Prevalence and Intensity of Gastrointestinal Parasites and Related Risk Factors in Goats Kept by Smallholder Farmers in Juja Sub-County, Kenya

656 To cite this paper: Koyan OC, Kagira J, Waweru KP, Naomi M, and Osuga I (2025). Prevalence and Intensity of Gastrointestinal Parasites and Related Risk Factors in Goats Kept by Smallholder Farmers in Juja Sub-County, Kenya. World Vet. J., 15(3): 656-668 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.54203/scil.2025.wvj66 2025, Scienceline Publication World’s Veterinary Journal World Vet J, 15(3): 656-668. ISSN 2322-4568 Prevalence and Intensity of Gastrointestinal Parasites and Related Risk Factors in Goats Kept by Smallholder Farmers in Juja Sub-County, Kenya Odinga Christopher Koyan1,2 , John Kagira1* , Kamundia Patrick Waweru2, Maina Naomi3, and Osuga Isaac1 1Department of Animal Sciences, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya 2Department of Animal Health and Production, Maasai Mara University, P.O. Box 861-20500, Narok, Kenya 3Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author's Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT Gastrointestinal parasites (GIP) negatively impact the health and productivity of goats. Regular screening of the animals for these parasites is crucial for implementing effective control strategies. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence of GIP and its risk-related factors in goats owned by smallholder farmers in Juja Subcounty, Kiambu County, Kenya. A total of 210 goats consisting of both males and females, of different breeds including Boer, Toggenburg, Alpine, and Small East African were randomly sampled from 80 farms. Fresh fecal samples were collected and analyzed for parasites using McMaster techniques for egg/oocyst examination. A structured questionnaire was administered to assess the risk factors such as age, sex, breed, origin of the goats, production system, and purpose and frequency of cleaning goat houses in relation to the prevalence of the parasites. The overall prevalence of the GIP was 88.6%, with nematodes and coccidia detected in 64.3% and 74.3% of the goats, respectively. The mean eggs per gram was 67.72, while the mean oocysts per gram was 243. Goat fecal samples positive for gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) eggs were cultured and identified after recovery of third-stage larvae (L3) using the Baermann technique, whereas the coccidian oocysts were sporulated in 2.5% potassium dichromate solution, followed by microscopic examination based on morphological features of the parasites. The identified GIN nematodes included Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Strongyloides papillosus, Ostertagia spp., and Nematodirus spathiger, while the coccidians were Eimeria caprina, Eimeria ninakohlyakimovae, and Eimeria hirci. The prevalence of GIN was significantly associated with age (higher in adults), production systems (higher in intensive systems), and body condition score (higher in animals with poor body condition). For coccidia, the prevalence was associated with the animal origin (higher in goats from Murera Ward), breed (higher in small East African goats), age (higher in younger goats), body condition score (higher in goats with poor condition), and cleaning frequency (higher in goats kept in irregularly cleaned pens). In conclusion, the overall prevalence and burden of GIP reported in the study were high, with the pathogenic gastrointestinal nematodes and Eimeria spp. being the most prevalent parasites. Keywords: Coccidia, Goat, Nematode, Prevalence, Risk factor ORIGINAL ARTICLE Received: June 28, 2025 Revised: July 29, 2025 Accepted: August 29, 2025 Published: September 25, 2025 INTRODUCTION Goats are highly versatile livestock species, capable of flourishing in a wide range of environments, including arid deserts, semi-arid areas, and mountainous regions. The global goat population stands at approximately 1.1 billion (Ahari and Waiz, 2024) and is largely concentrated in Asia (57.7%) and Africa (35.7%; FAO, 2018). Rearing of goats is quite popular in countries such as Kenya, where the goat population is 28 million (Park, 2022), comprising of exotic goat breeds such as Toggenburg, Saanen, and Alpine (Shivairo et al., 2013) and indigenous goats that include Galla and small East Africa and the crossbred of exotic and indigenous (Kiura et al., 2020). In rural and peri-urban Kenya, goat rearing plays a vital role in the economy, providing employment and income, and it is crucial for people's livelihoods, food security, and