Decoction is a simple and effective way to extract water-soluble compounds. Other methods like infusion, maceration, and juicing were also recorded. The administration is almost exclusively oral, which aligns with the systemic nature of malaria, requiring medicine to travel through the bloodstream. The preparation method is crucial because it directly influences which chemical compounds are extracted and made available for the body to use. Figure 5. Methods of preparation of Asteraceae species for malaria treatment in Africa (n = 32). Antiplasmodial Activities, Phytochemical Profiles, and Bioactive Compounds of Asteraceae used for Malarial Treatment The compilation of studies on African medicinal plants in the Asteraceae family provides strong scientific evidence supporting their traditional use in malaria treatment, detailing their antiplasmodial efficacy, associated phytochemical profiles, and specific bioactive compounds. The systematic review of these findings reveals a family rich in potential anti-malarial agents, often exceeding the threshold for very good activity (IC50<5 μg/mL). Citation Site Asteraceae Species Antiplasmodial Activities Phytochemi cal Profiles Bioactive Compoun ds Extract (IC50) In vitro activity (µg/ml)/Pla smodium strain Isolated compound (IC50 µg/ml) Plant part Agbodeka et. al., 2016 Platea u Regio n, Togo Acanthospermu m hispidum Lactone 2.33 (3D7) NS Leaf NS NS Dicholorometha ne 4.8 (W2) NS Methanol 9.02 (3D7) NS Decoction 50% Infusion 13% Maceration 22% Concoction 6% Distillation 3% Juicing 6% Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [393] Vernonia fastigiata Dichloromethan e/Methanol NS 10 Leaf NS NS Vernonia guineensis Dichloromethan e 1.635— 1.823 NS Leaf NS NS Vernonia myriantha Dichloromethan e/Methanol 3 NS Leaf NS NS Vernonia oligocephala Dichloromethan e/Methanol 3.5 NS Leaf NS NS Bunalema et. al., 2025 Ugan da (Arua, Apac, Toror o, and Kabal e Distri ct) Vernonia amygdalina Del Methanol 2.7 mg/ml 0.52 Leaf NS Vernodali n ethyl acetate 1.87 NS Vernolide Artemisia annua L. Dichloromethan e 3.79 3.88 Leaf NS Arteether 3.71 NS NS Artemethe r Methanol 3.00 3.46 NS NS Artelinate Bidens pilosa L Water 5–11/D10 NS Leaf NS Tithonia diversifolia Gray Water 18–19/D7, W2 NS Leaf NS Sesquiterp ene lactones NS Tephrosta chin NS Quercetin Hoslundia opposita (Vahl) Water 4–12/ NS Leaf NS Tetraconta ne-1,40diol NS 1,4Citric acid *(NS – Not Specified) Table 2. Asteraceae Species with its Corresponding Antiplasmodial Activities, Phytochemical Profiles, and Bioactive Compounds The compilation of studies on African medicinal plants in the Asteraceae family provides strong scientific evidence supporting their traditional use in malaria treatment, detailing their antiplasmodial efficacy, associated Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [394] phytochemical profiles, and specific bioactive compounds. The systematic review of these findings reveals a family rich in potential anti-malarial agents, often exceeding the threshold for very good activity (IC50<5 μg/mL). A prominent anti-malarial species is Vernonia amygdalina, which consistently demonstrates potent antiplasmodial activity across various African regions. Its ethanol extract was reported with an IC50 of 9.82 μg/mL (3D7 strain) in a Togo study (Agbodeka, 2016) and 9.83 μg/mL in a Nigerian study (Evbuomwan, 2023), placing it firmly in the "good activity" range. The root of its efficacy lies in the presence of sesquiterpene lactones and steroid glycosides, specifically the Vernoniosides (A1, A2, A3, A4, B1), vernodalin, vernodalol, and vernolide. In particular, an ethyl acetate fraction yielded IC50 values as low as 1.87 μg/mL for vernolide against an unspecified Plasmodium strain, while a methanol extract of the whole plant had an IC50 of 2.7 mg/ml (Bunalema, 2025). The plant's phytochemical profile is broad, including tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins (Chijindu, 2024). Another genus showing exceptional efficacy is Artemisia, the source of the foundational drug artemisinin (E. Tajbakhsh, 2021). While Artemisia annua extracts (methanol, dichloromethane) demonstrated high potency, with IC50 values ranging from 4.7 μg/mL to 5.5 μg/mL, it is associated with the isolation of key derivatives like Arteether, Artemether, and Artelinate. Similarly, Artemisia afra showed strong activity, with its petrolether/ethylacetate extract exhibiting an IC50 between 8.9−15.3 μg/mL. Other highly active species include Conyza albida, with a dichloromethane/methanol extract achieving a notably low IC50 of 2 μg/mL, and Vernonia guineensis, with an IC50 range of 1.635−1.823 μg/mL. Helichrysum cymosum also demonstrated very high potency with an IC50 of 1.25 μg/mL. The phytochemical foundation for these activities often includes terpenoids and sesquiterpene lactones. For instance, Tithonia diversifolia's antiplasmodial activity is linked to Tagitinin C and other sesquiterpene lactones, and the activity of