The Ende way: Short stories and songs from Limol prepared with the Ende Language Committee

The Ende way Short stories and songs from Limol prepared with the Ende Language Committee Kate L. Lindsey language science press Open Text Collections 5 Open Text Collections Chief Editor: Christian Döhler Editors: Rogier Blokland, Matt Coler, Nick Emlen, Diana Forker, Jeff Good, Karolina Grzech, Andreas Hölzl, Carolyn O’Meara, Michael Rießler, Alena Witzlack-Makarevich, Kilu von Prince In this series: 1. Döhler, Christian. Speaking the map: Komnzo texts. 2. Zahrer, Alexander. Children of the sago: Muyu texts. 3. Vogel, Alan. The Stories of Siko and Yowao: Jarawara texts. 4. Mohammadirad, Masoud. Echoes of the past: Hewramî narratives. 5. Lindsey, Kate L. The Ende way: Short stories and songs from Limol prepared with the Ende Language Committee. ISSN (print): 3052-9948 ISSN (electronic): 3052-9956 The Ende way Short stories and songs from Limol prepared with the Ende Language Committee Kate L. Lindsey language science press Kate L. Lindsey. 2025. The Ende way: Short stories and songs from Limol prepared with the Ende Language Committee (Open Text Collections 5). Berlin: Language Science Press. This title can be downloaded at: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/541 © 2025, Kate L. Lindsey Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN: 978-3-96110-545-8 (Digital) 978-3-98554-165-2 (Hardcover) ISSN (print): 3052-9948 ISSN (electronic): 3052-9956 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17259528 Source code available from www.github.com/langsci/541 Errata: paperhive.org/documents/remote?type=langsci&id=541 Cover and concept of design: Ulrike Harbort Typesetting: Kate L. Lindsey, Christian Döhler Proofreading: Matthew Korte Fonts: Libertinus, Arimo, DejaVu Sans Mono Typesetting software: XƎL A TEX Language Science Press Scharnweberstraße 10 10247 Berlin, Germany http://langsci-press.org [email protected] Storage and cataloguing done by FU Berlin For Ende-speaking people everywhere. Contents Acknowledgments v Abbreviations vii I Background 1 1.1 The language and its speakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1.1 Clan and kinship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.1.2 Marriage........................... 6 1.1.3 Religion........................... 6 1.1.4 Education.......................... 7 1.2 Typological overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.1 Related work on Ende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3 Storytelling and data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.1 Sources of the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.3.2 Orthography development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.3.3 Transcription choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3.4 Translation and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3.5 Contributor acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3.6 Contributor biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.4 Textpresentation .......................... 22 1.5 Special information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.6 Overview of the texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.7 Contextualimages.......................... 25 1.7.1 Flora............................. 25 1.7.2 Fauna ............................ 27 1.7.3 Material culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 II Animal tales and origin stories 37 ABaet bo llan a allame de tubutubu gogon — How Cuscus got his short ears 39 Contents BKottllam bo pallall ttoenttoen — Turtle’s story 59 CKakayam bo tongoe — The Bird of Paradise Song 71 III Tales of hunting and survival 75 DTawa mamoeatt ttoen — Swamp hunting story 77 EIddob käbama ibiatt — Night hunting 89 FAuma we ibiatt ttoen — Walking to the grave story 99 IV Heroic or legendary stories 119 GDonae Kurupel bäne käza gäzatt ttoen — Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story 121 HKäza misima saima — The Crocodile Song 139 INgämaene ibiatt ttoenttoen — Our traveling story 141 JTtongo mälla da — Children’s Fishing Song 153 KAuse da llɨg kälsre peyang — The old woman and the small boy 155 LBandra bebi bälle — Sago lullaby 165 V Tales of misbehavior and consequence 167 MBundae bo pepeb — The tale of Bundae 169 NAuse Ur — Children’s song 181 OYu ingong — Fire dance 183 PLlabo ngasenga utamom — Swamp work song 199 QGämällang komlla — A tale of two thieves 201 ii Contents VI Odes and reflections on the natural world 215 REramang Karama walle — Ode to Karama Swamp 217 SIräm ine, Iräm ine — Ode to Iräm Waters 221 TTtongo toto me yäbäd a goklanän — Children’s song about Iräm ine 225 VII Final reflections 227 Final reflections 229 References 231 iii 1 Preliminaries 1.1 The language and its speakers This text collection features stories and songs in the Ende language. Ende (Glottocode: ende1235)1is a Pahoturi River language spoken in the South Fly region of Western Province, Papua New Guinea. Ende is sometimes classified as a dialect of Agob (ISO-639: kit) due to similar lexical inventories (Eberhard et al. 2019), but preliminary documentation indicates substantial grammatical differences between the two varieties. The Pahoturi River language family (see Figure 1.1) cannot be convincingly grouped with the Trans-New Guinea languages to its north, the Yam languages to its west, the Pama-Nyungan languages to its south, or the Kiwaian and Eastern Trans-Fly languages to its east (Evans et al. 2018), though extensive contact with these families has been used as evidence for Proto-Pahoturi reconstruction efforts (Chon 2025). For more on the Pahoturi River family, see the family portrait by Lindsey, Schokkin, and Wu (2022). Historically, the South Fly region has experienced limited contact with colonizing forces and outside influences. However, (Australian) English and Tok Pisin were introduced during the colonial period in domains like education, religion, and governance. The introduction of these lingua francas, along with a colonial-era mandate for small kin groups to band together in named villages, disrupted a long tradition of egalitarian multilingualism in which locals lived in clan-size hamlets and had at least a passive understanding of the languages of nearby groups. Older Ende community members recall distinct dialects that have been lost since the community converged as a village in the first part of the 20th century (Zakae†2018). Nowadays, Ende is spoken by between 600 (Eberhard et al. 2019) and 1000 (Dareda 2016d) speakers, primarily in the South Fly villages of Limol, Malam, and Kinkin (see Figure 1.1), with some speakers residing in larger towns such as Daru and Port Moresby. In Limol and Malam, Ende is spoken by all generations and in all domains except primary education, where English is mandated. Multilingualism is common among Ende speakers. In addition to Ende, speakers use other 1Not to be mistaken for the Ende language of Indonesia (Glottocode: ende1246; ISO-639: end). 1 Preliminaries Figure 1.1: Map of villages in Western Province (Papua New Guinea) where Pahoturi River languages are primarily spoken. The shading indicates which villages are described locally as having that language as a primary language of the village. The village language and GPS data were collected by K. Lindsey and D. Schokkin in 2017. © Australian National University CC BY SA 4.0 CartoGIS CAP 18-356_KP 4 1.1 The language and its speakers Pahoturi River languages, such as Taeme (Glottocode: tame1238), Kawam (Glottocode: kawa1281), Em (no Glottocode), and Agob (Glottocode: agob1244). They also speak regional languages like Bitur (Glottocode: bitu1242) and Gogodala (Glottocode: gogo1265), and regional lingua francas, such as Kiwai (Glottocode: sout2949), Tok Pisin (Glottocode: tokp1240), and (Australian) English (Glottocode: aust1314). In terms of language endangerment, I consider Ende to be vigorous/safe (EGIDS 6a; Lewis & Simons 2010). However, ongoing efforts by the Ende Language Committee, established in 2003, to develop a writing system, promote literacy, and utilize the language in local elementary schools show that the community hopes to safeguard the language further. The writing system in use in this collection is part of these language-strengthening efforts (see Section 1.3.2). 1.1.1 Clan and kinship A foundational part of social organization in Limol is clan, or tän, a kinship system inherited patrilineally. Members of the Ende community are divided into two clans: the Ddɨliag and the Yamkong, each associated with a symbolic color and bird. The Ddɨliag clan is represented by the color pällämpälläm ‘white’ and the kakayam ‘bird of paradise.’ The Yamkong clan is represented by the color mamam ‘red’ and the inpiak ‘eagle’ (K. Dobola, p.c., 2018). Within the large clans are several subclans and sub-sub-clans that further organize families. Each subclan has three additional symbols: a mabun ‘totem,’ a pa ‘bird,’ and a tawar ‘mark.’ These symbols may be shared across subgroups. Often, tän that share the same totem, bird, or mark are more closely related than other groups. Clan, as a social construct, has been identified as a variable with the potential to explain sociolinguistic variation within a community (Stanford 2009). Quantitative studies of sociophonetic variation within Ende, such as /n/-deletion and retroflex affrication, have not found significant correlation between clan membership andthese patterns (Lindsey2021b, Strong et al. 2022). Still,some speakers suggest that dialectal differences exist between clan groups (Dobola 2018; Kurupel (Suwede) 2018:253). Curiously,thereis some indicationthat the notionof clan may be becoming less important in modern society; in interviews, some community members did not know their mother’s clan (Kurupel (Suwede) & Geser 2018: 160), their spouse’s clan (Sowati 2018: 212), or even sometimes their own (Geoff 2018: 103). This drop in awareness could indicate a shift in the importance or usefulness of tän groups within the community. 5 1 Preliminaries 1.1.2 Marriage Clan also influences which marriages are allowed, such that there is a strong preference for cross-clan marriages. Of forty-seven marriages surveyed in 2018, only 15% were between two members of the Yamkong clan. Unions between two Ddɨliag members are even rarer, at 6%. Most marriages (79%) are between Ddɨliag and Yamkong people. Regardless of large clan affiliation, marrying into one’s subclan is prohibited. This appears to be a fixed rule, likely to maintain biological exogamy within the small population. The traditional marriage model entails the practice of sister-exchange marriages called erang.2This is when two (or more) clans swap daughters to marry the other family’s son. Clan affiliation, however, does not change for the women; they maintain affiliation with their father’s clan group. 1.1.3 Religion The Ende community is generally reluctant to discuss the spiritual and religious practices that predate their mass conversion to Christianity in the 1960s. Knowledge of this sort is typically passed down in private initiation ceremonies and family-owned stories called mabun eka that are not shared publicly. Some former practices, including multiple forms of magic, are referenced at the end of Text O, when an older man brings another man back to life, in Text F, when an older woman turns into a fish, and in the documentary Ende Tän e Indrang ‘Light into Ende Tribe’ (Warama et al. 2018). This short film tells the story of two couples – brothers Dipa and Diwa Nägäm and their wives Mangkol Sobam and Wäli Wäziag – who traveled on behalf of the Ende community to Balimo to meet with Gogodala and foreign missionaries. There, they learned about Western religion (Christianity), Western medicine, and Western education, bringing this knowledge back to the Ende community. This news was celebrated by the community, who exchanged their former spiritual practices, medicines, and educational traditions for these new Western manners. Nowadays, Christianity plays a vital role in the Ende community. In 2018, two Protestantdenominationswerepracticed in Limoland Malam: aLutheran church body that meets on Sundays and a Seventh-Day Adventist congregation that meets on Saturdays. In both churches, I observed sermons and songs primarily in Ende, and sometimes English, and multiple community groups within the church that meet throughout the week to discuss special interests. 2Erang is also the kinship term that the four members of the exchange will call one another. Kinship terms also exist for one’s parents’ exchange sister (erngazmäg), one’s parent’s exchange brother (erngazenda), and one’s exchange cousins (erngazeg). 6 1.2 Typological overview 1.1.4 Education Traditional methods of instruction and knowledge development are practiced in both informal and formal settings within the Ende community. Informally, novices are encouraged to observe daily activities, such as resource gathering and community building, from a very young age and to begin participating as soon as their abilities allow. Children are observed swinging machetes, climbing coconut palms, carrying small sago bundles, and tagging along on hunting trips as soon as, and sometimes before, their dexterity allows them to do so without hurting themselves or others. More formal instruction came in the form of gender-segregated initiation ceremonies that were once offered as a cohort of children entered puberty. The youngest people surveyed to have participated in such ceremonies were over 40 years old. There is some interest in reintroducing these ceremonies and/or recording them for posterity. On a daily basis, formal instruction is offered in the form of kawa, public speeches delivered early in the morning or late at night by an orator who walks the paths of the village, sometimes stopping in front of an individual house for extra effect. These messages often convey community values, such as respecting others’ property, waking up early to care for one’s family, and contributing to community-led projects. Formal Western education was introduced in the South Fly area in 1965 with the establishment of the Upiara Primary School. Since then, primary education has been compulsory for all Ende children. Everyone born after 1960 traveled to Upiara to attend the English-medium primary school in their youth. In 1995, an elementary school was established in Limol that was attended by all those born after 1989. In 2007, the Ende Language Committee submitted an official orthography and texts in Ende to the Department of Education of Papua New Guinea, establishing Ende as a sanctioned language for teaching. This measure allows the elementary school teachers to teach in Ende and English (Mado 2018; Jowanang 2018: 54). 