nutrition (Lokhit et al., 2005; Kipserem, 2011; KARLO, 2020). However, despite their benefits, goats are vulnerable to various parasitic diseases, such as gastrointestinal helminthosis and coccidiosis. Goats reared in tropical countries suffer from a heavy burden of helminthosis and coccidiosis due to favorable conditions for parasite-host interactions, poor control strategies, and the emergence of drug resistance (Mpofu et al., 2022; Hussein et al., 2023). Infection usually occurs when animals ingest infective larvae or eggs and oocysts from contaminated environments, and transmission continues through excretion into the environment. The economic impacts DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.54203/scil.2025.wvj66 PII: S232245682500066-15 World Vet. J., 15(3): 656-668, 2025 657 of the two parasitic diseases include reduced meat, milk, and wool production, reduced fertility, increased mortality, and treatment costs (Shimelis et al., 2011; Siyoun and Kitaw, 2014). Previous studies have reported the prevalence of internal parasites in goats across various geographical regions, including Cameroon, 94.4% (Ntonifor et al., 2013), Zimbabwe, 92.5% (Pandey et al., 1994), South Africa, 82.25% (Gwaze et al., 2009), Ethiopia, 54.17% (Hussein et al., 2023), Nigeria 35.5% (Nwosu et al., 2007), 33% Namibia (Kumba et al., 2003), and India, 25.2% (Sharma and Mandal, 2013). In Kenya, the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in goats has been reported, with overall helminth prevalence ranging from 75% (Waruiru, 2004) to 82% (Maichomo et al., 2004) in goats reared under an extensive production system. The most common gastrointestinal tract nematode species in small ruminants include Hemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Ostertagia spp., Nematodirus spp., and Cooperia spp. (Waruiru et al., 2000; Maichomo et al., 2004). Recent epidemiological data on helminths in goats kept by smallholder farmers in Kenya are scanty. Several studies have described the high prevalence of coccidiosis in goats across Africa. For instance, Maichomo et al. (2004), Ikpeze et al. (2010), Mohamaden et al. (2018), and Etsay et al. (2020) documented rates of 60%, 73%, 85%, and 45% in Egypt, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Kenya, respectively. Caprine coccidiosis is caused by protozoa of the Eimeria genus, with the common species identified in Africa being E. ninakohlyakimovae, E. hirci, E. arliongi, and E. caprina, (Kusiluka et al.,1996; Harper and Penzhorn, 1999; Etsay et al., 2020). Investigations conducted in Kenya have reported moderate to high prevalence of coccidiosis, with infection rates ranging from 45% to 48% in goats (Maichomo et al., 2004; Kanyari et al., 2009). The main risk factors associated with gastrointestinal tract parasites include breeds, sex, age, body condition scores, production systems, and frequency of cleaning (Maichomo et al., 2004; Kanyari et al., 2009; Hussein et al., 2023). To control these parasites, farmers keeping goats rely on symptoms and advice from animal health practitioners. However, most of the clinical signs are not pathognomonic for gastrointestinal tract parasitosis, and indeed, the proportions of asymptomatic cases are quite high. In spite of this, farmers have opted for regular use of anthelmintics (Mickiewicz et al., 2021; Potârniche et al., 2021), which led to the emergence of anthelmintic resistance and increased burden of the disease. In Kenya, there is no recent published information on helminthosis and coccidiosis, especially in areas where there are mixed intensive and extensive systems of production. Thus, the outcome of this investigation will provide baseline data on the prevalence, intensity, and risk factors associated with gastrointestinal parasites, hence informing proper control strategies among the goat farmers and policymakers. In recent years, there have been changes in production systems, the introduction of goats across different regions, the emergence of climate change and anthelmintic resistance, amongst other factors. For example, in Kenya, rearing of goats has increased in urban and periurban areas, and there has been a recent introduction of dairy goats in high-potential areas such as Kiambu County. A recent farmer-based study in Kiambu County, Kenya, highlighted diarrhea and helminthosis as the major conditions affecting these goats (Kagucia et al., 2020). However, no laboratory study was conducted to verify this information. The present study aimed to assess the prevalence, intensity, and associated risk factors of gastrointestinal parasites in goats reared by smallholder farmers in Juja Sub-county, Kiambu County, Kenya. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ethical approval All animal and laboratory procedures were reviewed and ratified by Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology Institutional Scientific and Ethical Review Committee (JKU/ISERC/02317/1331). Study area The study was conducted in Juja Sub-County, Kiambu County, Kenya, which has five administrative wards, including Juja, Witeithe, Kalimoni, Theta, and Murera. Juja Sub-County lies between latitude 1°10'59" S and longitude 37°07'00"E. It has a human population of 139,853, which is growing rapidly due to proximity to urban areas such as Nairobi City, Juja Town, and Thika Town. The climate of the study area is tropical with an average annual rainfall of 840 mm (range from 468 mm to 900 mm) and average temperatures of 19.8oC (ranging between 14°C-26ºC). Peri-urban livestock farming is common in the sub-county, with the latest census showing a population of 136,251 cattle, 17,300 pigs, 63,031 chickens, 32,000 sheep, and 12,699 goats (KNBS, 2019). Study design and sample size A cross-sectional survey was conducted between June and October 2024. The sample size for this study was determined using the Thrusfield formula and adjusted for small populations (Thrusfield, 2018). The expected prevalence of 75% based on the previous investigations (Waruiru, 2004) was used in the calculation. The minimum sample size was Koyan et al., 2025 658 162. In the current study, a total of 210 goats were sampled. The 210 goats were sampled using a snowballing technique from the 80 farms. The initial group of farmers provided by the local animal health providers and extension officers helped the investigators identify other farmers until the sample size was achieved. A maximum of 5 goats per farm were sampled. Questionnaire survey A structured questionnaire was administered to the household head to describe the farm characteristics and risk factors associated with the prevalence of GIT parasites. The questionnaire included questions on the origin of goats, sex, breed, age, goats’ body condition score, and production system (intensive and extensive). However, the questionnaire of this study did not take into goats’ diet. The investigators and animal health professionals assessed the body condition scores of the sampled goats. The questionnaire also covered aspects of farm management, history of helminthosis and reported clinical signs, the frequency of pen cleaning, deworming intervals and personnel involved, the types of anthelmintics used for treatment and their effectiveness, as well as the demographic details of the respondents. Animals were grouped as young (< 1 year) and adult (1 year and above). The body conditions of the goats were assessed as described by Kripali et al. (2010) and were grouped as good, medium, and poor. Sample collection and analysis Approximately 25 g of fresh fecal samples were collected per rectum following the procedure by Terfa et al. (2023). The fecal sample collected was labelled accordingly and placed in a cool box with ice and transported to the parasitology laboratory at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) for parasitological analysis. Briefly, the fecal samples were analyzed following standard parasitological procedures. Saturated sodium chloride (SG 1.20; Analytical grade, Sigma-Aldrich, MO, USA) was used as the flotation medium. Eggs/oocysts counts were analyzed using a modified McMaster technique (Whitlock Universal Slide, Australia) and examined under 10× magnification using an Olympus B 201 microscope (Optical element Corporation, Milvile, USA). Samples containing strongyle eggs were subjected to fecal culture, and the resulting larvae, which were harvested using the Baermann technique, were identified to the species level based on morphological features as described by MAFF (1986). Additionally, oocysts in the fecal samples were sporulated using 2.5% (w/v) potassium dichromate and identified to species level based on morphological features of the sporulated oocysts (Abunemeh, 2016). Statistical analysis The collected data were entered and managed in an MS Excel (Microsoft, USA) worksheet, and the analysis was conducted using SPSS statistical software version 17.0. Descriptive analysis was conducted, and thereafter, data were provided in the form of tables. The relationship between the independent factors and the prevalence of various GIT parasites was assessed using the Pearson