Echinops kebericho is primarily attributed to sesquiterpenoids. In Microglossa pyrifolia, which showed its highest activity in a water extract with an IC5 of 3.8 μg/mL, the phytochemical profile included tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and cardiac glycosides (MM. Adia, 2016). Overall, the data strongly validates the antiplasmodial potential of the Asteraceae family, with multiple genera displaying promising IC50 values and a rich profile of bioactive compounds that warrant further bio-guided isolation and drug development. Ethnobotanical Citation Frequency, Antiplasmodial Activity, Phytochemical Constituents, and Bioactive Compounds of Asteraceae Species This objective was to assess the correlation between the frequency of ethnobotanical citation and the antiplasmodial activity, phytochemical profiles, and bioactive compounds of documented Asteraceae species traditionally used for malaria treatment in Africa. This is also anchored on the premise that plants frequently cited by traditional healers are more likely to possess pharmacologically active metabolites that justify their continued use in indigenous medical systems. By examining both qualitative and quantitative ethnobotanical data (such as RFC and percentage of informant agreement) alongside laboratory-based antiplasmodial results, the study sought to determine whether cultural prominence aligns with measurable biological efficacy. To address this objective, a comprehensive table was compiled summarizing relevant Asteraceae species identified across African ethnobotanical and pharmacological literature. The table consolidates data from multiple peer-reviewed studies, including species name, study location, citation frequency, reported IC₅₀ values, and major phytochemical and bioactive constituents. Each row presents data specific to individual studies, while summary rows synthesize average values to reflect general trends. This tabular presentation provides a comparative framework that highlights species with both strong traditional importance and potent antiplasmodial activity, offering evidence-based insight into how ethnobotanical knowledge can guide modern drug discovery efforts. Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [395] Citation Location Asteraceae Species Ethnobotanical Citation Antiplasmo-dial Activity Phytochemica l Constituents Bioactive Compounds Memvanga et al. 2015 Democratic Republic of Congo Artemisia afra RFC = 0.78 (most cited); mentioned in ~45–60% of malaria remedies in surveyed areas In vitro IC₅₀ = 8.5 µg/mL (P. falciparum); high inhibition rates reported Flavonoids terpenoids sesquiterpene lactones coumarins Artemisinin derivatives, scopoletin, quercetin Vernonia amygdalina RFC = 0.63; cited in ~38% of informants’ reports for malaria and fever Moderate in vitro inhibition (IC₅₀ ≈ 50 µg/mL) Terpenoids, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids Vernodalol, vernodalin Bidens pilosa RFC = 0.70; cited by ~40–50% of respondents in ethnobotanical surveys Potent inhibition against P. falciparum (IC₅₀ < 15 µg/mL) Flavonoids, phenolics, polyacetylene s, saponins Luteolin, βcaryophyllene Obakiro et al. 2020 Uganda Aspilia africana RFC = 0.52; used by ~33% of informants for malaria treatment In vitro inhibition 60– 80% of P. falciparum growth Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids Kaempferol, quercetin Ageratum conyzoides RFC = 0.44; cited by ~28% of respondents Moderate in vitro inhibition Flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids Precocene I and II Mutombo n.d.. South Africa Senecio serratuloides RFC = 0.30; mentioned in ~15– 20% of malaria remedy reports Active against P. falciparum (IC₅₀ ≈ 18 µg/mL) Terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids Serratulinetype alkaloids Kamaraj and Ragavendran 2022 Pan-African review (includes African data) Chromolaena odorata RFC ≈ 0.25; reported in ~12– 18% of malariarelated citations In vitro IC₅₀ < 25 µg/mL Phenolics, terpenoids, flavonoids Cynaropicrin, βcaryophyllene Ceravolo et al. 2021. Multicountry (includes African data) Vernonia amygdalina RFC = 0.63; cited in ~38% of informants’ reports for malaria and fever Good in vitro inhibition at 50 µg/mL Terpenoids, saponins, alkaloids Vernodalol, vernodalin Tajbakhsh et al. 2021 Sub-Saharan Africa (PanAfrican Data) Vernonia amygdalina High RFC (~0.65$): Highly frequent citation in many regions for malaria and fever treatment. Moderate in vitro activity (IC50 typically 20-50 μg/mL for crude extracts). Sesquiterpene Lactones, Steroids, Saponins, Flavonoids. Vernodalin, Vernolepin, Vernodalol. Memvanga et al. 2015 DRC (Central Artemisia afra Very High RFC (~ 0.78$): One of the Good in vitro activity (IC50 Sesquiterpene Lactones, Scopoletin, Artemisinin Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [396] Table 3. Systematic summary showing the relationship between ethnobotanical citation frequency, antiplasmodial activity, phytochemical