1.2 Typological overview Based on our modest understanding of the South Fly linguistic landscape, Ende is typologically consistent with other Pahoturi River languages, which share some areal similarities to other local non-Trans-New Guinea language families (Evans et al. 2018). Regarding the phoneme inventory, Ende shows phonemic contrasts between the consonants and vowels in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 (see Lindsey 2021a for more details). Researchers have noted several key features: a sizable liquid inventory 7 1 Preliminaries (Evans et al. 2019), variable affrication of retroflex obstruents (Strong et al. 2022), an irregular vowel harmony system (Kohut 2021), and limited use of stress or intonational prosody to mark word meaning or sentence type (Dailey 2023). Table 1.1: Consonant inventory Labial Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Labiovelar Voiceless stop p t ʈʂ <tt> k Voiced stop b d ɖʐ <dd> ɡ <g> Nasal m n ɲ <ny> ŋ <ng> Tap/flap ɾ <r> ɽ <ll> Voiceless fric. s Voiced fric. z Approx. j <y, e> w Lat. approx. l Table 1.2: Vowel inventory Front Central Back High i u Mid-high ɪ <ɨ> Mid e o Mid-low ə <ä> Low ɐ <a> About morphology, Ende exhibits an extensive set of case clitics, which attach to nominal and verbal phrases, limited nominal inflection, and complex verbal inflection. The case clitics and verbal templates are described in detail by K. Lindsey, Schokkin, and Wu (2022). These templates feature multiple and distributed exponence, such that the meaning of any given category, such as tense or argument number, is distributed across numerous morphemes, and the morphemes themselves may be associated with multiple meanings. Reduplication has inflectional and derivational functions and is observed in nominals and verbs (Scanlon 2018). Some inflectional categories of interest include a ventive/allative system of associated motion (Reed & Lindsey 2021) and verbal number. 8 1.2 Typological overview As for syntax, sentences have regular subject-object-verb (SOV) word order (Brown 2020) and nominative-accusative alignment in both argument flagging and indexing (1, from Text I). (1) [Mareyas]Snyongo meae [dirom gullbe de]O[paya dägagän]Vgabma bägäl alle. Mareyas pn nyongo=me=ae road=loc=rst dirom cassowary gullbe=de huge=acc paya3 shoot d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA gabma white_person bägäl=alle bow=ins ‘As we went, Mareas shot a huge cassowary with a gun [lit., white person’s bow].’ (Dobola 2016b: WE_SN024:3) Ende follows other trends for object-verb languages (Dryer 1991, 1992), including exhibiting postpositions, postnominal adjectives, main verbs before auxiliaries, and predicates before copulas. However, some aberrant word orders have been observed, including phrase-initial determiners, one preposition, and some prenominal adjectives. Adnominal property words even occur discontinuously. For example, in (2) the modifier phrase wo abal ‘very ripe’ and the nominal up ‘banana’ occur on different sides of the verb phrase ikop dägaeyo ‘they saw it.’ (2) Up de adade ikop dägaeyo wo abal. up=de banana=acc adade like_this ikop see d-ä-ga-eyo rem-3nduP-aux.3sgP-3nsgA wo ripe abal very ‘They saw very ripe bananas.’ (Warama 2016c: RE_EN025:8) One notable exception to SOV word order is experiencer-object constructions, which are typically OSV (3, from Text I). In a phrase like ‘the boy is hungry’, hunger is the stimulus in the nominative case. The subject is preceded by the boy, the experiencer in the accusative case. The verbs in these constructions are typically auxiliaries. (3) Ngämi ddone ada kili gogaebne, adawatta [ngämim]O[ddäddäg abal da]S[deyagnegnän]V. ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom ddone a_lot ada like_this kili happy g-o-g-aeb-ne rem-rt_ext-aux-plS-ipfv adawatta because ngämim 1nsg.excl.acc ddäddäg edible_animal abal=da very=nom 3from English fire 9 1 Preliminaries d-ey-a-g-neg-n-än rem-1plP-rt_ext-aux-sg>pl-ipfv-rem.3sgA ‘We were so happy because we were very hungry for meat.’ (Dobola 2016b: WE_SN024:4) Some semantic categories of note include an inclusivity distinction in the first-person pronouns, dual and nondual argument agreement, verbal suppletion for participant number, three distance contrasts in demonstratives, and a genitive/ablative distinction in the possessive paradigm (see the discussion in the summary of Text A). 1.2.1 Related work on Ende Work on the language includes a translation of the Book of Mark into Ende by W. Kurupel, T. Warama, W. Geser, and the Ende Language Committee in collaboration with the Lewada Bible Translation Centre (2009), a PhD dissertation on Ende phonology with an appended sketch grammar by K. Lindsey (2019), and a Master’s thesis by C. Scanlon on Ende reduplication (2021). An illustration of Ende’s phonology was published in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association (Lindsey 2021a), and its phonetic variation was discussed in multiple articles by Lindsey (2021b) and Strong (2022). Two archival collections feature Ende recordings in PARADISEC: The Language Corpus of Ende and other Pahoturi River Languages (LSNG08; Lindsey 2015a) and Ende Recordings (CS3; Scanlon 2018). Most recently, a collection of Ende Material Knowledge has been archived with the Endangered Material Knowledge Project at the British Museum (Scanlon 2025). 1.3 Storytelling and data collection Storytelling is a cultural practice that plays an important role in Ende life. It is a source of entertainment and a way to transmit cultural knowledge, values, and norms across generations. There are multiple words for ‘story’: pepeb,ttoen,eka and mabun eka. A pepeb is a tale about unseen people or spirits that is told to young children only by the older generation, especially by older women. A ttoen or eka is a recollection of real events in the teller’s life, or as was told to the storyteller. A mabun eka is a sacred story that belongs to a clan group and is passed down from clan elders to new members during initiation ceremonies. It is generally agreed that these stories should not be shared outside the clan; if 10 1.3 Storytelling and data collection they are, they should not be retold. The stories in this collection are of the first two types: pepeb and ttoen. 1.3.1 Sources of the data The Ende Language Committee, composed of interested community members and visiting linguists, collected the texts presented in this collection in Limol village between 2015 and 2017. We recorded these stories to create books of Ende stories in the Ende language. The village announced a call requesting storytellers and illustrators to submit their stories or drawings of stories to the Ende Language Committee, who assembled the submissions into physical books for the local elementary school (Johnson et al. 2016a,b, Karao et al. 2016, Reed et al. 2017b,a). The Ende Language Committee transcribed and edited the recorded stories. The stories were also translated into English and analyzed at the morpheme, word, and phrase-level by various committee members, including J. Ben Danipa, J. Dareda, W. Kurupel, and T. Warama, and visiting linguists, including K. Lindsey, C. Scanlon, and L. Reed. We did not include these translations in the original publications, but I have added them to this collection in the form of interlinear glossing and phrase translations for an English-speaking audience. The stories presented here are written texts, meaning that the narratives either originated in written form or were initially spoken but edited into a written form after the recordings were transcribed. Although storytelling in Ende is almost exclusivelyan oral tradition, the Ende Language Committee has strong intuitions about how the stories should be written down. Thus, though the texts in this collection differ from their oral counterparts, they represent a new and evolving cultural tradition in the community. 1.3.2 Orthography development To write the stories down, the Ende Language Committee decided on a standardized orthography to use forrepresentingallEnde texts. Theorthography development began when the Ende Language Committee was established in 2003. At that time, the Ende tribe received an invitation from the Lewada Bible Translation Center in the nearby village of Lewada on the south bank of the Fly River. The village was asked to send several volunteers to spend several years in Lewada developing a writing system and translating the Book of Mark into Ende (Warama (Kurupel) 2007). While at the Lewada Bible Translation Center, the volunteers, including W. Kurupel, W. Geser, J. Ben Danipa, and T. Warama (contributors introduced below), worked with Shim Jae-Wook (SIL) to establish an orthography 11 1 Preliminaries Biku (Madura) Kangge†: male, 75 (1941–2023), lived in Limol and was the oldest male of the Limollang clan, which owns the Limol land. Spoke Ende and Motu. Contributed and sung Text P, an encouraging work song to clear the Karama swamp for safe passage of canoes. Sam Karao: male, 26 (1991), lives in Limol. Speaks Ende and English. Contributed and sung Text L, a beautiful lullaby sung while mothers are pounding sago. Also illustrated many texts in the Ende language corpus, including the Ende Alphabet Book (Karao et al. 2016). Ibetty Kenny: female, 10 (2007), lives in Limol and attends Limol Primary School. Speaks Ende and English. Granddaughter of W. Kurupel and W. Geser, niece of R. Warama and T. Warama. Contributed and sung Text T, a children’s song about dancing at the washing place. Moreover, served the Ende Language Committeetremendouslybyassistingin cooking, cleaning, and entertaining. 18 1.3 Storytelling and data collection Minong Kidarga: male, 20s (1990s), lives in Limol, grandson of old man Kidarga Nakllae†of the Crocodile clan. Contributed Text A, a story about how Cuscus got his short ears. In this photo, he is working with his grandfather, noting down stories about old ways and thecrocodileclan. Donae Kurupel: female, 65 (1952), born and lives in Limol. Speaks Ende and Taeme. Sister of S. Kurupel and W. Kurupel. Contributed Text G, in which she kills and carries back a crocodile to share with the village. Sowati Kurupel: male, 57 (1960), born and lives in Limol, village recorder. Speaks Ende, English, Agob, Motu, and Tok Pisin. Brother of D. Kurupel and W. Kurupel, father of J. Sowati. Contributed Text E, a story about hunting at night. Assisted with plant and animal identification to provide local context for many of the texts. 19 1 Preliminaries Warama Kurupel (Suwede): male, 60 (1957), born and lives in Limol, pastor of the local PNG Evangelical Church and coordinator of the Ende Language Project. Speaks Ende, Taeme, Motu, English, and Tok Pisin. Husband of W. Geser, brother of D. Kurupel and S. Kurupel, father of R. Warama and T. Warama, grandfather of I. Kenny. Contributed Text F, a humorous tale about his father, and Text R, an ode to Karama swamp. Assisted in the editing, translating, and morphological analysis of Texts A, B, F, G, K, Q, S, and R. Illustrated Text M. Jubli Sowati: male, 26 (1991), primary school teacher in Upiara. Speaks Ende, English, Kawam, Taeme, and Tok Pisin. Son of S. Kurupel. Contributed Text K, a fantastical story about an old woman and a young boy. 20 1.3 Storytelling and data collection Julia Tätän (Delema): female, 10 (2007), lives in Limol and attends Limol Primary School. Speaks Ende and English. Contributed and sung Text J, a children’s song about a fish who breaks a woman’s fishing line. Rose Warama: female, 20s (1990s), born in Limol. Speaks Ende and English. Daughter of W. Kurupel and W. Geser, sister of T. Warama, aunt of I. Kenny. Contributed Text Q, a hilarious tale about two friends: Lobster and Frog. Tonny (Tonzah) Warama: male, 33 (1984), born in Limol, vicechairperson for the Ende Language Project. Speaks Ende, English, Tok Pisin, and Taeme. Son of W. Kurupel and W. Geser, brother of R. Warama, uncle of I. Kenny. Contributed Text B, the Turtle’s origin story. Assisted in the editing, translating, and morphological analysis of Texts A, F, G, K, M, O, and Q. 21 1 Preliminaries 1.4 Text presentation The texts in this collection are presented in two forms: parallel running text and interlinear glossing. The parallel text aligns the Ende text on the left with an English translation on the right. The Ende text is written using the Ende orthography (see Section 1.3.2) while the translation in English uses standard American English spelling conventions. Following the parallel text, each story is presented in an interlinear gloss format, see (4) from Text I. In this format, each sentence is presented in the standard orthography on the first line in italics 1 . Then, each word is annotated for morphological structure on the second line 2 . Here, hyphens (-) represent affix boundaries, equals signs (=) represent clitic boundaries, and tildes (~) represent reduplication boundaries.5 (4) 1 Däbe dirom de Mareyas kapu dägagän. 2  3  däbe that dirom=de cassowary=acc Mareyas pn kapu carry d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA 4 ‘Mareyas carried that cassowary [to Dum river source].’ (Dobola 2016b: WE_SN024:5) On the third line 3 , glosses of each morphological element are aligned with the word above. This gloss is written using the Leipzig glossing rules (Comrie et al. 2008) and represents the intended meaning of each morpheme for each use, but it does not necessarily represent all possible meanings of the morphological element. For example, a verb suffix that can be used to mean remote past or future will only be glossed as rem or fut depending on the context. The abbreviations used for the glosses are listed on page vii. The conventions used for the abbreviations are based on typological and areal trends (e.g., Döhler 2018). Finally, the translation of the sentence into English is presented in the fourth line in single quotes 4 . This translation is typically a free translation, where the intended meaning of the Ende phrase is translated into a semantically equivalent English phrase in collaboration with Ende-speaking consultants and an Englishspeaking linguist. Sometimes, a literal translation of the words will follow the free translation in parentheses. Parts of the meaning that are retrievable from context or are assumed but not explicitly stated in the example are added to the translation in square brackets. Examples (1)–(4) are followed by an in-line citation that references the source text in the bibliography, the text ID, and the line number within the text. 5Affixes attach to roots or stems, while clitics attach to phrases. Both exhibit properties of being part of the phonological word,such as vowel harmony, but many speakers prefer to write some clitics as separate words on the orthographic line. Reduplication boundaries mark instances of phonological duplication and morphological doubling (Inkelas 2008). 