Chi-square. Significance level was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS Characteristics of the respondents and farms The farmers who participated in the study originated from Kalimoni (37.5%), Juja (20.0%), Theta (16.25%), Witeithie (13.75%), and Murera (12.5%) wards. In the wards, all participating farmers raised goats (100%), and also kept cattle (53.8%), sheep (67.5%), and poultry (56.25%) in their farms. The goats were mainly kept under an extensive system of production (73.8%). The farmers owned between 5 and 110 cattle and 2 to 260 sheep per farm. Most of the respondents were married men (70.0%), aged between 18-35 years (55.0%) in Table 1. The small East African (SEA) goat was the most common breed kept by farmers. Most farmers (46.3%) owned between 1 and 20 goats, while a few (25.0%) had 51 to 100 goats. The goats were housed in simple wooden structures (82.5%), and pens were cleaned with varying frequency, with 43.8% of farmers reporting irregular cleaning schedules. History of helminthosis, deworming, and clinical signs Over half (55%) of respondents reported a history of worm infections in their goats, with the most frequently observed symptoms being the presence of worms/segments in the feces (25.1%) and diarrhea (21.25%). In contrast, death and mucus presence were much less reported, each cited by only 2.5% of respondents (Table 2). The majority (83.8%) of farmers administered deworming treatments by themselves, while only 10% sought help from animal health professionals. When determining drug dosages, 52.8% of respondents estimated body weight visually, and 38.75% followed the instructions indicated on the drug bottle label or sachet. Farmers primarily relied on synthetic dewormers, including Nilzan® (Levamisole HCI and Oxyclozanide, Cooper Kenya Ltd; 38.75%), Ivermectin® (Avermectins, World Vet. J., 15(3): 656-668, 2025 659 Boehringer Ingelheim, Germany, 28.75%), Alben® (Albendazole, AdvaCare Pharma, India) (25%), Force One® (Levamisole HCI and Oxyclozanide, HighChem, Kenya; 16.25%), Levafas® (Levamisole HCI and Oxyclozanide, Norbrook, Kenya; 6.25%), Diamond® (3.0% Levamisole HCI and Oxyclozanide, Norbrook, Kenya; 5%) and Nefluk ® (Albendazole, Cooper Kenya; 3.75%). Prevalence, spectrum, and intensity The overall animal-level prevalence of GIN and coccidia was 64.29% and 74.29%, respectively. The farm-level prevalence of GIN and coccidia was 56.25% and 70.00%, respectively. The mean eggs per gram (EPG) was 67.72 (05600) and oocysts per gram (OPG) was 243.19 (0-7000), respectively. The infection rate reported for GIN in the sampled goats includes Haemonchus contortus (40.0%), Trichostrongylus spp. (28.6%), Strongyloides papillosus (19.5%), Ostertagia spp. (9.5%), and Nematodirus spathiger (2.4%), while the coccidia species included Eimeria caprina (43.3%), Eimeria ninakohlyakimovae (29.1%), and Eimeria hirci (27.6%), as shown in Table 3. The mixed infection rate recorded was 67.6%. In goats, the proportional distribution of the larvae from the five identified gastrointestinal nematode genera was Haemonchus contortus (39.4%), Trichostrongylus spp. (26.9%), Strongyloides papillosus (21.3%), Ostertagia spp. (11.1%), and Nematodirus spathiger (1.3%), while the coccidia species included Eimeria caprina (47.1%), Eimeria ninakohlyakimovae (28.5%), and Eimeria hirci (24.4%) presented in Figure 1. Among the GINs, H. contortus was the most frequently identified species in larval cultures, whereas E. caprina was the predominant species among the infective oocysts. Table 1. Characteristics of farmers and goats’ management in Juja Subcounty, Kenya during 2024 Variable Category Frequency Percentage Origin (ward) of farmers Kalimoni 30 37.5 Juja 16 20.0 Theta 13 16.25 Witeithie 11 13.75 Murera 10 12.5 Gender of farmers Male 56 70.0 Female 24 30.0 Marital status of the respondent Married 67 83.8 Single 13 16.3 Age of farmers 18-35 years 44 55.0 3650 years 22 27.5 51 years and above 14 17.5 Production systems Extensive 59 73.8 Intensive 21 26.3 Goats’ breeds SEA 146/210 69.5 Toggenburg 52/210 24.8 Galla 2/210 0.95 Boer 7/210 3.3 Alpine 3/210 1.4 Number of goats 1-20 37 46.3 21-50 23 28.8 51-100 20 25.0 Housing (floor) for goats Concrete 3 3.8 Slighted 11 13.8 Other 66 82.5 Frequency of pen cleaning Daily 6 7.5 Every 2-3 days 16 20.0 Weekly 23 28.8 Other 35 43.8 SEA: Small East African goat Koyan et al., 2025 660 Table 2. Occurrence of helminthosis, clinical signs, and goats management as reported by respondents in Juja SubCounty, Kenya during 2024 Variables Categories Frequency Percentage