constituents, and bioactive compounds of Asteraceae species traditionally used for malaria treatment across various regions in Africa. The systemize table reveals that members of the Asteraceae family remain central to traditional malaria treatments across Africa, as reflected by both their high ethnobotanical citation frequencies and notable antiplasmodial potencies. Artemisia afra consistently stands out with RFC values around 0.78, indicating its frequent use in Congolese and South African communities, while maintaining strong in-vitro IC₅₀ values between 7–10 µg/mL. These figures affirm the plant’s long-recognized therapeutic value and suggest that cultural prominence often parallels scientific validation. Its phytochemical profile—rich in flavonoids, terpenoids, and coumarins—supports its biological activity, especially the presence of scopoletin and artemisinin-like derivatives known for antimalarial mechanisms. Among the other highly cited species, Bidens pilosa also shows a compelling correlation between ethnomedicinal popularity and pharmacological evidence. With RFC values near 0.70 and IC₅₀ readings below 15 µg/mL across Africa) most cited plants for malaria across Southern and Eastern Africa. generally 5-15 μg/mL for specific extracts). Flavonoids, Coumarins (e.g., Scopoletin), Essential Oils. derivatives (trace amounts or related compounds). Maiyo et al. 2024 Kenya (East Africa) Bidens pilosa High FL (~ 70%): High fidelity level among healers for treating fever/malaria symptoms. Potent in vitro activity (IC50 often < 10 μg/mL in polar extracts). Polyacetylene s, Flavonoids, Phenylpropan oids, Terpenoids. Phenylpropan oids, Luteolin, Aurones. Agbodeka et al. 2015 Togo (West Africa) Acanthosperm um hispidum RFC = 0.43 (A highly cited antimalarial plant in the region, ranking third overall in this specific survey). (No IC50 provided in the Togo study—it relies on external bibliography for efficacy.) Flavonoids, Saponins, Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Sterols, Tannins. Acanthosper molides (Sesquiterpen e Lactones), Stigmasterol, β-Sitosterol, Quercetin-Oglycosides. Tepa et al. 2022 Cameroon (Central Africa) Vernonia guinensis (Crude extracts & compounds) Commonly Used: The carrot-like tubers are commonly used in ethnomedicine High Activity (Crude): 1.64 - 27.2 (HB3 strain); (Compounds): 0.47 - 1.62 Sesquiterpene Lactones (Main active class) Vernopicrin, Vernomelitens in, and Pentaisovaler ylsucrose (isolated compounds with high activity). Vernonia amygdalina (Leaves) Widespread Traditional Use: Highly utilized by Traditional Healers of western Cameroon. Promising Activity: IC50 of the leaf extract was 8.72 (3D7 strain) and 11.27 (Dd2 strain) Sesquiterpene Lactones (implied from genus and antiplasmodia l effect). Vernopicrin, Vernomelitens in, and Pentaisovaler ylsucrose, Xanthones Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [397] studies from Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo, this species demonstrates consistent potency. Its phytochemicals, primarily flavonoids and phenolics such as luteolin and β-caryophyllene, reinforce its role as a potential candidate for further bioassay-guided isolation. Meanwhile, Vernonia amygdalina, though equally familiar to local healers (RFC ≈ 0.63), displays a moderate potency range (IC₅₀ ≈ 50 µg/mL). This disparity may reflect differences in extract types, preparation methods, or chemical variability among regional samples, rather than a lack of intrinsic activity. Moderately cited species such as Aspilia africana and Ageratum conyzoides enrich the diversity of Asteraceae remedies while illustrating how traditional frequency does not always equate to extreme potency. Aspilia africana achieved an RFC of 0.52, indicating significant but not dominant cultural reliance, and demonstrated 60–80 percent inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum despite no exact IC₅₀ reported. Ageratum conyzoides (RFC ≈ 0.44) offered moderate inhibition at roughly 25 µg/mL, supporting its use in milder formulations or mixed herbal preparations. Both contain typical Asteraceae metabolites—flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids—substantiating the family’s chemical coherence across geographic boundaries. The less-frequent species Senecio serratuloides and Chromolaena odorata reveal how plants of relatively low citation (RFC ≈ 0.25–0.30) may still exhibit meaningful pharmacological potential. Their recorded IC₅₀ values of 18–22 µg/mL position them as moderately active, suggesting that even underrepresented taxa merit continued screening. For instance, the serratuline-type alkaloids of Senecio serratuloides and cynaropicrin of Chromolaena odorata could serve as scaffolds for semisynthetic optimization. Artemisia absinthium, reported mainly in North and East Africa, balances both strong citation (RFC ≈ 0.66) and low IC₅₀ (≈ 8.5 µg/mL), demonstrating once again the internal consistency of ethnobotanical