22 1.5 Special information 1.5 Special information The stories in this collection are organized into five parts. Part II, Animal Tales and Origin Stories, includes two pourquoi stories, which are etiological narratives formulated for children that discuss how certain things in nature came to be, such as how the turtle got its patterned shell. These origin narratives differ from mabun eka, sacred clan origin stories, which are more serious, passed down within a clan, and cannot be shared openly. Parts III and IV include two first-hand narratives and one folk/remembered story each. First-hand narratives describe personal experiences, while folk/remembered stories are traditional tales passed down through generations and involve known people, places, or clan groups, often with magical or supernatural elements. Part III, Tales of Hunting and Survival, includes three stories that describe the real and perceived dangers of leaving the village’s safety alone. These stories emphasize the importance of vigilance in your surroundings and how the community protects one another. Part IV is called Heroic or Legendary Stories and includes two chance occurrences with crocodiles, some of the largest predators in the region, and one fantastical encounter with a flood. Part V is called Tales of Misbehavior and Consequence and contains three parables that serve as instructions for how to behave in the Ende community. Lastly, Part VI, Odes and Reflections on the Natural World, brings together two odes as an example of more artistic narratives. Both are dedicated to important local water places: Karama swamp and Iräm washing place. Within each part, each story is also organized into several sections. Section 1 of each story describes the origination of the text. Section 2 provides a summary and contextual background for the story. Section 3 provides the running Ende text and English translation in parallel, with the original illustrations, if available. Finally, Section 4 provides the text with interlinear glossing. Just as storytelling sessions are interwoven with playfulness and song, the stories in this collection also alternate with selected songs from the rich inventory of sung texts in the Ende language corpus (Lindsey 2015a). The song texts have three sections: Section 1 describes the origins and provides a summary of the song, Section 2 provides the lyrics in Ende, and Section 3 shows the interlinear glossing. All songs may be downloaded for listening from the Ende language corpus archive (Lindsey 2015a). 23 1 Preliminaries 1.6 Overview of the texts Table 1.5 provides an overview of the texts included in this collection. Table 1.5: The texts and songs in this collection. text title translation words Text A Baet bo llan a allame de tubutubu gogon How Cuscus Got His Short Ears 686 Text B Kottllam bo pallall ttoenttoen Turtle’s Story 350 Text C Kakayam bo tongoe The Bird of Paradise Song 81 Text D Tawa mamoeatt ttoen Swamp Hunting Story 404 Text E Iddob käbama ibiatt Night Hunting 365 Text F Auma we ibiatt ttoen Walking to the Grave Story 595 Text G Donae Kurupel bäne käza gäzatt ttoen Donae Kurupel’s Crocodile Killing Story 522 Text H Käza misima saima The Crocodile Song 18 Text I Ngämaene ibiatt ttoenttoen Our Traveling Story 376 Text J Ttongo mälla da Children’s song about fishing 42 Text K Ause da llɨg kälsre peyang The Old Woman and the Small Boy 192 Text L Bandra bebi bälle Sago Lullaby 32 Text M Bundae bo pepeb The Tale of Bundae 275 Text N Ause Ur Children’s song about Ause Ur 54 Text O Yu ingong Fire Dance 473 Text P Ngasinga wutamu Swamp Work Song 135 Text Q Gämällang komlla A Tale of Two Thieves 463 Text R Eramang Karama walle Ode to Karama Swamp 119 Text S Iräm ine, Iräm ine Ode to Iräm Waters 139 Text T Ttongo toto me yäbäd a goklanän Children’s song about Iräm ine 41 Total 5362 24 1.7 Contextual images 1.7 Contextual images In this section, I have included many photographs taken during our visits to Limol to provide examples of places, animals, traditions, structures, and tools mentioned in the stories. The Figures are referenced in the texts as they are mentioned. 1.7.1 Flora Figure 1.2: Sana pätt - Sago tree Figure 1.3: Yu bäng ‘fire stick’ Figure 1.4: Grace Maher and Kate L. Lindsey planting a nge pätt ‘coconut tree’ in honor of the opening of the Limol Health Center in 2018 25 1 Preliminaries Figure 1.5: Up pätt ‘banana tree’ Figure 1.6: Karama swamp Figure 1.7: Karama swamp Figure 1.8: Karama swamp Figure 1.9: Karama swamp 26 1.7 Contextual images Figure 1.10: Karama swamp 1.7.2 Fauna Figure 1.11: Baet - Common Spotted Cuscus (Spilocuscus maculatus)Figure 1.12: Däräng - Hunting dogs (Canis lupus hallstromi and Canis lupus dingo) 27 1 Preliminaries Figure 1.40: Donae Kurupel carrying a load of yu ‘firewood’ Figure1.41: Awomancarryingasmall child on her shoulders and an infant in a ddäma ‘baby basket,’ suspended from her forehead Figure 1.42: A woman squeezing sana ‘sago’ 34 1.7 Contextual images Figure 1.43: Sali Goge (Wik) in traditional dance attire Figure 1.44: The Malam Culture and Dance group Figure 1.45: Warani Pewe†(center) with an alläp ‘Kundu drum’ Figure 1.46: The Limol Culture and Dance group Figure 1.47: Polle - Communal garden fence 35 1 Preliminaries Figure 1.48: Pollepolle - Personal garden fence Figure 1.49: Meeting friends at the Iräm ine washing place Figure 1.50: Washing clothes at the Iräm ine washing place 36 Part II Animal tales and origin stories ABaet bo llan a allame de tubutubu gogon — How Cuscus got his short ears Introduction Baet bo llan a allame de tubutubu gogon is a narrative archived in Lindsey (2015b) and can be cited as Kidarga (2016: WE_PN001). It was submitted to the collection in written form by Minong Kidarga of Limol village in 2016 to be included in a book for the Limol Elementary School. It was edited by W. Kurupel, T. Warama, and K. Lindsey. Editing involved rewriting the text with a standardized orthography and light editing to word choice, word order, or style. After editing, K. Lindsey recorded T. Warama reading the text aloud and later retelling the story from memory using a Zoom H4 recorder and head-mounted microphone. These recordings are archived in the collection as Warama (2016d) and Warama (2016e), respectively. W. Kurupel, T. Warama, K. Lindsey, and other members of the Ende Language Committee transcribed these recordings and translated all three texts at the phrase level. After this, K. Lindsey imported the texts into the Ende FLEx database and translated them at the morpheme level with help from C. Scanlon and various Ende Language Committee members. The illustrations accompanying the story in Section A.3 were drawn by Kiplin Geoff for inclusion in the book titled Pepeb Peba (Folk Stories) assembled by Johnson et al. (2016b). Summary and background Baet bo llan a allame de tubutubu gogon is an example of a pourquoi story that gives an explanation of how something in nature came to be. This text explains why the cuscus (Spilocuscus maculatus; see Figure 1.11) has short ears, particularly when compared with the dog. The tale goes that Cuscus and Dog used to be great friends. But one day, Dog played a trick on Cuscus, which resulted in Cuscus’ A How Cuscus got his short ears ears being cut short. In retaliation, Cuscus condemned Dog to a life dependent on humans to survive. There aresome parallels between this story and the parable Yu ingong (Text O). Both stories revolve around a main character who imitates someone and consequently undergoes a terrible fate. Figure 1.11 displays the common spotted cuscus typically found in the Limol village region, while Figure 1.12 shows the type of dogs often raised for hunting in the area. These dogs are likely a cross-breed between the New Guinea singing dog (Canis lupus hallstromi) and the Australian dingo (Canis lupus dingo). Like the New Guinea singing dog, these dogs howl in groups. One linguistic structure of note used in this story is diminutive reduplication. While playing hide-and-seek, Dog hides himself in a mama ‘palm leaf enclosure’ or literally ‘small house’ (see Figure 1.31 and Line 23). A mama does not look much like a typical ma ‘house’ in form (see Figure 1.32), but they serve a similar function and are made out of similar materials. Reduplication is used productively in Ende to derive diminutives, adverbs, nonsingular kinship nouns, and nonsingular adjectives. Another morphological structure of interest is the possessive clitic =da, which appears many times in this text. Possessive =da differs from other possessive pronouns and clitics in that it can only refer to a third-person possessor (cf. obo ‘his/her/their’) and is only found after a closed class of kinship nominals, such as nag ‘friend’ (see Line 9). In the interlinear text, possessive =da is glossed as cl_poss.kin, to indicate a close possessive kinship relationship. One additional type of possession featured in this story is ablative possession, which refers to a type of possession relationship where the possessor is the spatial or figurative source of the possessum. For example, Baet bäne dinduatt ‘Cuscus’s footsteps’ (Line 18) uses the ablative possessive pronominal clitic bäne to indicate that the footsteps are originating from Cuscus. Similarly, llaeyabaene tot ‘people’s rubbish’ (Line 49) uses the ablative possessive to indicate that the rubbish has been discarded and is no longer considered to be in possession by the people who created it. In this example, the people are a temporal or figurative source of the rubbish. Parallel text Ngattong ngattong täräp me, Däräng Long ago, Dog and Cuscus were the a wa Baet a mer abal nag dagwaeya. best of friends. They did everything Oba tämamae ttoen bällam ngasnen a together. They looked for food to40 eragwaeya llame dagwaeya. Ada otät gether, went for water together, and yagnen, ine ma deyarallo, tatu ma went to wash together. Their favorite llameae deyarallo a ddob ako e ttoen pastime was playing, and their fade dangesnegneyo eragwaeya llameae. vorite game was togotogol ‘hide-andOba mokowang abal ttoen a ngasnges seek.’ ma da eragwaeya tongoenen daeyag. Ddobae togotogol tongoe kämang dagwaeya. Figure A.1: Dog and Cuscus Ttongo ag me yäbäd a mermer abal One morning, the sun was out, and gogezänän. Wel a mermerangae deyapthere was a nice breeze. Cuscus urged doenän, a yäbäd a ade daramdaraDog to play hide-and-seek. Dog was mang gogän. Baet käsre däräng bom tired, but he told his friend, “Yes.” Custogotogol tongoe e ada ka gänyaolle cus told his friend, “Close your eyes; ddangoe eran. Däräng bom llowam da I will hide first!” Dog closed his eyes, däganän, be nag da bo eka me “ao” eka and his friend Cuscus took off. Cus41 A How Cuscus got his short ears gogän. Baet käsre nagda Däräng bom cus was running, and he came across ada eka dägagän, “Ikop nas, ngäna a giant breadfruit tree. He climbed it ngattong botgol.” Däräng a käsre ikop quickly and hid in one of the lower dasän, nag da baet bom aeya dängbranches. menän. Dedme dinduag a ada gogän, kollko ulle da gänyme daeya. Käsre ada gogon ge gonddällän, matu me ddage da eraeya dedme gotgolän. Figure A.2: Dog finding Cuscus in the breadfruit tree Däräng a käsre nagda Baet bom danDog called out, “Friend, are you hidgnoeyän, “Nag bongo zɨme atgolalle?” den yet?” Cuscus answered, “Yes!” Bogo do gungminggän ada, “Ao.” Däräng Dog then started to look for his friend. käsre nagda bom yagnen de dängkamän. Cuscus had hidden upwind, so Dog Baet era wel singosingoll dallän, ede was able to find him. 42 däräng bälle mullae gogon nagda Baet bälle bällabälle we. Däräng käsre nagda Baet bäne dinHe followed in his footsteps right duatt dae dongkollmällän doweyae to the breadfruit tree. He saw Cuskollko mit. Nagda Baet bom kollko cus sitting there and said, “Come toko me ikop dägagän a ada eka dädown!” Cuscus came down to the gagän, “Angetam.” Nagda Baet abo ground. Then Dog told his friend Cusgongetamän matu we. Käsre Däräng cus, “Now it’s your turn. Close your ako nagda Baet bom ada eka dägagän, eyes, and I will hide.” When Cuscus “Bako ikop nas, nga ngäna ako botoclosed his eyes, Dog took off and ran gol.” Angde Baet ikop dasän, nagda downwind. He saw a pile of grass and Däräng dedme dinduag a ada gogon, hid underneath. Cuscus waited a long wel kllomokllomoll dallän. Däräng time and then asked Dog, “Friend, käsre dallän ada kukiny mama de have you hidden yet?” Dog answered, ikop dägagän, käsre dibaolle ada gogon “Yes!” goträkän. Baet gontmonän täräpang, käsre nagda däräng bom dangnoeyän, “Nag, bongo zɨme atgolalle?” Däräng abo do gungminggän, “Ao!” Baet käsre nagda Däräng bom yagyag Cuscus then started to look for his de dängkamän. Ada yagyagang a dalfriend Dog. He was looking for a long län, ada dallän, “Wiyowa llowam a dätime and then said, “Phew, I’m tired.” gagän.” Käsre Baet nagda Däräng bälle He shouted for Dog, “Friend, come wolle gogon ada, “Kapera, wiya agezän out!” But Dog played a trick on Cuso!” Be Däräng a bogo käsre do towall ik cus from inside the grass. me nagda Baet bälle kuki ttoen ngasnges de gotäbawän. Käsre Däräng bogo do obo llan de He folded his ears back and shyly mermerangae deyangädän, dibaeya came out towards his friend Cuscus. abo ada llama näkäp me gogezänWhen Cuscus saw his friend, he said, mällnän nagda Baet pate. Baet angde “His ears are short!” He asked Dog, kapera da bom ikop dägagän, ada eka “Friend,whatdidyoudotoyourears?” gogon, “Obo llan a tubutubu agneDog lied to Cuscus and said, “I cut my gan!” Käsre Baet abo nagda Däräng ears.” Cuscus wanted his ears to look bom dangnoeyän ada, “Kapera, bongo like his friend Dog’s ears. Dog said, bäne llan de alla yagalle?” Däräng a “Wait for me here. I will go home.” käsre kaeg da bom kuki de dängkamän Dog went to his house and brought 43 A How Cuscus got his short ears (19) Nagda Baet bom kollko toko me ikop dägagän a ada eka dägagän, “Angetam.” nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet=bom cuscus=3sg.acc kollko breadfruit toko=me top=loc ikop see d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA a and ada like_this eka speak d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA a-ngetam fut.2S-come_down ‘He saw his friend Cuscus sitting at the top of the breadfruit tree and said, “Come downǃ”’ (20) Nagda Baet abo gongetamän matu we. nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet cuscus abo then g-o-ngetam-än rem-rt_ext-come_down-rem.3sgS matu=we ground=all ‘His friend Cuscus came down to the ground.’ (21) Käsre Däräng ako nagda Baet bom ada eka dägagän, “Bako ikop nas, nga ngäna ako botogol.” käsre then däräng dog ako also nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet=bom cuscus=3sg.acc ada like_this eka speak d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA bako 2sg.nom.also ikop eye n-a-s fut.2>3-rt_ext-close nga im_fut ngäna 1sg.nom ako also b-o-togol fut.1S-rt_ext-hide ‘Then Dog said to his friend Cuscus, “Now your turn, close your eyes and I will hide.”’ (22) Angde Baet ikop dasän, nagda Däräng dedme dinduag a ada gogon, wel kllomokllomoll dallän. angde when baet cuscus ikop eye d-a-s-än rem-rt_ext-close-rem.3sgA nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin däräng dog ded=me there=loc dindu=ag=a run=atr=nom ada like_this g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS wel wind kllomokllomoll downwind d-a-ll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS ‘When Cuscus closed his eyes, Dog went running like this. He went downwind.’ 50 (23) Däräng käsre dallän ada kukiny mama de ikop dägagän, käsre dibaolle ada gogon goträkän. däräng dog käsre then d-a-ll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS ada like_this kukiny grass_type ma~ma=de dim~house=acc ikop see d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA käsre then diba=olle that=all ada like_this g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS g-o-träk-än rem-rt_ext-go_underneath-rem.3sgS ‘Dog then went and saw a pile of grass. Then he went underneath.’ (24) Baet gontmonän täräpang, käsre nagda däräng bom dangnoeyän, “Nag, bongo zɨme atgolalle?” baet cuscus g-o-ntmon-än rem-rt_ext-wait-rem.3sgS täräp=ang time=atr käsre then nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin däräng=bom dog=3sg.acc d-a-ngnoe-yän rem-rt_ext-ask-rem.3sgA nag friend bongo 2sg.nom zɨme iam a-tgol-alle rec-hide-rec.2sgS ‘Cuscus waited a long time. Then he asked his friend Dog, “Friend, have you already hidden?”’ (25) Däräng abo do gungminggän, “Ao!” däräng dog abo then do there g-u-ngämingg-än rem-rt_ext-answer-rem.3sgS ao yes ‘Then Dog answered from over there, “Yesǃ”’ (26) Baet käsre nagda Däräng bom yagyag de dängkamän. baet cuscus käsre then nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin däräng=bom dog=3sg.acc yag~yag=de inf~search=acc d-ä-ngk-am-än rem-3nduP-start-iv.npl-rem.3sgA ‘Then Cuscus started to look for his friend Dog.’ (27) Ada yagyagang a dallän, ada dallän, “Wiyowa llowam a dägagän.” ada like_this yag~yag=ang=a inf~search=atr=nom d-a-ll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS ada like_this 51 A How Cuscus got his short ears d-a-ll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS wiyowa wow llowam=a fatigue=nom d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ‘The seeker went looking like this, he went like this, “Phew, I’m tired.”’ (28) Käsre Baet nagda Däräng bälle wolle gogon ada, “Kapera, wiya agezän o!” käsre then baet cuscus nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin däräng=bälle dog=3sg.dat wolle shout g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ada like_this kapera out_of_town_friend wiya come.imp a-gezän=o fut.2S-come_out=voc ‘Then Cuscus shouted for Dog like this, “Friend, come outǃ”’ (29) Be Däräng a bogo käsre do towall ik me nagda Baet bälle kuki ttoen ngasnges de gotäbawän. be but däräng=a dog=nom bogo 3sg.nom käsre then do there towall grass ik=me inside=loc nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet=bälle cuscus=3sg.dat kuki deceive ttoen thing ngas~nges=de inf~do=acc g-o-täba-wän rem-rt_ext-plan-rem.3sgS ‘But then Dog planned to play a trick on his friend Cuscus inside the grass.’ (30) Käsre Däräng bogo do obo llan de mermerangae deyangädän, dibaeya abo ada llama näkäp me gogezänmällnän nagda Baet pate. käsre then däräng dog bogo 3sg.nom do there obo 3sg.poss llan=de ear=acc mer~mer=ang=ae adv~good=atr=adv d-ey-a-ngäd-än rem-duP-rt_ext-fold-rem.3sgA diba=aeya that=cop.pst.sg abo then ada like_this llama hesitant näkäp=me mind=loc g-o-gez-än-mäll-n-än rem-rt_ext-come_out-ii.npl-pl-ipfv-rem.3sgS nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet=pate cuscus=an.all ‘Dog properly folded his ears, then he hesitantly came out towards his friend Cuscus.’ 52 (31) Baet angde kapera da bom ikop dägagän, ada eka gogon, “Obo llan a tubutubu agnegan!” baet cuscus angde when kapera=da=bom out_of_town_friend=cl_poss.kin=3sg.acc ikop see d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ada like_this eka speak g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS obo 3sg.poss llan=a ear=nom tubu~tubu nsg~short a-g-neg-an rec-aux-3plS-rec.3plS ‘When Cuscus saw his friend, he said, “His ears have shortened!”’ (32) Käsre Baet abo nagda Däräng bom dangnoeyän ada, “Kapera, bongo bäne llan de alla yagalle?” käsre then baet cuscus abo then nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin däräng=bom dog=3sg.acc d-a-ngnoe-yän rem-rt_ext-ask-rem.3sgA ada like_this kapera out_of_town_friend bongo 2sg.nom bäne 2sg.poss llan=de ear=acc alla how y-a-g-alle duP-rt_ext-aux-rec.2sgA ‘Then Cuscus asked his friend Dog, “Friend, what did you do to your ears?”’ (33) Däräng a käsre kaeg da bom kuki de dängkamän ada, “Ngäna ngämo llan de era yatärpänan.” däräng=a dog=nom käsre then kaeg=da=bom initiation_friend=cl_poss.kin=3sg.acc kuki=de deceive=acc d-ä-ngk-am-än rem-3nduP-start-iv.npl-rem.3sgA ada like_this ngäna 1sg.nom ngämo 1sg.poss llan=de ear=acc era foc y-a-tärp-än-an duP-rt_ext-cut-ii.npl-rec.3sgA ‘Then Dog started to lie to his friend like this, “I cut my ears.”’ (34) Baet bo moko da eraya obo llan a ade ada ingoll bogallo ge obo kapera Däräng da bo llan a alla ingollang gogeyo. baet=bo cuscus=3sg.poss moko=da desire=nom era=aya which=cop.pst.sg obo 3sg.poss llan=a ear=nom ade also ada=ingoll like_this=like b-o-g-allo fut.3S-rt_ext-aux-irr.nsgS ge this obo 3sg.poss kapera out_of_town_friend däräng=da=bo dog=cl_poss=3sg.poss llan=a ear=nom alla=ingoll=ang how=like=atr 53 A How Cuscus got his short ears g-o-g-eyo rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3duS ‘Cuscus also wanted his ears to look like how his friend Dog’s ears were looking.’ (35) Dibaballe däräng a käsre nagda Baet bom ada dägagän, “Bongo ngänäm nantmon, nga ngäna ma we balle.” dibaballe afterwards däräng=a dog=nom käsre then nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet=bom cuscus=3sg.acc ada like_this d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA bongo 2sg.nom ngänäm 1sg.acc n-a-ntmon fut.2>1sg-rt_ext-wait nga im_fut ngäna 1sg.nom ma=we house=all b-a-lle fut.1S-rt_ext-go ‘Afterwards, Dog said to his friend Cuscus, “You wait for me, I will go home.”’ (36) Däräng käsre dallän do ma we gogon, a täl pallkoll de diwenyän. däräng dog käsre then d-a-ll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS do there ma=we house=all g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS a and täl bamboo pallkoll=de piece=acc d-i-weny-än rem-ven-carry-rem.3sgA ‘Dog then went to his house, and brought back a piece of bamboo.’ (37) Käsre ada ka gänyaolle nagda Baet bo llan de täräpnan anggan. käsre then ada like_this ka emph gänya=olle here=all nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet=bo cuscus=3sg.poss llan=de ear=acc täräp-nan=anggan cut-I.pl=aux.prs.3sg>pl ‘Then, he cut his friend Cuscus’s ears.’ (38) Angde nagda Baet bo llan täräpnan a gottamänän, Däräng käsre nagda Baet bom ada dägagän, “Ibi tatuma!” angde when nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin baet=bo cuscus=3sg.poss llan ear täräp-nan=a cut-I.pl=nom g-o-ttam-än-än rem-rt_ext-finish-ii.npl-rem.3sgS däräng dog käsre then nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin 54 baet=bom cuscus=3sg.acc ada like_this d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ibi 1nsg.incl.nom tatu=ma bathe=char ‘When he finished cutting Cuscus’s ears, Dog then said to Cuscus, “Let’s go washǃ”’ (39) Käsre dedme kilikiliangae dinduag a ada gogeyo do oba mokowang abal tatuma da eraeya. käsre then ded=me there=loc kili~kili=ang=ae adv~happy=atr=adv dindu=ag=a run=atr=nom ada like_this g-o-g-eyo rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3duS do to oba 3nsg.poss moko=wang desire=atr abal very tatu=ma=da bathe=char=nom era=eya which=cop.pst.sg ‘Then they were happily running there to where their very favorite washing place was.’ (40) Angde gongttägeyo tatuma we, Däräng a käsre Baet bom ngattong tatu we umllang dägnän. angde when g-o-ngttäg-eyo rem-rt_ext-arrive-rem.3duS tatu=ma=we bathe=char=all däräng=a dog=nom käsre then baet=bom cuscus=3sg.acc ngattong first tatu=we bathe=all umllang tell d-ä-g-n-än rem-3nduP-aux-ii.npl-rem.3sgA ‘When they arrived at the washing place, Dog told Cuscus to wash first.’ (41) Baet käsre walle we ada gogon ge gogäbänän, tatu gogon mermerae ge llan täträp atta eragwaeya mermerae deyadrowän. baet cuscus käsre then walle=we water=all ada like_this g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ge this g-o-gäb-än-än rem-rt_ext-jump-ii.npl-rem.3sgS tatu bathe g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS mer~mer=ae adv~good=adv ge this llan ear täträp=att=a cut=pp=nom era=gwaeya which=cop.pst.du mer~mer=ae adv~good=adv d-ey-a-dro-wän rem-duP-rt_ext-clean-rem.3sgA ‘Cuscus then jumped and washed properly and cleaned his cut ears properly.’ 55 A How Cuscus got his short ears (42) Be nagda Däräng bogo eraeya nagda bom ddone ada datngoenän. be but nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin däräng dog bogo 3sg.nom era=eya which=cop.pst.sg nag=da=bom friend=cl_poss.kin=3sg.acc ddone a_lot ada like_this d-a-tngoe-n-än rem-rt_ext-laugh-ipfv-rem.3sgA ‘And Dog laughed a lot at his friend.’ (43) Angde Baet guirngänän walle atta, Däräng a ako käsre ada gogon walle we ge gllu! angde when baet cuscus g-u-irngän-än rem-rt_ext-come_out-rem.3sgS walle=att=a water=abl=nom däräng=a dog=nom ako also käsre then ada like_this g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS walle=we water=all ge this gllu splash_sound ‘When Cuscus came out from the water, Dog then went into the water – splash!’ (44) Gongkäbägän do igi abal e. g-o-ngkäbäg-än rem-rt_ext-dive-rem.3sgS do there igi underneath abal=e very=all ‘He went under to the very deep part.’ (45) Angde gopeyamän obo llan a komllaebmae eragwaeya deyatäräkän. angde when g-o-peyam-än rem-rt_ext-come_out-rem.3sgS obo 3sg.poss llan=a ear=nom komlla=aeb=mae two=rst=rst era=gwaeya which=cop.pst.du d-ey-a-täräk-än rem-duP-rt_ext-untie-rem.3sgA ‘When he came out, his two ears were untied.’ (46) Baet a angde Däräng pate ikop gogon, bogo gongnamän ada, nagda Däräng obom era kuki dägagän. baet=a cuscus=nom angde when däräng=pate dog=an.all ikop see g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS bogo 3sg.nom g-o-ngnam-än rem-rt_ext-understand-rem.3sgS ada like_this nag=da friend=cl_poss.kin 56 däräng dog obom 3sg.acc era foc kuki deceive d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ‘When Cuscus looked towards Dog, he realized that Dog had lied to him.’ (47) Käsre eka laemnen gongkameyo. käsre then eka word laem-nen argue-I.pl g-o-ngkam-eyo rem-rt_ext-start-rem.3duS ‘Then they started to argue.’ (48) Baet käsre gänyme dinduag a ada gogon, manggo de dängkälän. baet cuscus käsre then gäny=me here=loc dindu=ag=a run=atr=nom ada like_this g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS manggo1=de mango=acc d-ä-ngkäl-än rem-3nduP-ascend-rem.3sgA ‘Cuscus then ran and climbed the mango tree.’ (49) Baet Däräng bom abo do walle ada eka dägagän, “Bongo bäne ttam giddoll me era mɨnyi llaeyabaene tot de notnegne, ide dae anzagaene a gämäll agne.” baet cuscus däräng=bom dog=3sg.acc abo then do=walle there=abl ada like_this eka speak d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA bongo 2sg.nom bäne 2sg.poss ttam life giddoll=me life=loc era foc mɨnyi fut lla=eyabaene person=3nsg.abl_poss tot=de rubbish=acc n-ot-neg-ne fut.2>3-eat-sg>pl-ipfv ide=dae side=perl a-nzagae-ne fut.2S-roam-ipfv a and gämäll steal a-g-ne fut.2S-aux-ipfv ‘Cuscus said to Dog from there, “You, in your life, you will eat rubbish from people, and roam off the paths and steal.”’ (50) Däräng ako gopänaeyän a Baet bom ada eka dägagän, “Bongo bäne ttam giddoll me era mäzi llo ttam dae notnegne, a lla da bam mɨnyi kuddäll e gäz e nayagneyo.” däräng dog ako also g-o-pänae-yän rem-rt_ext-turn-rem.3sgS a and baet=bom cuscus=3sg.acc ada like_this eka speak d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA bongo 2sg.nom bäne 2sg.poss ttam life giddoll=me live=loc 1from English mango 57 A How Cuscus got his short ears era foc mäzi fut llo tree ttam=dae leaf=rst n-ot-neg-ne fut.2>3-eat-sg>pl-ipfv a and lla=da man=nom bam 2sg.acc mɨnyi fut kuddäll=e dead=all gäz=e kill=all n-a-yag-n-eyo fut.3>2sg-rt_ext-search-ipfv-fut.nsgA ‘Dog also turned and said to Cuscus, “You, in your life, you will eat tree leaves and men will look for you to kill you dead.”’ (51) Ede säre Baet bo llan a era adawatta tubutubu gogon. ede so säre sadly baet=bo cuscus=3sg.poss llan=a ear=nom era foc adawatta therefore tubu~tubu nsg~short g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ‘So sadly this is why Cuscus has short ears.’ (52) Däräng da däträpnegän a sisri bongo ikop eralle ada däräng a era yuwog ide dae kanyokanyong dan, ddobae gämällang dan a yuwog ngätt me källa bebeyag dan. däräng=da dog=nom d-ä-träp-neg-än rem-3nduP-cut-sg>pl-rem.3sgA a and sisri now bongo 2sg.nom ikop=eralle see=aux.prs.2sg>3sg ada like_this däräng=a dog=nom era foc yuwog many ide=dae side=perl kanye~kanye=ang adj~move_around=atr da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ddobae very gämäll=ang steal=atr da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg a and yuwog many ngätt=me yard=loc källa feces be~be=yag inf~leak=atr da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ‘Dog cut them and now you see that Dog moves around off the paths and steals and poops in front of people’s homes.’ (53) Adawatta ada ttoenang gogon Baet a däbe eka de ke donttogän. adawatta because ada like_this ttoen=ang thing=atr g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS baet=a cuscus=nom däbe that eka=de word=acc ke cntf d-o-ntto-g-än rem-3nduP-give-iii.npl-rem.3sgA ‘Because Cuscus gave those words.’ 58 BKottllam bo pallall ttoenttoen — Turtle’s story Introduction Kottllam bo pallall ttoenttoen ‘Turtle’s story’ is a pourquoi story told by Tonny (Tonzah) Warama for inclusion in a compilation of children’s stories for the Limol Elementary School called Pepeb Peba (Folk Stories) (Johnson et al. 2016a). T. Warama first told the story to D. Johnson on October 9, 2016 (4.6 minutes; Warama 2016f), retold it to K. Lindsey on October 29, 2016 (7.3 minutes; Warama 2016h), helped us write it down for Pepeb Peba (Warama 2016g), and then read that version aloud later that day (Warama 2016i). All four texts were transcribed, translated, and put into the Ende FLEx corpus, where they were further translated at the word and morpheme level by K. Lindsey, with the help of C. Scanlon, W. Kurupel, and T. Warama. The written version (Warama 2016g) is printed below with the original illustrations by A. Kaoga (Dobola) from the Pepeb Peba book. Summary and background ‘Turtle’s story’ is a fable that explains how the kottllam ‘turtle’ got its cracked shell and home in the sea. In the beginning of the tale, Turtle is living a difficult life in a drought-stricken region with very little water. He is found by a giant bird, who recruits a friend to take him to a nicer village by the ocean. The birds transport Turtle by having himbite onto along stick, warning himnot to open his mouth during the flight. Turtle breaks this rule when he marvels at the beauty of the ocean and falls to the village, where his shell breaks into pieces. The villagers put Turtle back together and release him into the sea. There are eight names for different species of turtles in the Ende dictionary (Lindsey&TheEnde Language Committee 2017). Thegeneric wordforturtle,and the one used in this text, is kottllam. More specific names include: atata kottllam (see Figure 1.13), gamo kottllam (see Figure 1.14), gogo kottllam,pall kottllam (see B Turtle’s story (7) Pa da dapllägän matu we a kottllam bom ikop dägagän ddäg kutt dae pälläm gogän, obo pate dallän a dangnoeyän ada, “Bongo alla ai dan?” pa=da bird=nom d-a-plläg-än rem-rt_ext-fly-rem.3sgS matu=we lower_part=all a and kottllam=bom turtle=3sg.acc ikop see d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ddäg back kutt=dae bone=rst pälläm visible g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS obo=pate 3sg.poss=an.all d-a-ll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS a and d-a-ngnoe-yän rem-rt_ext-ask-rem.3sgA ada like_this bongo 2sg.nom alla how ai good da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ‘The bird flew lower and saw the turtle, only his backbones were visible. He went to him and asked like this, “How are you?”’ (8) Kottllam a ada eka mu gogän, “Kandärmang, ngäna ai llokttang ttam me giddoll allan.” kottllam=a turtle=nom ada like_this eka speak mu response g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS kandärmang sorry ngäna 1sg.nom ai good lloktt=ang hard=atr ttam=me life=loc giddoll=allan live=aux.prs.1sgS ‘Turtle replied like this, “Sorry, I am living a very difficult life.”’ (9) Golläntmenyän tämamae ngalen de. g-o-lläntmeny-än rem-rt_ext-tell-rem.3sgS tämamae all ngalen=de way=acc ‘He told him everything.’ (10) Pa da ddone ada kandärmang dägagän obom a ada eka dägagän, “Ngäna bam mɨnyi bangmingg, mer ttängäm a dan duli, ai ine ulle dan, bem dan, tämamae ttoen a dedme mullamullae dag. pa=da bird=nom ddone a_lot ada like_this kandärmang sorry d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA obom 3sg.acc a and ada like_this eka speak d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ngäna 1sg.nom bam 2sg.acc mɨnyi fut b-a-ngmi-ngg fut.1A-rt_ext-help-III.npl mer good ttängäm=a place=nom da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg duli there ai good ine water ulle abundant da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg bem sea 66 da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg tämamae all ttoen=a way=nom ded=me there=loc mullae~mullae nsg~enough da=g med.dem=cop.prs.pl ‘The bird felt very sorry for him and said like this, “I will help you. There is a good village. There is good, big water there, a sea, there is enough of everything there.’ (11) Ede nga bongo gänyme, nga ngäna balle ngämo nag bom umllang bägag bablle ngämingg e.” ede so nga im_fut bongo 2sg.nom gäny=me here=loc nga im_fut ngäna 1sg.nom b-a-lle fut.1S-rt_ext-go ngämo 1sg.poss nag=bom friend=3sg.acc umllang tell b-ä-gag fut.1A-3nduP-aux bablle 2sg.dat ngämi-ngg=e help-iii.npl=all ‘So you stay here, I will go tell my friend to help you.”’ (12) Pa obom dowansegän a dallän nagda bom dingällbänän a kottllam pate gongttägeyo. pa bird obom 3sg.acc d-o-wanse-g-än rem-3nduP-put-iii.npl-rem.3sgA a and d-a-ll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS nag=da=bom friend=cl_poss.kin=3sg.acc d-i-ngällbän-än rem-ven-get-rem.3sgA a and kottllam=pate turtle=an.all g-o-ngttä-g-eyo rem-rt_ext-arrive-iii.npl-rem.3duS ‘The bird left him and got and brought his friend and returned to the turtle.’ (13) “Ngämi bam da batrameya, abo bongo ge sabi de nongkollmäll. ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom bam 2sg.acc da if b-a-täram-eya fut.1A-rt_ext-lead-fut.1nsgA abo then bongo 2sg.nom ge this sabi=de law=acc n-o-ngkollmäll fut.2>3-3nduP-follow ‘“We will take you, but you must follow our rules.’ 67 B Turtle’s story (14) Tuk me eka tameny a bongo abo mudan, kälae ttatt gallab a mudan.” tuk=me air=loc eka speak tameny=a discuss=nom bongo 2sg.nom abo then muda=n prohib=cop.prs.sg kälae small ttatt jaw gall-ab=a open-iv.npl=nom muda=n prohib=cop.prs.sg ‘In the air, you are not allowed to speak or open your jaw even a little.”’ (15) Pa da llo dätärpänän a kottllam bom amne abal me bod alle mällam e umllang dägagän. pa=da bird=nom llo tree d-ä-tärp-än-än rem-3nduP-cut-ii.npl-rem.3sgA a and kottllam=bom turtle=3sg.acc amne center abal=me very=loc bod=alle mouth=ins mäll-am=e hold-iv.npl=all umllang tell d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ‘The birds got a stick and told Turtle to hold it with his mouth right in the middle.’ (16) Pa komlla da llo de damllameyo ttälle alle a paplläg de gongkameyo. pa bird komlla=da two=nom llo=de tree=acc d-a-mll-am-eyo rem-rt_ext-hold-IV.npl-rem.3nsgA ttälle=alle leg=ins a and pa~plläg=de inf~fly=acc g-o-ngk-am-eyo rem-rt_ext-start-iv.npl-rem.3duS ‘The two birds held the stick with their legs and started to fly.’ (17) Angde bem dowae me maduma we dälltaemnän, kottllam a mäse ada eka panypeny e gongkamän, “Ae ttängäm a mer abal a gänyan,” wiowa e be gonyo we de gogon ekaklle, enanae gollomän kälakälae. angde when bem sea dowae=me proximity=loc maduma=we village=all d-ä-llt-aem-n-än rem-rt_ext-arrive-IV.pl-ipfv-rem.3plS kottllam=a turtle=nom mäse imn ada like_this eka speak pany~peny=e inf~speak=all g-o-ngk-am-än rem-rt_ext-start-iv.npl-rem.3sgS ae ah ttängäm=a place=nom mer good abal=a very=nom gänya=n here=cop.prs.sg wiowa=e wow=voc be but gonyo=we=de here=all=acc g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ekaklle ground enanae forever g-o-llom-än rem-rt_ext-break-rem.3sgS 68 käla~kälae adv~small ‘When they arrived at the village close to the sea, Turtle tried to say, “Wow, the village is very good here, wow!” But here it happened, the ground, at once smashed into pieces.’ (18) Lla da päre abo gobällän kottllam bo gollob pallkepallke de dänglläbeyo a kottllam bo patme däddäganeyo kame gontäbemenynegän a kottllam bom dätrameyo bem ulle we dainttemonggeyo. lla=da man=nom päre sadly.nsg abo then g-o-bäll-än rem-rt_ext-go-rem.3plS kottllam=bo turtle=3sg.poss gollob shell pallke~pallke=de nsg~piece=acc d-ä-nglläb-eyo rem-3nduP-get-rem.3nsgA a and kottllam=bo=patme turtle=3sg.poss=an.loc d-ä-ddäga-n-eyo rem-3nduP-put_together-ipfv-rem.3nsgA kame again g-o-ntäbemeny-neg-än rem-rt_ext-instruct-3plS-rem.3plS a and kottllam=bom turtle=3sg.acc d-ä-tr-am-eyo rem-3nduP-lead-iv.npl-rem.3nsgA bem sea ulle=we big=all d-a-inttem-ongg-eyo rem-rt_ext-leave_someone-iii.npl-rem.3nsgA ‘Then the people sadly went to the turtle, collected all the pieces of his shell, and put him back together again, and they let Turtle free into the big sea.’ (19) Kottllam bo ttam a abo tupi gogän. kottllam=bo turtle=3sg.poss ttam=a life=nom abo then tupi long g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ‘Then Turtle’s life was very long.’ 69 CKakayam bo tongoe — The Bird of Paradise Song Song summary Figure C.1: Sali Goge (Wik) and Rhoda Kukuwang performing the Kakayam bo tongoe song and dance with their dance ensemble in 2016 The Bird of Paradise song and dance was written by Sali Goge (Wik) to be performed by the Malam Culture and Dance Group (see Figure 1.44). When the Bird of Paradise song is performed, the dancers wear grass skirts, cassowary feather armbands, legbands, and headdresses, and carry abor, a tool used to pound sago (see Figure C.1). The dancers sing and are accompanied by the kundu drum (played by the decorated man in the foreground of Figure C.1). The choreography for this song emulates the movements of the bird of paradise with flapping elbows, jumps, and turns. The lyrics repeat the lines ‘The Bird-of-Paradise is C The Bird of Paradise Song singing in the garden of Eden. The people, we see how he plays. Kwa-o, kwao, ke-ke-ke.’ Here, the surroundings of the Ende villages are compared to the Garden of Eden from Christian mythology. This type of comparison is common among Ende-based Christian rhetoric, where the stories in the Bible have direct equivalence to local places, customs, and even ancestry. The Bird-of-Paradise has a special cultural importance in Ende culture and in Papua New Guinea. The Bird-of-Paradise is the national bird of Papua New Guinea and the totem of many local clan groups. The Bird-of-Paradise is renowned for its long tail feathers and elaborate dances. The song, dance, and story behind the song can be heard and viewed in the Ende language corpus (Goge (Wik) 2015, 2016a,b,c,d). Song text Ae-ya, kakayam da eka allan Iden ttängäm me. Lla ibi ikop bägageya obo tongoe de. Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. Ae-ya, kakayam da eka allan Iden ttängäm me. Lla ibi ikop bägageya obo tongoe de. Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. Ae-ya, kakayam da eka allan Iden ttängäm me. Lla ibi ikop bägageya obo tongoe de. Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. Ae-ya, kakayam da eka allan Iden ttängäm me. Lla ibi ikop bägageya obo tongoe de. Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. Glossed text (1) Ae-ya, kakayam da eka allan Iden ttängäm me. ae=ya ah=voc kakayam=da bird_type=nom eka=allan speak=aux.prs.1sgS Iden Eden ttängäm=me garden=loc ‘Bird-of-Paradise is singing in the garden of Eden.’ 72 (2) Lla ibi ikop bägageya obo tongoe de. lla man ibi 1nsg.incl.nom ikop see b-ä-gag-eya fut.1A-3nduP-aux-fut.1nsgA obo 3sg.poss tongoe=de play=acc ‘The people, we see how he plays.’ (3) Kwa-o, kwa-o, ke-ke-ke. [The sound of the kakayam bird-of-paradise.] 73 Part III Tales of hunting and survival D Swamp hunting story ge this ddob some llɨg=a child=nom alla how meda=da=bim father=cl_poss.kin=3nsg.acc mit~mit=amallo inf~miss=aux.prs.3plS ‘When I set off, my small boy, his name is Immanuel, missed me, the way young children miss their fathers.’ (3) Da medäda ero we gopällttänalle, llɨg da mɨnyi mitmit bäganän ngänaeka peyang. da if medä=da father=cl_poss.kin ero=we where=all g-o-pällttän-alle rem-rt_ext-start_walking-hab.sgS llɨg=da child=nom mɨnyi fut mit~mit inf~miss b-ä-ga-n-än fut.3A-3nduP-aux-ipfv-fut.3sgA ngänaeka=peyang cry=com ‘If fathers set off, children will miss them with tears.’ (4) Ngäna obom dätram, ngämi llame deyareya mamoema. ngäna 1sg.nom obom 3sg.acc d-ä-täram rem-3nduP-lead ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom llame together d-ey-a-r-eya rem-duS-rt_ext-go-rem.1duS mamoe=ma hunt=char ‘I carried him, we went hunting together.’ (5) Nyongo dae ngämi deyareya dowe Eramang gall tapma, gall e ngämi godagaleya, ngäna imne we, ede Immanuel ngattong e godmenän gall guwo me. nyongo=dae road=perl ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom d-ey-a-r-eya rem-duS-rt_ext-go-rem.1duS do=we there=all Eramang pn gall canoe tap=ma dock=char gall=e canoe=all ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom g-o-dagal-eya rem-rt_ext-board-rem.1duS ngäna 1sg.nom imne=we rear=all ede so Immanuel pn ngattong=e front=all g-o-dm-en-än rem-rt_ext-sit-ii.npl-rem.3sgS gall canoe guwo=me heart=loc ‘We went on the road to Eramang canoe place, we got on the canoe. I got in the back so Immanuel sat in the front, in the heart of the canoe.’ 82 (6) Bobag daeya dedam Karama walle da adawatta yogoll ulle da dämanän. bobag flooded da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg dedam then Karama pn walle=da water=nom adawatta because yogoll rain ulle=da big=nom d-ä-ma-n-än rem-rt_ext-rain-ipfv-rem.3sgA ‘Karama river was flooded because there had been big rains.’ (7) Ngämi tawa bo menae dae dagllaenalla ako ngämi gall me deyagirnalla, ddia we gongllaenalla. ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom tawa=bo swamp=3sg.poss menae=dae side=perl d-a-gllae-n-alla rem-rt_ext-paddle-ipfv-rem.1duS ako then ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom gall=me canoe=loc d-ey-a-gir-n-alla rem-duS-rt_ext-stay-ipfv-rec.1duS ddia1=we deer=all g-o-ngllae-n-alla rem-rt_ext-look_back-ipfv-rec.1duS ‘We paddled through the swamp, then we stayed in the boat and looked for deer.’ (8) Mamoeya maenenang lla da däräng peyang tawa de daddällgoeneyo, Wur bun tonton abal me. mamoe=a hunt=nom mae-nen=ang hunt-I.pl=atr lla=da man=nom däräng=peyang dog=com tawa=de swamp=acc d-a-ddällgoe-n-eyo rem-rt_ext-bush_hike-ipfv-rem.3nsgA Wur pn bun head tonton directly abal=me very=loc ‘Those hunters with dogs went into the swamp, directly towards Wur.’ (9) Komlla ddia de deyangkoenmällneyo däräng a ngäsengäse dowe Taolang gall tapma. komlla two ddia=de deer=acc d-ey-a-ngkoenmäll-n-eyo rem-duP-rt_ext-chase-ipfv-rem.3nsgA däräng=a dog=nom ngäse~ngäs=e adv~return=all do=we there=all Taolang pn gall canoe tap=ma dock=char ‘The dogs chased two deer down into Taolang canoe place.’ 1from English deer 83 D Swamp hunting story (10) Ngäna gall de mängamängall dagllae ddia koenmäll e, gall alle gumbiebmeny. ngäna 1sg.nom gall=de canoe=acc mänga~mängall adv~strength d-a-gllae rem-rt_ext-paddle ddia deer koenmäll=e chase=all gall=alle canoe=ins g-u-mbieb-meny rem-rt_ext-chase_after-III.pl ‘I paddled the canoe quickly to chase the deer with the boat.’ (11) Komlla dagwaeya ddia da, ada gullbe täkäll peyang a ako mäg da ulle da. komlla two da=gwaeya med.dem=cop.pst.du ddia=da deer=nom ada like_this gullbe male täkäll=peyang horn=atr a and ako also mäg=da mother=nom ulle=da big=nom ‘There were two deer, one bull with horns and one doe.’ (12) Ngäna gagäll kabag dae gall de dony ddia ngämenmäll e, Immanuel gall guwo me känyärtto gogän. ngäna 1sg.nom gagäll bad kabag=dae grass_type=perl gall=de canoe=acc d-o-ny rem-3nduP-carry ddia deer ngämen-mäll=e reach-pl=all Immanuel pn gall canoe guwo=me heart=loc känyärtto silent g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ‘I badly carried the boat through the kabag flood grass to reach the deer. Immanuel stayed silent in the heart of the canoe.’ (13) Angde ngämi ddia komlla de deyangmeneya, ngäna llɨg kälsre de Immanuel dangnoe, “Bongo ddia komlla de ikop yaralle?” angde when ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom ddia deer komlla=de two=acc d-ey-a-ngmen-eya rem-duP-rt_ext-reach-rem.1nsgA ngäna 1sg.nom llɨg son kälsre=de small=acc Immanuel pn d-a-ngnoe rem-rt_ext-ask bongo 2sg.nom ddia deer komlla=de two=acc ikop=yaralle see=aux.prs.2sg>du ‘When we reached the two deer, I asked my small boy Immanuel, “Do you see the two deer?”’ 84 (14) Bogo eka mu dagän ngänäm, “Baba, ao gänyageyo ddia da.” bogo 3sg.nom eka speak mu response d-a-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgA ngänäm 1sg.acc baba father ao yes gänya=geyo here=cop.prs.du ddia=da deer=nom ‘He answered, “Father, yes, those two deer are right here.”’ (15) Ako ada eka dagän, “Baba, ttongo nazu pakos alle.” ako then ada like_this eka speak d-a-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgA baba father ttongo one n-a-zu fut.sgP-rt_ext-shoot pakos=alle arrow_type=ins ‘Then he said, “Father, shoot one with the arrow.”’ (16) Ngäna umllang däga, “Immanuel, bongo gall guwo me, ngäna walle we gäbän allan ddia llädäd e.” ngäna 1sg.nom umllang tell d-ä-ga rem-3nduP-aux Immanuel pn bongo 2sg.nom gall canoe guwo=me heart=loc ngäna 1sg.nom walle=we water=all gäb-än=allan jump-ii.npl=aux.prs.1sgS ddia deer llädäd=e grab=all ‘I told him, “Immanuel, you stay in the canoe, I am jumping in the water to grab the deer.”’ (17) Ngäna gogäbän walle we ddia dowae me, mäse llädäd e dängkam, ngämo llɨg kälsre de, Immanuel bom gongnongg, gall me daeya bogo, poper gognän, be ddone ngänaeka gogän näkäp alle ngäna dämbäl, ada Immanuel zäme walle we aspunan adawatta ngäna ddänddängeny me gogäbän gall atta. ngäna 1sg.nom g-o-gäb-än rem-rt_ext-jump-ii.npl walle=we water=all ddia deer dowae=me proximity=loc mäse con llädäd=e grab=all d-ä-ngk-am rem-3nduP-start-iv.npl ngämo 1sg.poss llɨg son kälsre=de small=acc Immanuel=bom pn=3sg.acc g-o-ngno-ngg rem-rt_ext-think_of-III.npl gall=me canoe=loc da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg bogo 3sg.nom poper afraid g-o-g-n-än rem-rt_ext-aux-ipfv-rem.3sgS be but ddone neg ngänaeka cry g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS näkäp=alle mind=ins ngäna 1sg.nom d-ä-mbäl rem-3nduP-miss ada like_this Immanuel pn zäme iam walle=we water=all 85 D Swamp hunting story a-spu-n-an rec-fall-ii.npl-rec.3sgS adawatta because ngäna 1sg.nom ddä~nddängeny=me adv~immediate=loc g-o-gäb-än rem-rt_ext-jump-ii.npl gall=att=a canoe=abl=nom ‘I jumped into the water close to the deer and tried to grab it, thinking of my small boy (Immanuel), how he was sitting in the boat scared but not crying, and my mind raced and I thought Immanuel had fallen into the water when I jumped out of the canoe.’ (18) Be bogo dadewaeya gall guwo me dämenang dagernän, ngäna angde gongllae gall e, ttongo ddia de ikop däga. be but bogo 3sg.nom dade=waeya exist=cop.pst.sg gall canoe guwo=me heart=loc dämen=ang sit=atr d-a-ger-n-än rem-rt_ext-stay-ipfv-rem.3sgS ngäna 1sg.nom angde when g-o-ngllae rem-rt_ext-look_back gall=e canoe=all ttongo a ddia=de deer=acc ikop see d-ä-ga rem-3nduP-aux ‘But he was still there in the canoe sitting. When I looked to the boat, I saw one deer.’ (19) Immanuel däbe ttongo ddia de ikop alle dätraemänän, obo gall dowae dae dänggllanän. Immanuel pn däbe that ttongo one ddia=de deer=acc ikop=alle eye=ins d-ä-tr-aem-än-än rem-3nduP-lead-iv.pl-ipfv-rem.3sgA obo 3sg.poss gall canoe dowae=dae proximity=perl d-ä-ngglla-n-än rem-rt_ext-swim-ipfv-rem.3sgA ‘Immanuel was looking at one deer, he was swimming close to the boat.’ (20) Immanuel känyärtto abal gogän. Immanuel pn känyärtto silent abal very g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ‘Immanuel stayed very silent.’ (21) Ngäna gongäs gall e godagal, ngänäm Immanuel dangnoyän, “Baba, ddia da eraya?” ngäna 1sg.nom g-o-ngäs rem-rt_ext-return gall=e canoe=all g-o-dagal rem-rt_ext-board ngänäm 1sg.acc 86 Immanuel pn d-a-ngnoe-yän rem-rt_ext-ask-rem.3sgA baba father ddia=da deer=nom era=aya which=cop.pst.sg ‘I returned to the boat, got on, and Immanuel asked me, “Father, where is the deer?”’ (22) Ngäna umllang däga obom ada, “Ttam agan, adawatta ngäna bam ada ka bongo walle we aspunalle. ngäna 1sg.nom umllang tell d-ä-ga rem-3nduP-aux obom 3sg.acc ada like_this ttam alive a-g-an rec-aux-rec.3sgS adawatta because ngäna 1sg.nom bam 2sg.acc ada like_this ka cntf bongo 2sg.nom walle=we water=all a-spun-alle rec-fall-rec.2sgS ‘I told him, “He is alive because I thought that you fell into the water.”’ (23) Bam ngäna ullowae angnonggan, bongo llɨg kälsäre da yaralle ngämo peyang.” bam 2sg.acc ngäna 1sg.nom ullo-wae big-adv a-ngno-ngg-an rec-think_of-III.npl-rec.1sgS bongo 2sg.nom llɨg boy kälsäre=da small=nom y-a-r-alle ven-rt_ext-go-rec.2sgS ngämo=peyang 1sg.poss=com ‘“I was thinking of you, you small boy who came with me.”’ (24) Ngämi mängamängall gogllaeya gall tapma we, gall de dowansegeya ede ma we ada deyareya Immanuel ngämaene ddia koenmällatt eka de ma me dɨllɨtnän mägda bälle, oblle kiliang daeya ngämaene ttoen llɨtɨt a. ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom mänga~mängall adv~strength g-o-gllae-eya rem-rt_ext-paddle-rem.1duS gall canoe tap=ma=we dock=char=all gall=de canoe=acc d-o-wanseg-eya rem-3nduP-put-rem.1nsgA ede so ma=we house=all ada like_this d-ey-a-r-eya rem-duS-rt_ext-go-rem.1duS Immanuel pn ngämaene 1nsg.excl.abl_poss ddia deer koenmäll=att chase=pp eka=de story=acc ma=me house=loc d-ɨ-llɨt-n-än rem-3nduP-tell-ipfv-rem.3sgA mäg=da=bälle mother=cl_poss.kin=3sg.dat oblle 3sg.dat kili=ang joy=atr da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg 87 D Swamp hunting story ngämaene 1nsg.excl.abl_poss ttoen story llɨt~ɨt=a tell~inf=nom ‘We quickly paddled back to the canoe place and went home, and Immanuel told our story for his mother. She was happy when our story finished.’ (25) Iba umllang da llɨg kälekäle aba ttoen a, ende mäde da walle bangesneyo, mägda bälle mɨnyi ma me bɨllɨtnän obaene ttoen de. iba 1nsg.incl.poss umllang=da knowledge=nom llɨg child käle~käle=aba nsg~small=3nsg.poss ttoen=a story=nom ende what.acc mäde=da=walle father=cl_poss.kin=incl b-a-nges-n-eyo fut.3A-rt_ext-do-ipfv-fut.nsgA mäg=da=bälle mother=cl_poss.kin=3sg.dat mɨnyi fut ma=me house=loc b-ɨ-llɨt-n-än fut.3A-3nduP-tell-ipfv-rem.3sgA obaene 3nsg.abl_poss ttoen=de story=acc ‘We know that young children like to tell stories to the mothers at home about what they do with their fathers.’ 88 EIddob käbama ibiatt — Night hunting Introduction This text is called Iddob käbama ibiatt or Night Hunting. It was initially written by Sowati Kurupel around 2007 for inclusion in a literacy primer developed to showcase the Ende orthography at that time. In 2015, K. Lindsey and the Ende LanguageCommittee updated thetextto the latestspelling systemand translated it into English (Kurupel 2007). In 2017, K. Lindsey asked S. Kurupel to retell the story from memory. This recording is available in the Ende language corpus (Kurupel 2017c). There is also a recording of Kaoga Dobola reading the written text out loud (Dobola 2017). Summary and background In this text, S. Kurupel tells a tale about how he went hunting one night, shot a deer, and was chased home by a bright light, which locals call a “ball plane” in English. There are many such stories in the Ende corpus about night hunting and ball planes. Generally, Limol residents do not move around after dark because of the lack of light and the chance of encountering dangerous animals. Night hunting is more frequent during full moons and when hunters can access batteryoperated torches (flashlights) or solar-powered lanterns. Stories of ball plane encounters occur frequently at night and usually include descriptions of a lowflying, silent, spherical craft with a bright shining light that follows travelers. Sometimes these ball planes have people inside, often with light skin. Many in the community believe that if these ball planes were to catch them, the people inside would take their hearts and kill them. Others believe that they are trying to sell them weapons. Either way, people are afraid of them and will run back to the village in fear, often hurting themselves along the way by tripping and falling on the uneven walking paths. These stories were always presented to me as true and were never compared to the Western folk beliefs of aliens or UFOs. I have E Night hunting been asked multiple times to do something about these ball planes, specifically to ask that they stop scaring the Ende villagers. After S. Kurupel returns home, he takes a group of men with him the following day to collect the slain deer. This is common practice, especially when the animal is too large for one man to carry (see Figure 1.19). The group of men will share the deer with their families, with the hunter taking the most prized cuts of meat. When possessions like slain animals, fallen trees, sago bundles, or other heavy items are left on the road, a mark is left on the bundle called tab. This tab can be a part of a plant or animal that is connected to the person’s clan group, or even a simple branch on top that indicates “I am coming back for this.” Figure E.1: Sowati Kurupel with a bägäl ‘longbow’, a tobäll ‘bamboo arrow’, and a nyäng ‘bag’, prepared for a hunting trip. Parallel text Ttongo ebdo me, angde toto gognän, One day, when evening was comngäna iddob kanyekanye we gotäba ing, I planned to go night hunting to Minkom me. Ngäna ngämo bägäl a Minkom point. I properly prepared wa toboll a ada tos a mermer dansermy longbow, arrows, and torch. I beneg. Ngäna kälakälae gontämon do waited a little until the sun set, then yäbäd a angde goklawän dam ngäna I started walking, I followed the road ibi de gongkam, Eramang e nyongo de to Eramang and arrived at Togllaema. dongkollmäll do Togllaema minkom e gog. 90 Dibaballe gongkäz Tawabo we, mer Afterwards, I came out through the enddäna ngättäma me godmen, käsre side of the swamp, sat down in a good, tos de dägazen nyäng ik att de a clear place, then took out the torch batri käp de dazer, angde daerängg from inside my bag, put in the batmermer gogllaeyän. Ako dibaballe, teries, and when I tested it, it shone ibi de gongkam do Dubolläplläp, ede properly. Then afterwards, I started gänya ngata me ddäddäg de ddone danto walk towards Dubolläplläp, in that gerängg. spot, I didn’t see any animals. Be angde Dubolläplläp alle ibi de gongBut when I started to walk from kam do Ur, tawa we gog, dädme kulDubolläplläp to Ur, I got to the swamp, lkull att me ttongo ddia de tos inand there from out of the burned drang alle dälläd. Dibaya kälepalle grass, I caught one deer with my danyroene, angde dowae mäse däga, torchlight. I crept slowly towards it, ddia da dam dindugän a dägabäland when I got close, the deer ran län. Ako ngäna kame danyroe, ddia away and stood. Again, I crept, I did de llɨg ekaekong adawede oba ddone a deer whistle so that the deer would bindugän, ede llɨg ekawalle ddia de not run away, I trapped the deer with ngäna manglle däga. Dibaballe kame the deer whistle. Afterwards, I crept danyroe, angde dowae däga dam ngäna again. When Igot close,I shot the deer ddia de dazu pakos ulle walle, ada däga with a long arrow. I hit him straight enanae ddäg kutt deyanttäkeg, dädme in the backbone and broke it. He let pintta arle gognän, ngäna dam wap out a scream. I then killed him with a alle ada däga tumku däsän kuddäll e. stick to the back of the head. Diba täräp me ngäna ngonongg de At that moment, I had a thought danges Adilla God bom eso eka däga and thanked God because he helped mit adawatta bogo ngänäm dangmingme. This is what I had asked for in gän, ge ngäna ewe de dawes ikopse prayer. Afterwards, I left the dead alle. Dibaballe abo, ngäna ddia kuddeer there, and returned to the burnt däll de dädme dowanseg, ada deyarne grass, where an unknown torch light kullkull att dae, be ngämo kame daeya was shining, but my goosebumps ada ttongo tos indrang a ddäg alle were standing, so when I looked bekollmäll nallan, be ngämo pällkom hind me, this torch light was shining da guireon, ede ngäna angde gongllae close to me.’ ddäg e, ge tos indrang a ngämo dowae me gogllaeyän. Angde ngäna ge tos de ikop däga ngäna When I saw this torch light, I turned diba täräp me tos de dɨs, a dibaballe off my light, and afterwards started 91 E Night hunting (15) Ttongo ag a angde däbdabän ge ttoen de ngäna ddobagabira dällätne, ddone ada gotngoenegnän. ttongo one ag=a morning=nom angde when d-ä-bd-ab-än rem-rt_ext-dawn-iv.npl-rem.3sgS ge this ttoen=de story=acc ngäna 1sg.nom ddobag=abira others=3nsg.dat d-ä-llät-ne rem-3nduP-tell-ipfv ddone a_lot ada like_this g-o-tngoe-neg-n-än rem-rt_ext-laugh-3plS-ipfv-rem.3plS ‘The next morning, when it dawned, I told this story to others and they laughed a lot.’ (16) Be diba agalle ngäna llɨg de dokom ddia bänybäny e, oba bin a gänyag ada Samson, Wawase, Matthew, a Pedro. be but diba that ag=alle morning=abl ngäna 1sg.nom llɨg=de boy=acc d-o-kom rem-rt_ext-carry ddia deer bäny~bäny=e inf~cut=all oba 3nsg.poss bin=a name=nom gänya=g here=cop.prs.pl ada like_this Samson pn Wawase pn Matthew pn a and Pedro pn ‘But that morning, I took some boys to cut the deer. Their names are Samson, Wawase, Matthew and Pedro.’ (17) Ede ge ddia de däbänya, wa dikomya, ma we, ngäma sespen dägayaebeya, wa däddägaebeya. ede so ge this ddia=de deer=acc d-ä-bäny-ya rem-3nduP-cut-rem.1nsgA wa and d-i-kom-ya rem-ven-carry-rem.1nsgA ma=we house=all ngäma 1nsg.excl.poss sespen5 boil d-ä-ga-yaeb-eya rem-3nduP-aux-nsg>pl-rem.1nsgA wa and d-ä-ddäg-aeb-eya rem-3nduP-eat-nsg>pl-rem.1nsgA ‘So we cut that deer, and brought it home, boiled it, and ate it.’ 5from English saucepan 98 FAuma we ibiatt ttoen — Walking to the grave story Introduction Auma we ibiatt ttoen is an original story told by Warama Kurupel (Suwede) in 2017. Two oral tellings and one written version are archived in Lindsey (2015a). The story was first told to and recorded by K. Lindsey (Kurupel (Suwede) 2017a). The telling elicited so much laughter that it was retold to and recorded by L. Reed (Kurupel (Suwede) 2017c). K. Lindsey and L. Reed worked with W. Kurupel and T. Warama to transcribe and translate the two spontaneous recordings of the narrative. The two narratives were then combined and edited to produce the written version included here (Kurupel (Suwede) 2017b). Light editing involved rewriting the text with a standardized orthography and inserting content for clarity. Summary and background The Walking to the Grave story is a comedic narrative told by Warama Kurupel (Suwede) about a trick that his father, Kurupel Suwede, played during some funeral events in Malam in the 1940s (see Figure 1.1 for the location of Malam). The narrative takes place after the burial of a Yawenang man named Galo, an Ende man whose grandchildren, great-grandchildren, and great-great-grandchildren lived in Limol in 2017, when the story was told. In the story, a group of men decide to play a game to test their bravery. The night after the burial, the men were challenged to carry a yu bäng ‘fire stick’ one-by-one to the grave and return without being frightened. Figure 1.3 shows a fire stick or firebrand. This dried cone may be the dried seed pod of Banksia dentata, which can stay lit for hours and is used in northern Australia and southern New Guinea to transport fire. The fear of graves and the recently deceased may be related to the widespread belief that the spirits of the dead may be present in these spaces. In the story, K. Suwede takes advantage of this fear to play a trick on Awayang. When Awayang F Walking to the grave story takes his turn to visit the grave, K. Suwede surprises him by making a lot of noise, which sends Awayang running back to the group of men in fear. As he runs, he shouts päzäg gädo, which means ‘my brother-in-law is here’ in Idi. This part of the story reveals several aspects of Ende culture. First, Awayang’s belief that it was Galo, his brother-in-law, that made the noise supports the hypothesis that the fear of graves is related to the fear of encountering the spirit of the recently deceased. Second, his shouts in Idi reflect the multilingual landscape of the community in the 1940s and the present. W. Kurupel repeats this line seven times before translating it into Ende, but leaves it untranslated during the climax of the story, which is what solicits all the laughter from his audience. When he does translate the phrase into Ende, it is likely that he does so for the sake of the Ende-speaking linguist, not the usual audience who has basic knowledge of many local languages, including Idi. Finally, Awayang’s shouts remind us of the in-law name taboo practices upheld in the Ende community. It is forbidden to call your in-laws by name; instead, they are referred to by their relationship. In this case, Awayang respectfully refers to his dead brother-in-law as päzäg ‘brotherin-law’. At the end of the story, K. Suwede sticks out his tongue at Awayang, indicating that he had tricked him. Showing one’s tongue is just one of many paralinguistic gestures used by the Ende community. One linguistic particle observed in speech that contains trickery or multiple states of belief is ka, the counterfactual (see Line 58). Ka appears in diverse contexts such as counterfactuals, hypotheticals, potentials, rhetorical questions, and corrective negation (Tighe & Gabbay 2022). In counterfactual and hypothetical constructions, ka marks scenarios as contrary to known reality or imagined possibilities, often framing situations of mistaken belief or unrealized expectations. The mistaken belief can involve new information, or it can indicate a separate reality from the one held in the common ground (e.g., in Line 58, ka marks the event of chasing a prankster who is known to be pretending to be a ghost). A photo of a typical grave site is shown in Figure 1.37. This photo shows the graves of twin girls Kate and Grace, who died at two months of age. The signs above the graves provide the names and dates of birth and death for the deceased. Three crocodiles decorate the signs, indicating the clan totem of the girls: the käza ‘crocodile’ clan. The names Kate and Grace were given to the babies as they were born during Kate L. Lindsey and Grace Maher’s first visit to Limol in 2015. Figure 1.4 shows G. Maher and K. Lindsey planting a coconut tree in honor of the opening of the Limol health center. 