History of helminthosis Yes 44 55.00 No 36 45.00 Clinical signs reported Diarrhea 17 21.25 Weight loss 3 3.75 Worm in the stools 20 25.1 Presence of mucus 2 2.5 Loss of appetite 4 5.0 Death 2 2.5 Rough haircoat 14 17.5 No clinical signs 18 22.5 History of deworming Yes 75 93.75 No 5 6.25 Deworming interval Every 3 months 46 57.50 4< 6 months 13 16.25 >6 months 11 13.75 Every month 5 6.25 Could not remember 5 6.25 Person responsible for deworming Farmers (owner) 67 83.75 Animal health professionals 8 10.00 Could not remember 5 6.25 Determination of the dose to administer to the animals By estimation of weights 36 45.00 By the indications on the bottle/sachet 31 38.75 Other methods 13 16.25 Anthelmintics used in treatment Nilzan® (levamisole HCI and 6.0% Oxyclozanide) 26 38.75 Ivermectin® (Avermectins) 18 28.75 Alben® (Albendazole) 15 25.00 Force One® (Levamisole HCI and Oxyclozanide) 11 16.25 Levafas® (Levamisole HCI and Oxyclozanide) 5 6.25 Diamond® (Levamisole HCI and Oxyclozanide) 3 5.00 Nefluk ® (Albendazole) 2 3.75 Effectiveness of the anthelmintic Effective 65 81.25 Not effective 7 8.75 Not sure 8 10.00 Table 3. Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes and coccidia in goats kept by smallholder farmers in Juja Sub-County, Kenya during 2024 Parasites Affected goats (n) Prevalence (%) EPG Range Mean SEM Nematodes species Haemonchus contortus 84(84/210) 40.0 0-5600 130.24 32.328 Trichostrongylus spp. 60(60/210) 28.6 0-3100 148.81 22.773 Strongyloides papillosus 41(41/210) 19.5 0-1000 53.33 10.719 Ostertagia spp. 20(20/210) 9.5 0-600 15.71 4.769 Nematodirus spathiger 5(5/210) 2.4 0-300 3.42 2.270 Mixed infections 142(142/210) 67.6 Coccidians species OPG Range Mean SEM Eimeria caprina 91(91/210) 43.3 0-7000 462.43 60.736 Eimeria ninakohlyakimovae 61(61/210) 29.1 0-3500 143.86 27.487 Eimeria hirci 58(58/210) 27.6 0-4000 127.14 25.932 EPG: Eggs per gram; OPG: Oocysts per gram; SEM: Standard error of the mean World Vet. J., 15(3): 656-668, 2025 661 Figure 1. Proportion of the gastrointestinal tract identified in the sampled goats in Juja Subcounty, Kenya, during 2024 Assessment of caprine gastrointestinal parasites The intensity of gastrointestinal parasite infection in goats was categorized into four levels and is presented in Table 4. Among the infected goats, 55.71% exhibited a light infection, followed by 29.05% with a moderate, and 3.81% with a heavy GIP infection. Additionally, 11.43% of the goats showed no signs of infection. The prevalence and risk factors associated with gastrointestinal tract nematodes The prevalence of GIN was significantly associated with age, production systems, and body condition score (Table 5). Adult goats had a significantly higher (70.1%) prevalence of GIN compared to the young ones (54.2%, p = 0.025). Further, goats kept under the extensive system of production had a significantly lower (63.1%) prevalence of GIN compared to those kept intensively (66%) (p = 0.043). Goats with good body condition scores had a significantly lower prevalence of GIN compared to those with poor body condition scores (83.8%, p = 0.023). The occurrence of GIN was not significantly influenced by the ward of origin (p = 0.405), sex (p = 0.664), production purpose (p = 0.106), or cleaning frequency (p = 0.678, Table 4). The prevalence of gastrointestinal tract coccidia and the associated risk factors The prevalence of coccidia was significantly associated with the origin of the goat (p = 0.049), being lowest in Kalimoni Ward (70.69%) and highest in Murera Ward (85.70%). Among breeds, SEA goats had a significantly (p= 0.023) lower prevalence (73.1 %) compared to Alpine and Galla (100.00%), Toggenburg (77.43%), but higher than Boer goats (57.1%). Adult goats had a significantly (p = 0.007) lower prevalence (67.7 %) compared to younger goats (84.3%, Table 6). Goats with a good body condition score had a significantly (p = 0.02) lower prevalence (45.6%) compared to those with poor body conditions (97.3%). Additionally, goats housed in pens cleaned daily had a significantly (p = 0.049) lower prevalence of coccidia (33.1 %) than those in pens cleaned less frequently (80.2%, Table 5). Table 4. Assessment of the infection degree of caprine gastrointestinal parasites Infection degree Frequency Percentage Mean Std. deviation No infection 24 11.43 0.25 0.68 Light 117 55.71 1.66 0.49 Medium 61 29.05 3.28 0.45 Heavy 8 3.81 5.25 .89 Total 210 100 Std. deviation: Standard deviation 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Percentage (%) Gastro-intestinal parasite species idendified Koyan