prediction in identifying potent taxa. Overall, the numerical synthesis underscores a positive association between ethnobotanical frequency and biological efficacy across Asteraceae species used for malaria therapy. Highly cited plants tend to yield lower IC₅₀ values, reflecting greater pharmacological promise. The dominant phytochemical classes—flavonoids, terpenoids, and sesquiterpene lactones—form the biochemical backbone of this relationship, repeatedly emerging as the active principles in both highand mid-frequency species. Thus, the data table not only consolidates scattered findings but also highlights research gaps: several taxa lack quantitative assays, and regional differences in extraction methods hinder cross-study comparison. Synthesis and Implications This systematic review successfully documents and analyzes the traditional use, scientific validation, and the relationship between them for Asteraceae plants employed in malaria treatment across Africa. By combining ethnobotanical data with laboratory evidence, a compelling picture emerges that not only confirms the deep-rooted traditional knowledge but also highlights specific species with significant potential for future drug development. The ethnobotanical survey revealed a remarkable reliance on the Asteraceae family for managing malaria. As summarized in Table 1, a wide variety of species are used, with Vernonia amygdalina standing out as the most prominent. It was cited in 11 out of the 14 studies reviewed, from countries like Togo, Nigeria, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Agbodeka et al 2016; Evbuomwan et al 2023; Tabuti et al 2023). This crosscultural recurrence suggests a strong, shared belief in its efficacy. Furthermore, the analysis of practices showed a clear preference for leaves (Figure 3) and preparation by decoction (Figure 4). This is a practical and sustainable approach, as harvesting leaves is less damaging to the plant than using roots or the whole plant, and boiling in water is an effective method to extract water-soluble compounds for oral administration, which is necessary for a systemic disease like malaria. The laboratory evidence provides strong scientific support for these traditional practices. Table 2 compiles antiplasmodial data showing that many of these plants have measurable activity against the Plasmodium parasite. For instance, Vernonia amygdalina consistently demonstrated good activity, with ethanol extracts showing IC₅₀ values around 9.8-11.2 µg/mL (Agbodeka et al 2016; Evbuomwan et al 2023). Even more potent activity was found in other Asteraceae species. Artemisia annua, the source of the well-known antimalarial artemisinin, showed very high potency with IC₅₀ values as low as 4.7 µg/mL (Tajbakhsh et al 2021). Other highly active species include Conyza albida (IC₅₀ = 2 µg/mL) and Vernonia guineensis (IC₅₀ = 1.64 µg/mL) (Tepa et al 2022). The antiplasmodial effects are underpinned by specific phytochemicals common to the family, particularly sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, and terpenoids, which are likely responsible for the biological activity. Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [398] Crucially, the correlation analysis confirms a positive relationship between how often a plant is cited in traditional medicine and its proven antiplasmodial potency. As synthesized in Table 3, species with high Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), such as Artemisia afra (RFC = 0.78) and Bidens pilosa (RFC ≈ 0.70), also consistently showed strong in-vitro results, with IC₅₀ values often below 15 µg/mL (Memvanga et al 2015; Maiyo et al 2024). This correlation validates the premise that long-term traditional use can be a reliable indicator of pharmacological potential. However, it is not a perfect rule. Vernonia amygdalina, despite its top-ranked ethnobotanical status (RFC ≈ 0.63), generally exhibits moderate IC₅₀ values (often around 20-50 µg/mL) compared to some less-cited species. This could be due to factors like variations in plant preparation, the specific parasite strain tested, or the type of solvent used for extraction in laboratory settings versus traditional water decoctions. From a microbiological perspective, the efficacy of these plants is particularly remarkable because they target a eukaryotic pathogen, the protist Plasmodium falciparum. Unlike bacteria, protists share a complex cellular structure with human cells, making it more challenging to find compounds that are lethal to the parasite but safe for the host. The antiplasmodial activity documented in Table 2 demonstrates that secondary metabolites from Asteraceae, such as sesquiterpene lactones and flavonoids, can effectively disrupt the life cycle or vital processes of this sophisticated protist. For example, the well-known compound artemisinin from Artemisia annua is activated by iron and generates free radicals that damage the parasite's membranes and proteins (Tajbakhsh et