et al., 2025 662 Table 5. The association between prevalence and risk factors of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats kept by farmers in Juja sub-county, Kenya Risk factors Categories Prevalence p-value Ward of origin of goats Kalimoni 66.38 0.405 Theta 60.00 Witeithie 58.33 Juja 80.95 Murera 42.86 Age Adult 70.10 0.025* Young 54.20 Production systems Extensive 63.10 0.043* Intensive 66.00 Body condition Score Good 47.40 0.023* Medium 65.50 Poor 83.80 Sex Males 62.20 0.664 Females 65.63 Production purpose Milk 72.92 0.106 Meat 63.11 Dual purpose 57.50 Frequency of cleaning Daily 33.33 0.678 Every 2-3 days 54.29 Weekly 64.44 Others 70.69 * Statistically significant at p < 0.05 Table 6. The association between prevalence and risk factors of coccidiosis in goats kept by farmers in Juja Sub-County, Kenya Risk factor Categories Prevalence p value Ward of origin of goats Kalimoni 70.7 0.049* Theta 71.4 Witeithie 83.3 Juja 81.0 Murera 85.7 Breeds SEA 73.1 0.023* Galla 100.0 Boer 57.1 Toggenburg 77.4 Alphine 100.0 Age Adult 67.7 0.007* Young 84.3 Sex Males 74.4 0.574 Females 71.1 Production purpose Milk 79.6 Meat 74.4 0.932 Dual purpose 70.0 Production systems Extensive 72.5 0.292 Intensive 80.0 Body condition Score Good 45.6 0.020* Medium 81.0 Poor 97.3 Frequency of cleaning Daily 33.3 0.049* Every 2-3 days 68.6 Weekly 75.6 Other 80.2 Could not remember 50.0 * Statistically significant at p < 0.05. World Vet. J., 15(3): 656-668, 2025 663 DISCUSSION In Kenya, goat rearing offers numerous advantages, including being a valuable source of food security, income, employment, and for socio-cultural purposes in rural areas. However, GIT parasites such as helminths and coccidia affect the health and productivity of these goats. To ensure effective livestock health management, it is essential to continuously monitor the epidemiology of these parasites to enable proper intervention strategies. Goat rearing in the area was small-scale, with the male gender being the main owners of the animals. Further, the current study noted that a significant proportion of the farmers were young, suggesting a shift toward youth engagement in agriculture, possibly driven by unemployment or agribusiness opportunities in peri-urban areas. Most farmers were married farmers, and this may reflect the role of livestock as a family livelihood asset. Like other farmers in most developing countries, the small farmers in the study area also kept cattle, sheep, and poultry for the provision of food and income. The most commonly kept goat breed by respondents was the SEA. This could be attributed to its resilience to diseases, tolerance to harsh environmental conditions, affordability, availability, and relatively high reproductive performance (Odoi et al., 2007). However, as shown in other studies (Shivairo et al., 2013; Kagucia et al., 2020; Mutunga et al., 2023), a substantial number of farmers also kept exotic goats such as Toggenburg, Galla, Boer, and Alpine, possibly for milk production. Goats were typically housed in simple wooden structures, with pen cleaning occurring irregularly for most farms. This irregular cleaning can provide a good environment for the growth and development of parasites observed in the study. Some farmers also kept the goats under intensive production systems, where goats were confined and fed cut forages and crop residues, and supplemented with concentrates. Kagucia et al. (2020) also observed that intensive systems were favored by dairy goat farmers involved in commercial milk production. Farmers in this study reported that their goats had a history of helminth infections, showing symptoms such as diarrhea, weight loss, rough coats, and, in some cases, death. While these signs are commonly linked to parasitic diseases, they are not definitive indicators and can be compounded by poor nutrition (Kagucia et al., 2020). Additionally, farmers are generally unaware of the availability of laboratory services for fecal screening to assess worm burdens. Poor nutrition or resource constraints can weaken an animal's immune response, making them more susceptible to higher helminth burdens (Sweeny et al., 2021). The current study shows that the prevalence of GIN was comparatively higher than that reported in Kenya at 62% (Maingi et al., 2001), Ethiopia at 54.17% (Hussein et al., 2023), Uganda at 43.0% (Nsereko et al., 2015), and Nigeria at 26.6% (Adamu and Kyari, 2023). Further, the prevalence was lower than that reported by Waruiru (2004) and Maichomo et al. (2004) in extensively reared goats from Kenya. Elsewhere, in Uganda, a high prevalence of 74.5% has been reported, with gastrointestinal nematodes being the predominant parasites (Namutosi and Higenyi, 2019). In another study in Tanzania, Haule (2015) reported a moderate prevalence (58.1%) of helminths such as nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes. Similarly, Hussein et al. (2023) reported a slightly higher prevalence (54.2%) of gastrointestinal parasite infection in Ethiopian goats. The persistently high prevalence of GIN in the current study area, in general, can be attributed to inadequate health management practices, such as poor deworming protocols, the co-grazing of ruminants, and variations in agro-ecological conditions (Maichomo et al., 2004). Additionally, suboptimal nutritional practices in the study area (Kagucia et al., 2020) may exacerbate the infection burden, since inadequate nutrition can impair the animals' ability to withstand the adverse effects of worm infestations (Sweeny et al., 2021). The spectrum of strongyles species that were reported included H. contortus, Trichostrongylus sp., Strongyloides papillosus, and Ostertagia spp. A similar range of parasites has been reported by Waruiru et al. (2000) and Maichomo et al. (2004) from Kenya and Hussein et al. (2023) from Ethiopia. The most common gastrointestinal nematode identified in the present study was H. contortus, which previous studies have also cited as a major nematode affecting goats in the tropics (Bakunzi et al., 2013; Ntonifor, 2013; Zvinorova et al., 2016). The high prevalence could be attributed to the parasite’s prolific egg-laying capacity, which facilitates rapid pasture contamination and subsequent transmission among grazing animals (Roeber et al., 2013). Additionally, H. contortus is well recognized for its strong propensity to develop resistance to anthelmintic drugs, posing significant challenges to effective parasite control (Kotze and Prichard, 2016). Generally, strongyle infections in goats contribute to substantial economic losses, primarily through reduced productivity and increased mortality (Arsenopoulos et al., 2021). Reduced productivity is associated with decreased feed intake, poor weight gain, diminished work performance, and the added financial burden of treatment and parasite control efforts (Ayaz et al., 2018). Species, such as Haemonchus and Trichostrongylus are particularly pathogenic, causing anemia and hypoproteinemia in goats due to chronic intestinal blood loss and their blood-feeding behavior (Githigia et al., 2001; Paul et al., 2020). Identifying risk factors associated with the occurrence of gastrointestinal (GIT) parasites is crucial for developing effective intervention strategies. In this study, the prevalence of GIN was significantly linked to age, body condition score, and production system. Age-related analysis showed that adult animals had significantly higher GIN infestations Koyan et al., 2025 664 compared to young animals. This could be due to lower infections in young ones who were still suckling. Similar findings were reported in studies conducted in Ethiopia (Dabasa et al., 2017), Malaysia (Yusof and Isa, 2016), and Lesotho (Matsepe et al., 2021). However, the studies in Kenya (Githigia et al., 2005), Zimbabwe (Zvinorova et al., 2016), Ethiopia (Dagnachew et al., 2011), and Pakistan (Ayaz et al., 2013) contradicted this observation, reporting a higher prevalence of GIN in young animals compared to adults. These studies attributed the lower prevalence in adults to acquired immunity developed through repeated exposure, which enables them to expel new infestations more effectively. In this study, goats with poor body condition exhibited a higher prevalence of GIN compared to those in good body condition, aligning with the findings from previous studies (Fayisa et al., 2020; Hussein et al., 2023). Malnourished animals are less capable of fighting infections, whereas well-fed animals are unlikely to succumb to the disease under ideal environmental conditions (Johnson et al., 2020). Further, infection of small ruminants with strongyles can result in gastroenteritis, protein-losing enteropathy, poor weight gain, and loss of body condition. Poor nutritional status compromises the animal’s immune response, making malnourished goats more susceptible to parasitic infections. In contrast, well-nourished animals are generally more resilient and less likely to develop severe disease, particularly under favorable environmental conditions (Johnson et al., 2020). Moreover, strongyle infections in small ruminants are known