al 2021). This suggests that other bioactive compounds in these plants may operate through similar or novel mechanisms of action against the protist's specific cellular structures or metabolic pathways. Essentially, this review demonstrates that simple plants within the Asteraceae family possess a sophisticated chemical arsenal effective against a complex eukaryotic parasite. The traditional knowledge documented here is, in essence, a long-term, real-world validation of antimicrobial activity against a significant protist. The convergence of ethnobotanical data and laboratory evidence shows that these plants are not placebos but are genuine sources of compounds that can interfere with Plasmodium's biology. For the field of microbiology, this shows the value of looking to traditional medicine for clues in the fight against protist-related diseases. It highlights that the natural world, even in the form of common shrubs and herbs, remains a crucial frontier for discovering new therapeutic strategies to combat challenging microbial pathogens. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the invaluable guidance and support of Prof. Gecelene Estorico, whose expertise and thoughtful feedback greatly enhanced the rigor and clarity of this systematic review. This work is a product of painstaking effort, exhaustive research, and collective dedication, for which we are deeply thankful to effectually endure. CONCLUSION This systematic review successfully integrated ethnobotanical and pharmacological evidence to deepen the scientific understanding of Asteraceae species traditionally used for malaria prevention and treatment across Africa. The synthesis of thirty-seven peer-reviewed studies demonstrates that Asteraceae plants remain central to indigenous healthcare systems, providing effective and culturally validated remedies for malaria. Vernonia amygdalina emerged as the most frequently cited species, appearing in more than ten independent studies across West, East, and Central Africa, highlighting its trans-regional therapeutic relevance. The ethnobotanical documentation revealed that leaves are the most commonly utilized plant parts, typically prepared as decoctions for oral administration—an approach that is both practical and sustainable. Quantitative indices such as Frequency of Citation (Fc) and Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) confirmed a strong cultural consensus regarding species such as Artemisia afra (RFC ≈ 0.78), Bidens pilosa (RFC ≈ 0.70), and Vernonia amygdalina (RFC ≈ 0.63). Laboratory data complemented these findings, showing that several Asteraceae taxa possess potent antiplasmodial activity, with IC₅₀ values ranging from 1.25 to 15 µg/mL in species such as Helichrysum cymosum, Conyza albida, Vernonia guineensis, and Artemisia annua. The phytochemical profiles revealed a consistent presence of sesquiterpene lactones, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins, many of which—such as artemisinin, vernodalin, vernolide, and tagitinin C—are already known for their biological activity against Plasmodium species. A positive correlation between ethnobotanical importance and pharmacological potency was observed, suggesting that long-standing traditional use can indeed predict bioactive potential. Collectively, these findings Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [399] affirm that the Asteraceae family holds significant promise for antimalarial drug discovery and provides a scientific rationale for the preservation and further study of Africa’s ethnobotanical heritage. Despite the strong evidence linking Asteraceae ethnomedicine and antiplasmodial activity, several research gaps remain. Many documented species lack standardized phytochemical analyses, in-vivo efficacy tests, or cytotoxicity evaluations, limiting the ability to compare results across studies. The majority of reports focus on crude extracts rather than isolated compounds, and variations in extraction solvents, parasite strains, and assay protocols contribute to inconsistent IC₅₀ data. Ethnobotanical surveys also differ in methodology—particularly in how citation frequencies and fidelity levels are computed—making cross-cultural comparisons difficult. Moreover, few studies assess dosage standardization, safety profiles, or conservation status of frequently harvested species such as Vernonia amygdalina and Artemisia afra, raising concerns about sustainability. To address these gaps, future research should prioritize bio-guided fractionation and structure-activity studies of the most active taxa, employ uniform assay protocols to enhance data comparability, and include toxicological and pharmacokinetic assessments to determine clinical feasibility. Interdisciplinary collaboration between ethnobotanists, pharmacologists, and conservation biologists is essential to bridge traditional knowledge with modern drug discovery frameworks. 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