to cause gastroenteritis, protein-losing enteropathy, reduced weight gain, and deterioration in body condition (Paul et al., 2020). Farmers and animal health professionals should be encouraged to use body scoring, among other tools, to diagnose helminthosis and other conditions. In the current study, goats in extensive systems had a high worm burden, and this could be due to increased infections from contaminated pastures. In some cases, extensive production systems have been characterized by poor nutrition, inadequate hygiene conditions, frequent exposure to contaminated grazing areas, and insufficient health control measures (Zvinorova et al., 2016). The lower infection rates in intensive systems can be attributed to better management practices, including improved housing, feeding, and healthcare (Kagucia et al., 2020). The present study recorded a high prevalence of coccidian infections in the examined goats, above the rates reported by Rehman et al. (2011) in Pakistan (47.09%) and Kimbita et al. (2009) in Tanzania (64.2). However, the prevalence observed was lower than that reported by Wang et al. (2010) in China (87.9%). The coccidian species identified in the study included E. caprina, E. ninakohlyakimovae, and E. hirci. There is a wide variation in the species of Eimeria found in goats in different countries. In Turkey, Deger et al. (2003) found E. ninakohlyakimovae (36.00%), E. hirci (23.42%), and E. caprina (18.28%) were detected. Similarly, in Turkey, Goz et al. (2006) reported E. ninakohlyakimovae (18.9%) and E. hirci (7.5%). In Iran, Kheirandish et al. (2012) identified E. ninakohlyakimovae (41.8%), E. caprina (31.7%), and E. hirci (11.05%) were detected. In Brazil, Cavalcante et al. (2012) detected E. hirci (18%), E. ninakohlyakimovae (16.2%), E. caprovina (2.8%), and E. caprina (1%) were detected. Coccidiosis is recognized as an economic disease affecting goats (Yusof and Isa, 2016), often leading to chronic diarrhea, resulting in dehydration and loss of essential electrolytes and nutrients, further impairing growth and productivity. It also damages the gut lining, causing protein loss through leakage into the intestinal lumen (Agrawal et al., 2024). This disease results in reduced muscle mass and poor overall growth performance in goats. In the present study, the prevalence of coccidia was significantly associated with origin, age, breed, body condition score, and cleaning frequency. A significant variation in coccidiosis infection rates was observed based on wards. Goats in areas closer to urban centers had higher infection rates compared to those farther away. For instance, Kalimoni Ward, situated farther from Juja Town, exhibited a lower infection rate compared to Juja, Witeithie, and Murera Wards, which are located closer to the town. This is possibly because most farming production systems in urban Juja are intensive, driven by limited land availability. These systems are often associated with poor sanitation and low levels of hygiene, which can contribute to higher coccidiosis infection rates. The higher prevalence in young animals compared to adult animals has been reported previously (Negasi et al., 2012). Young animals are highly vulnerable to coccidian and face a greater risk of exposure to oocysts shed by the dams. This increased susceptibility is likely due to their immature and underdeveloped immune systems. In contrast, adult animals typically develop immunity to coccidia, allowing them to thrive despite exposure (Paul et al., 2020). In this study, the prevalence of coccidia infection was higher in Toggenburg breeds compared to other breeds, like SEA goats. Disparities in gastrointestinal parasitic infections among dairy goats have also been documented in Brazil, Tanzania, and Kenya (Costa et al., 2000; Odoi et al., 2007; Shija et al., 2014). The higher prevalence of coccidia among Toggenburg in this study could be attributed to the increased susceptibility of this exotic breed to coccidiosis. This study revealed a significant association between coccidia infection and the body condition of goats, with a higher prevalence observed in animals with poor body condition compared to those in better condition. Poor body condition could be attributed to factors, such as malnutrition, concurrent diseases, or the parasitic infection itself, which weakens the immune response to the parasite's infective stages. Farms in the study had varying hygiene standards, which impacted coccidia abundance. Pens that were cleaned daily had lower coccidiosis infection rates, while those cleaned less