100 Parallel text Ttoen a ngasnges atta gänyan Llamda This story is about what Old Man KuKurupel bäne. Pazi da 1940 diba ngata rupel did. Sometime around 1940, a me, ttongo lla da kuddäll gogon Malman died in Malam village. His name läm ttängäm me. Obo bin a Galo. Galo was Galo. Galo was Erme, Baewa, and oba baba daeya Erme a Baewa wa ZaZakae’s father. He was a Yawenang kae. Yawenang lla deya. Kuddäll gogon man. He died in Malam. Malläm me. Tämamae lla da Llimoll atta gobällnän Everyone from Limol went to Malam. do Malläm. Ge kuddällag me alla inDuring times of death, we gather togollang kolloenen allan naeka we. Ubi gether to mourn. They gathered in goklloeyän Malläm ttängäm e, naeka Malam, mourned together, and fingognegnän ge, gottamänän. ished. Oke, au we abo dibagaeya, auma däkälOkay, then there was the burial. They leyo, Galo bo pätt wanseg e, auma käldug the grave to leave Galo’s body. lkäll a gottamänän. Pätt de dowanseThey finished the digging. They put geyo auma me. Dawundeyo, gottathe body in the grave. They covered mänän. it up and finished. Ge angde iddob gogon, lla ulleulle da, When night fell, the big men and old tämamae llamäg a gotäbanegän. Ada, men got together and made a plan. “Ibi sisri tongoe de ngasnges e dan, They said, “Tonight, during this time gänya kuddäll täräp me. Ngaskäma of death, we will play a game.” We will imomdae lla da llokttang a ainin, idsee who is truly brave by going to the dob e ibi wi do auma. Ibi sisri yu bäng grave at night. We will bring a firede onymäll e dan.” stick back-and-forth to the grave. Ttongda donyalle do auma dowanseWe will bring a fire-stick back-andgalle, ttongda ako dallalle ngäs e. Auma forth to the grave. He will carry it watta diwenyalle. Ttongda ako donyalle back from the grave. Then another do auma. Tämamae lla da ada gognegän, will carry it to the grave. All of the “Ai dan. Ibi sisri mɨnyi däbe tongoe de men said, “Okay. Maybe someone bängesnalla iddob e. Ngaskäma aya lelwithout fear will go to the grave.” meny bogon auma we ibi wi.” Ngämo baba Kurupel ada gogon ada, My father Kurupel went like this, “I’ll “Ngäna bony. Ngäna yu di bony do take it. I’ll take the fire to the grave auma do bowanseg. Ttongda abo ngäs and leave it there. Someone else will e ballän.” Awayang Idugoe, Tizag lla have to go and fetch it.” Awayang Idu101 F Walking to the grave story daeya. Obo ttäle da apte gagäll deya, goe was a Tizag man. His legs were malla mermer ibi ag deya. Bogo ada bad on one side, so he did not walk eka gogon ada, “Abo ngänawa ngäs e properly. He said, “I will return to the balle. Auma watta ako ngäna yu bäng grave. And I will bring the fire-stick de beyangäs iddob säremang me.” back during the night.” Däbaeya, Kurupel donyän yu di do Then, Kurupel carried the fire there auma. Auma me dowansegän yu bäng to the grave. He left the fire-stick on de. Awayang ako ngäs e. Angde Awathe grave. Then Awayang was going yang yu ngäs e ibi wi ada gogon, Kuruto return. When Awayang went to go pel däbe mängalae gungmaeyän ttongo to fetch the fire, Kurupel quickly went nyongo dae dallän do auma. Galo to the grave by taking a shortcut. Galo bo auma sisor a eraeya. Do ngattong had a new grave. The first graves you auma toko we gokakalän. Auma da entered from above. This grave was pollepolle alle kättnan att dagaeya. fenced in with a small fence. Daeya do llandär gognän, gontämonän He waited there and listened for AwaAwayang bälle ada ngaskäma Awayang to know when Awayang was yang ibi allan. Llamda Awayang daolle coming. Old man Awayang’s gait was obo ibi da malla mer daeya, be ttimatnot good; he walked with a limp timang ibi ag daeya. Daolle dallän abo toward the grave. He was walking tatraem de yaya Kurupel deyandärän. that way and then father Kurupel Käsre do auma me bogo do ddoddollem heard his footsteps coming toward dägnegän ge wattällang a endagaeya him. Then Kurupel made a lot of noise do däbem ddoddollem dägnegän ge. at the grave, he started banging the things that were left on the grave. Wiowa Llamda Awayang! Dinduag Oh Old man Awayang! Oh how he ada gogon! Ede Galo eraeya, obo päzäg ran! Galo was this man’s brother-indaeya, ge aya kuddäll gogon. Awayang law, the one that died. Awayang was ada gogon, “Päzäg gädo! Päzäg gädo! going, “My brother-in-law is here! My Päzäg gädo!” Ada ekaekong dindugbrother-in-law is here! My brothermällnän lel me, dowe de lla da ero dain-law is here!” He was running and gaeya. A dindugalle, a gompedägalle, yelling in fear towards where the wup pätt me gobäddalle. Ako gopällttämen were. He was running, and tripnalle. Ako dindugalle, mameat endagping, and knocking down bananas. eya ge däbe dudunän, dindu mi daeya, Then he took off again. He was run- “Päzäg gädo! Päzäg gädo!”, ada ekaekong ning, knocking down pawpaws while dindugmällnän. running. “My brother-in-law is here! My brother-in-law is here!” he was yelling while running. 102 Idi eka walle ada gogon, “Päzäg gädo! He was yelling in Idi, “My brotherPäzäg gädo!” Kuddäll lla de däbe Galo in-law is here! My brother-in-law is bom ada dägänän, “Galo gänyan! Galo here!” He was yelling at the dead gänyan! Galo bo anyke da gänyan man, “Galo is here! Galo is here! ttam agan!” Lla da angde dandärmällGalo’s spirit is alive and here!” When neyo ge, lla gulag a, ubi ako dinduag the crowd of men heard this, they a duduli Awayang bom danttäkämälran to meet Awayang and started leyo, däbe lla kuddäll anyke de ada ka chasing the dead spirit away, yelling, koenmäll erallo, “Ya! Ya! Ya!” Adawede “Ya! Ya! Ya!” So that the spirit would oba anyke da bowansegän Awayang leave Awayang alone and go far away. bom, oba duli ballän. Dibaeya ge AwaWhen Awayang reached the men, yang daeya llayaba pate gogon, ada theysaid,“Whathappened?” Awayang “Alla?” Ada, “Ngäna mäse nallan do replied, I was just going to the grave, auma, dowae agan do auma de ddodwhen there was a lot of noise, which dllem nägnegan ge adame ngäna gänyais why I ran back in fear! eya indugan lelang a.” Däbe angde lla de umllang dägnegän, After Awayang said this to the men, Kurupel daollemae ngättägngättäg gogKurupel showed up and came close to än oba pate. Ada, “Bibi ende eka tameny them. Kurupel said, “What are you eralla?” Ada, “Ingollang ttoen a angetalking about?” They said, “This is san.” what happened.” Kurupel Llamda Awayang bom dägThen, Kurupel stuck his tongue out at mar täräll dägnegän. Llayabira a ddob Old Man Awayang. They told other mällayabira dällɨtneyo, ddone tongoe men and woman,and oh they laughed daeya. Ddobaeddobae gotongoenegnän a lot. People laughed so much at this gänya ttoen me. Dibaeya story da. story. That is the story. Dägmar täräll bo midd a ada dan, Sticking out your tongue means, “Do “Umllang agalle? Bongo ddone lloktyou feel it? You’re not brave enough tang dan käde auma ibi wi.” Kurupel to go to the grave.” This is what hapbäne ngasnges atta ada Idugoe a lla pened to Kurupel and Idugoe. This is da. Ede ada ingoll ttoen da gongesän. what happened. They did this to know Däbe adawede ada dangesneyo ada who was brave enough to go to the ngaskäma ainin lelmeny a, auma we grave at night. ngaska aya iddob e ballän llokttang. Eso. Thank you. 103 F Walking to the grave story Glossed text (1) Ttoen a ngasnges atta gänyan Llamda Kurupel bäne. ttoen=a story=nom ngas~nges=att=a inf~happen=abl=nom gänya=n here=cop.prs.sg llamda old_man Kurupel=bäne pn=3sg.abl_poss ‘This story is about what Old Man Kurupel did.’ (2) Pazi da 1940 diba ngata me, ttongo lla da kuddäll gogon Malläm ttängäm me. pazi=da year=nom 19401 1940 diba that ngata=me spot=loc ttongo a lla=da man=nom kuddäll die g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS Malläm pn ttängäm=me village=loc ‘Sometime around 1940, a man died in Malam village.’ (3) Obo bin a Galo. obo 3sg.poss bin=a name=nom Galo pn ‘His name was Galo.’ (4) Galo oba baba daeya Erme a Baewa wa Zakae. Galo pn oba 3nsg.poss baba father da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg Erme pn a and Baewa pn wa and Zakae pn ‘Galo was Erme, Baewa, and Zakae’s father.’ (5) Yawenang lla deya. Yawen=ang pn=atr lla man da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg ‘He was a Yawenang man.’ (6) Kuddäll gogon Malläm me. kuddäll die g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS Malläm=me pn=loc ‘He died in Malam.’ 1from English 1940 104 (7) Tämamae lla da Llimoll atta gobällnän do Malläm. tämamae all lla=da man=nom pn=att=a pn=abl=nom g-o-bäll-n-än rem-rt_ext-go-ipfv-rem.3plS do there Malläm pn ‘Everyone from Limol went to Malam.’ (8) Ge kuddällag me alla ingollang kolloenen allan naeka we. ge this kuddäll=ag=me death=atr=loc alla=ingoll=ang how=like=atr kolloe-nen=allan mix-I.pl=aux.prs.1plS naeka=we cry=all ‘During times of death, we gather together to mourn.’ (9) Ubi goklloeyän Malläm ttängäm e, naeka gognegnän ge, gottamänän. ubi 3nsg.nom g-o-klloe-yän rem-rt_ext-gather-rem.3sgS Malläm pn ttängäm=e place=all naeka cry g-o-g-neg-n-än rem-rt_ext-aux-3plS-ipfv-rem.3plS ge this g-o-ttam-än-än rem-rt_ext-finish-ii.npl-rem.3sgS ‘They gathered in Malam, mourned together, and finished.’ (10) Oke, au we abo dibagaeya, auma däkälleyo, Galo bo pätt wanseg e, auma källkäll a gottamänän. oke okay au=we burial=all abo then diba=gaeya that=cop.pst.pl au=ma bury=char d-ä-käll-eyo rem-3nduP-dig-rem.3nsgA Galo=bo pn=3sg.poss pätt body wanse-g=e put-iii.npl=all au=ma bury=char käll~käll=a inf~dig=nom g-o-ttam-än-än rem-rt_ext-finish-ii.npl-rem.3sgS ‘Okay, then there was the burial. They dug the grave to leave Galo’s body. They finished the digging.’ (11) Pätt de dowansegeyo auma me. pätt=de body=acc d-o-wanse-g-eyo rem-3nduP-put-iii.npl-rem.3nsgA au=ma=me bury=char=loc ‘They put the body in the grave.’ 105 F Walking to the grave story (12) Dawundeyo, gottamänän. d-a-wund-eyo rem-rt_ext-cover_pit-rem.3nsgA g-o-ttam-än-än rem-rt_ext-finish-ii.npl-rem.3sgS ‘They covered it up and finished.’ (13) Ge angde iddob gogon, lla ulleulle da, tämamae llamäg a gotäbanegän. ge this angde when iddob night g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS lla man ulle~ulle=da nsg~big=nom tämamae all llamäg=a old_man=nom g-o-täba-neg-än rem-rt_ext-plan-3plS-rem.3plS ‘When night fell, the big men and old men got together and made a plan.’ (14) Ada, “Ibi sisri tongoe de ngasnges e dan, gänya kuddäll täräp me. ada like_this ibi 1nsg.incl.nom sisri now tongoe=de play=acc ngas~nges=e inf~do=all da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg gänya this kuddäll dead täräp=me time=loc ‘They said, “Tonight, during this time of death, we will play a game.”’ (15) Ngaskäma imomdae lla da llokttang a ainin, iddob e ibi wi do auma. ngaskäma pot imomdae truth lla=da man=nom llokott=ang=a strong=atr=nom ain=in who.sg=cop.prs.sg iddob=e night=all ibi=wi go=all do there au=ma bury=char ‘We will see who is truly brave by going to the grave at night.’ (16) Ibi sisri yu bäng de onymäll e dan.” ibi 1nsg.incl.nom sisri now yu fire bäng=de firestick=acc ony-mäll=e carry-pl=all da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ‘We will bring a fire-stick back-and-forth to the grave.’ (17) Ttongda donyalle do auma dowansegalle, ttongda ako dallalle ngäs e. ttong=da one=nom d-o-ny-alle rem-3nduP-carry-irr.sgA do there au=ma bury=char d-o-wanse-g-alle rem-3nduP-put-iii.npl-irr.sgA ttongo=da one=nom ako again d-a-ll-alle rem-rt_ext-go-hab.sgS ngäs=e return=all ‘One many must carry the fire-stick to the grave and leave it there; then another will go and fetch it.’ 106 (18) Auma watta diwenyalle. au=ma=watt=a bury=char=abl=nom d-i-weny-alle rem-ven-carry-irr.sgA ‘He will carry it back from the grave.’ (19) Ttongda ako donyalle do auma. ttongo=da one=nom ako again d-o-ny-alle rem-3nduP-carry-irr.sgA do there au=ma bury=char ‘Then another will carry it to the grave.’ (20) Tämamae lla da ada gognegän, “Ai dan. tämamae all lla=da man=nom ada like_this g-o-g-neg-än rem-rt_ext-aux-3plS-rem.3plS ai good da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ‘All of the men said, “Okay.’ (21) Ibi sisri mɨnyi däbe tongoe de bängesnalla iddob e. ibi 1nsg.incl.nom sisri now mɨnyi fut däbe that tongoe=de play=acc b-ä-nges-n-alla fut.1A-3nduP-do-ipfv-fut.1nsgA iddob=e night=all ‘We will play this game tonight.’ (22) Ngaskäma aya lelmeny bogon auma we ibi wi.” ngaskäma pot aya who.sg lel=meny fear=priv b-o-g-on fut.3S-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS au=ma=we bury=char=all ibi=wi go=all ‘Maybe someone without fear will go to the grave.”’ (23) Ngämo baba Kurupel ada gogon ada, “Ngäna bony. ngämo 1sg.poss baba father Kurupel pn ada like_this g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ada like_this ngäna 1sg.nom b-ony fut.1A-carry ‘My father Kurupel went like this, “I’ll take it.’ 107 F Walking to the grave story ka cntf koenmäll=erallo chase=aux.prs.3nsg>3sg ya go_away ‘When the crowd of men heard this, they ran to meet Awayang and started chasing the dead spirit away, yelling, “Ya!’ (59) Ya! ya go_away ‘Ya!’ (60) Ya!” ya go_away ‘Ya!”’ (61) Adawede oba anyke da bowansegän Awayang bom, oba duli ballän. adawede so_that oba cons anyke=da spirit=nom b-o-wanse-g-än fut.3A-3nduP-put-iii.npl-rem.3sgA Awayang=bom pn=3sg.acc oba cons duli away b-a-ll-än fut.3S-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS ‘So that the spirit would leave Awayang along and go far away.’ (62) Dibaeya ge Awayang daeya llayaba pate gogon, ada “Alla?” diba=aeya that=cop.pst.sg ge this Awayang pn da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg lla=yaba=pate person=3nsg.poss=an.all g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ada like_this alla how ‘When Awayang reached the men, they said, “What happened?”’ (63) Ada, “Ngäna mäse nallan do auma, dowae agan do auma de ddoddllem nägnegan ge adame ngäna gänyaeya indugan lelang a.” ada like_this ngäna 1sg.nom mäse imn nallan aux.prs.1sg>2sg do there au=ma bury=char dowae proximity a-g-an rec-aux-rec.1sgS do there au=ma=de bury=char=acc ddo~ddollem inf~make_noise n-ä-g-neg-an rec.3plP-3nduP-aux-sg>pl-rec.3sgA ge this adame this_is_why ngäna 1sg.nom gänya=aeya here=cop.pst.sg indug-an run-rec.1sgS lel=ang=a fear=atr=nom ‘Awayang replied, “I was just going to the grave, when there was a lot of noise, which is why I ran back in fear!”’ 114 (64) Däbe angde lla de umllang dägnegän, Kurupel daollemae ngättägngättäg gogän oba pate. däbe that angde when lla=de man=acc umllang tell d-ä-g-neg-än rem-3nduP-aux-sg>pl-rem.3sgA Kurupel pn da=olle=mae med.dem=all=perl ngättäg~ngättäg adv~arrive g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS oba=pate 3nsg.poss=an.all ‘After Awayang said this to the men, Kurupel showed up and came close to them.’ (65) Ada, “Bibi ende eka tameny eralla?” ada like_this bibi 2nsg.nom ende what.acc eka speak tameny=eralla discuss=aux.prs.2nsg>3sg ‘Kurupel said, “What are you talking about?”’ (66) Ada, “Ingollang ttoen a angesan.” ada like_this ingoll=ang like=atr ttoen=a story=nom a-nges-an rec-happen-rec.3sgS ‘They said, “This is what happened.”’ (67) Kurupel Llamda Awayang bom dägmar täräll dägnegän. Kurupel pn llamda old_man Awayang=bom pn=3sg.acc dägmar tongue täräll stick_out d-ä-g-neg-än rem-3nduP-aux-sg>pl-rem.3sgA ‘Then, Kurupel stuck his tongue out at Old Man Awayang.’ (68) Llayabira a ddob mällayabira dällɨtneyo, ddone tongoe daeya. lla=yabira person=3nsg.dat a and ddob some mälla=yabira woman=3nsg.dat d-ä-llɨt-n-eyo rem-3nduP-tell-ipfv-rem.3nsgA ddone neg tongoe laugh da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg ‘They told other men and woman, and oh they laughed a lot.’ (69) Ddobaeddobae gotongoenegnän gänya ttoen me. ddobae~ddobae adv~very g-o-tongoe-neg-n-än rem-rt_ext-laugh-3plS-ipfv-rem.3plS gänya this ttoen=me story=loc ‘People laughed so much at this story.’ 115 F Walking to the grave story (70) Dibaeya story da. diba=aeya that=cop.pst.sg story=da story=nom ‘That is the story.’ (71) Dägmar täräll bo midd a ada dan, “Umllang agalle? dägmar tongue täräll=bo stick_out=3sg.poss midd=a meaning=nom ada like_this da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg umllang know a-g-alle rec-aux-rec.2sgA ‘Sticking out your tongue means, “Do you feel it?’ (72) Bongo ddone llokttang dan käde auma ibi wi.” bongo 2sg.nom ddone neg llokott=ang strong=atr da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg käde when au=ma bury=char ibi=wi go=all ‘You’re not brave enough to go to the grave.”’ (73) Kurupel bäne ngasnges atta ada Idugoe a lla da. Kurupel=bäne pn=3sg.abl_poss ngas~nges=att=a inf~do=abl=nom ada like_this Idugoe pn a and lla=da man=nom ‘This is what happened to Kurupel and Idugoe.’ (74) Ede ada ingoll ttoen da gongesän. ede so ada=ingoll like_this=like ttoen=da story=nom g-o-nges-än rem-rt_ext-happen-rem.3sgS ‘This is what happened.’ (75) Däbe adawede ada dangesneyo ada ngaskäma ainin lelmeny a, auma we ngaska aya iddob e ballän llokttang. däbe that adawede so_that ada like_this d-a-nges-n-eyo rem-rt_ext-make-ipfv-rem.3nsgA ada like_this ngaskäma pot ain=in who.sg=cop.prs.sg lel=meny=a fear=priv=nom au=ma=we bury=char=all ngaska pot aya who.sg iddob=e night=all b-a-ll-än fut.3S-rt_ext-go-rem.3sgS llokott=ang strong=atr ‘They did this to know who was brave enough to go to the grave at night.’ 116 (76) Eso. eso4 thank_you ‘Thank you.’ 4Eso is a regional word meaning ‘thank you’ observed in many unrelated languages, including Southern Kiwai, Kalau Lagau Ya and Torres Strait Creole. 117 Part IV Heroic or legendary stories GDonae Kurupel bäne käza gäzatt ttoen — Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story Introduction The following narrative is called Donae Kurupel bäne käza gäzatt ttoen or ‘Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story.’ It is a true story told by Donae Kurupel about a noteworthy fishing day with Sokola Sowati (Kurupel). D. Kurupel told this story to L. Reed in 2017 for inclusion in a book for the elementary school on fishing stories (Reed et al. 2017b). L. Reed recorded D. Kurupel using a Zoom H4N audio recorder and a head-mounted microphone while she told this 9.4-minute long story. This recording is archived in the Ende language corpus as Kurupel (2017b). After recording, L. Reed and W. Kurupel transcribed the story into standard Ende and translated it at the phrase-level. T. Warama and K. Lindsey translated the text at the wordand morpheme-levels. The text was lightly edited for style and structure for inclusion in the fishing story book. This edited version at 375 words long is presented here and is archived in the Ende language corpus as Kurupel (2017a). This published version is accompanied by illustrations drawn by 16-year-old Keith Mado. Summary and background In this fishing story, Donae Kurupel details an unexpected encounter with a crocodile while fishing. The type of fishing described here is one where fishers stake long vertical nets across a river, leaving them there for an extended period of time.1Later, someone will return to lift the nets out of the water to see if any fish are caught in the holes of the nets. Any fish that are caught in the 1Other types of fishing include: shooting arrows with a bow, throwing harpoons from above, throwing harpoons while diving with goggles, dangling bait on a hook with a line, poisoning the water, setting bamboo traps, net casting (see Figure 1.38) and funneling the water with circular nets and baskets (see Figure 1.39). G Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story nets are perfect bait for large predators, such as crocodiles (Crocodylus halli; see Figure 1.20). When D. Kurupel and S. Sowati go to check the nets, they find the caught fish half-eaten and suspect that a crocodile might be nearby. When they discover the crocodile, D. Kurupel bravely kills it, pulls it into their boat, and carries it back to the village. This would be an impressive feat for any Ende villager – crocodiles are dangerous and heavy – but especially so for D. Kurupel, whowasinherlate50s or 60s when the eventoccurred.This fact is less surprising if we consider that women in this society are burdened with the responsibility of carrying heavy loads (see Figure 1.40). For example, women are responsible for fetching water from the wells multiple times daily. Young girls carry buckets of various sizes until they can balance the standard 40-pound (20-kilogram) jerry can on their heads and backs. Women also transport sago bundles, which are even heavier at around 60–80 pounds (30–40 kilograms). Water and sago both need to be carried regularly uphill from the swamps to the village. Men do carry some loads, such as felled trees and hunted animals. You will also notice a reference to Christian prayer in this text (Line 5). The Ende community experienced a rapid conversion to Christianity in the 1950s and 60s when Christian missionaries came to the nearby towns of Goroka and Upiara. Ende representatives were sent out to these towns to learn what the missionaries had to say, and they returned with information about literacy, basic Western healthcare, and the Bible. This experience is captured in the documentary Ende tän e indrang ‘Light into Ende tribe’ (Warama et al. 2018). Although the Ende representativesneeded tolearnGogodala, TokPisin,andEnglishto communicate with the missionaries, the local conversion took place mostly in Ende. Because of this, the domain of religion is primarily in Ende, not in a lingua franca, such as Tok Pisin or English. English, however, is used frequently to quote from the Bible as the text has not been completely translated into Ende. This text has a lovely quadruplet of verbs marked with ventive associated motion in Lines 18–24. They show how the ventive can mark motion into view, motion towards the speaker, or actions with intended motion towards a prominent place (e.g., the village). First, the crocodile’s head ada digne ‘goes like this ven=[into view]’ and bites D. Kurupel in the hand. She ttang de [...] gänyeri ada dige ‘goes like this this way with her hand ven=[back into view/towards the speaker]’ and sees that the crocodile only scraped the skin. She then giri de dipirngän ‘draws her knife ven=[into view]’ and hits him in the head. They gall ik e dizeneya ‘pull him into the canoe ven=towards the speaker’ and net [de...] dingädneg ‘fold the nets ven=[in order to bring them back to the village]’. 122 Parallel text Ngäna daeya gopällttän dalle, mälla da One day, I set off behind the women gull peyang ngattong gobällän. Ngäna who had gone with the fishing nets. I oballe imne Sokola. Ngäna Sokola bom was right behind Sokola. I said to her, ada dägag, “Ibi beyareya nett irngän e.” “Let’s go lift the nets out.” We went Ngämi dagwaeya deyareya gall tapma, to the canoe place, boarded the canoe, gall e gokakaleya a dagllaeya. Ngäna and started paddling. There, I prayed, dedme ikopse gog ada, “Baba, kollba “Father, please let me catch some fish. da ngämlle buittnegän. Bongo tämaYou prevail over all, and you are my mae ttoen e zizag dalle, bongowae only support.” ngämiminy anggalle.” FigureG.1: Ecosystemofthe swamp,includingboars,eagles,crocodiles, fish, turtles, and ducks Ngämi dagwaeya deyareya a nett de We went and pulled up the nets. Some dirängäneya, bunkuttang a guittän be catfish were caught in the nets, but sära torpoll daeya, käza da däddägän. one was just a tail. A crocodile had Däbe sära torpoll ngäna dirngän a gall bitten it. I pulled that tail out and ik e däzan. Ngäna nga Sokola bom put it in the canoe. I said to Sokola, ada dägag, “Ibi daolle beyareya, ttongo “Let’s go over there, there’s a net over nett a ako duli dan.” Deyareya ge that way.” We went, and I saw, “The ngäna ada ikop gog, “Täl a ddone dan, bamboo [sticks] are gone, maybe a ngasekäma nett de ngämaene käza da crocodile carried the net away on us.” nonyan.” Ngäna Sokola nga duli ikop I said to Sokola, “Look over there, agne, da duli tawa me bogän. Gänyan it will be over there in the swamp.” Sokola gällaenen allan täl a, nett ittaSokola was paddling over to the bamlatt a erame daeya. Ngäna däbe täl de boo, where the caught net was. I deyanykoe, rop me ako damllam, rop pulled on that bamboo, I held on to 123 G Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story (11) Ngäna Sokola nga duli ikop agne, da duli tawa me bogän. ngäna 1sg.nom Sokola pn nga im_fut duli there ikop see a-g-ne fut.2S-aux-ipfv da if duli there tawa=me swamp=loc b-o-g-än fut.3S-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ‘I said to Sokola, “Look over there, it will be over there in the swamp.”’ (12) Gänyan Sokola gällaenen allan täl a, nett ittalatt a erame daeya. gänya=n here=cop.prs.sg Sokola pn gällae-nen=allan paddle-I.pl=aux.prs.3sgS täl=a bamboo=nom nett2 net ittal=att=a hang=pp=nom era=me which=loc da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg ‘Sokola was paddling over to the bamboo, where the caught net was.’ (13) Ngäna däbe täl de deyanykoe, rop me ako damllam, rop de ada deyanykoe, “Kollba da ddone dan ke, enda nett de nänddäman?” ngäna 1sg.nom däbe that täl=de bamboo=acc d-ey-a-nykoe rem-ven-rt_ext-pull rop3=me rope=loc ako also d-a-mll-am rem-rt_ext-hold-iv.npl rop=de rope=acc ada like_this d-ey-a-nykoe rem-ven-rt_ext-pull kollba=da fish=nom ddone neg da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ke cntf enda what nett=de net=acc n-ä-nddäm-an rec.sgP-3nduP-drown-rec.3sgA ‘I pulled on that bamboo, I held on to the rope and pulled up like this on the rope, “There aren’t any fish like I thought, what is sinking this net?”’ (14) Angde ngäna adawae gog a dädme mäse ada deyanykoe, bode duduli dänddämnän rop de nett peyang. angde when ngäna 1sg.nom adawae same_way g-o-g rem-rt_ext-aux a and däd=me there=loc mäse imn ada like_this d-ey-a-nykoe rem-ven-rt_ext-pull bode 3sg.nom.too du~duli adv~there d-ä-nddäm-n-än rem-3nduP-drown-ipfv-rem.3sgA rop=de rope=acc nett=peyang net=com ‘I kept on the same way and tried to pull again. It pulled the rope that way with the net.’ 2from English net 3from English rope 130 (15) Ngäna, “O ngasekäma käza da ulle dan, gäz e dan, da bowanseg ede ako ami bäbäddeyo.” ngäna 1sg.nom o oh ngasekäma pot käza=da crocodile=nom ulle big da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg gäz=e kill=all da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg da if b-o-wanseg fut.1A-3nduP-put ede so ako then ami who.nsg.nom b-ä-bädd-eyo fut.3A-3nduP-kill-rem.3nsgA ‘I was like, “Oh, maybe the crocodile is very big, killable, if I leave it alone, then who will kill it?”’ (16) Ngäna daeya deyanykoene, angde abo dibaolle gog käza da erame daeya. ngäna 1sg.nom da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg d-ey-a-nykoe-ne rem-ven-rt_ext-pull-ipfv angde when abo then diba=olle that=all g-o-g rem-rt_ext-aux käza=da crocodile=nom era=me which=loc da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg ‘I was pulling there where that crocodile was.’ (17) Däbe ngäna mängall alle mae deyanykoene, bode duduli. däbe that ngäna 1sg.nom mängall=alle=mae strength=ins=rst d-ey-a-nykoe-ne rem-ven-rt_ext-pull-ipfv bode 3sg.nom.too du~duli adv~there ‘I pulled with all of my strength, and he [pulled] that way.’ (18) Däbe ada digne ge bun a abo enddäna we gogon. däbe that ada like_this d-i-g-ne rem-ven-aux-ipfv ge this bun=a head=nom abo then enddäna=we clearing=all g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ‘Then his head came up into view this way.’ (19) Käza da ako däbe deyarnän ge ttang me daddägän ngänäm. käza=da crocodile=nom ako again däbe that d-ey-a-r-n-än rem-ven-rt_ext-go-ipfv-rem.3sgS ge this ttang=me hand=loc d-a-ddäg-än rem-rt_ext-bite-rem.3sgA ngänäm 1sg.acc ‘The crocodile came towards me again and bit me in this hand.’ 131 G Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story (20) Ngäna ttang de mamälldae gänyeri ada dige. ngäna 1sg.nom ttang=de hand=acc mamälldae quickly gänyeri this_way ada like_this d-i-ge rem-ven-aux ‘I quickly moved my hand this way, like this.’ (21) Ttoe daebe dukopän. ttoe=daebe skin=rst d-u-kop-än rem-3nduP-peel-rem.3sgA ‘He only scraped the skin.’ (22) Ngäna giri de dipirngän a bun a wa tumku da dädme däbäddmällne. ngäna 1sg.nom giri=de knife=acc d-i-pirngän rem-ven-draw_weapon a and bun=a head=acc.conj wa and tumku=da back_of_head=acc.conj däd=me there=loc d-ä-bädd-mäll-ne rem-3nduP-hit-pl-ipfv ‘I got out my knife, and hit him there on the head and the back of the skull.’ (23) Gall ik e dizeneya. gall canoe ik=e inside=all d-i-z-en-eya rem-ven-enter-II.npl-rem.1nsgA ‘We pulled him into the canoe.’ (24) Nett a däbe tubu da eragaeya, däbe ada dingädneg. nett=a net=nom däbe that tubu=da short=nom era=gaeya which=cop.pst.pl däbe that ada like_this d-i-ngäd-neg rem-ven-fold-sg>pl ‘The nets were there on the stump, I folded them up.’ (25) Dakone däbe dibaballe mae. d-a-kone rem-rt_ext-cover däbe that dibaballe=mae afterwards=rst ‘I covered [the crocodile] afterwards completely.’ (26) Ngäna Sokola, “Ai dan, ddone ibim beyaddägän.” ngäna 1sg.nom Sokola pn ai good da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ddone neg ibim 1nsg.incl.acc b-ey-a-ddäg-än fut.3A-duP-rt_ext-eat-rem.3sgA ‘I said to Sokola, “Okay, he won’t bite us.”’ 132 (27) Ngäna daeya kili gogän e. ngäna 1sg.nom da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg kili happy g-o-g-än=e rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS=voc ‘I was so happy.’ (28) Ngäna iba mäda bom kili dagän e. ngäna 1sg.nom iba 1nsg.incl.poss mäda=bom father=3sg.acc kili happy d-a-g-än=e rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgA=voc ‘I gave praise to our father.’ (29) Ngäna, “O baba. ngäna 1sg.nom o oh baba father ‘I said, “Oh father,’ (30) Bongo ngämlle nanttogalle ai za ulle daebe. bongo 2sg.nom ngämlle 1sg.dat n-a-ntto-g-alle rec.sgP-rt_ext-give-iii.npl-rec.2sgA ai good za thing ulle=daebe big=rst ‘You gave me this one big, good thing.’ (31) Eso ulle.” eso4 thank_you ulle big ‘Thank you so much.”’ (32) Däbe gall e dagllaenalla ngämi do gall tapma. däbe that gall=e canoe=all d-a-gllae-n-alla rem-rt_ext-paddle-ipfv-rem.1duS ngämi 1nsg.excl.nom do to gall canoe tap=ma dock=char ‘We paddled the canoe, until we arrived at the canoe place.’ 4Eso is a regional word meaning ‘thank you’ observed in many unrelated languages, including Southern Kiwai, Kalau Lagau Ya and Torres Strait Creole. 133 G Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story (33) Ngäna daeya bandrabandra dalle. ngäna 1sg.nom da=eya med.dem=cop.pst.sg bandra~bandra adv~sing d-a-lle rem-rt_ext-go ‘I was singing.’ (34) Gall e tap dägag, za de ngäna dägaz. gall=e canoe=all tap dock d-ä-gag rem-3nduP-aux za=de thing=acc ngäna 1sg.nom d-ä-gaz rem-3nduP-take_out ‘I docked the canoe and I took our things out.’ (35) Käza da däbe bogo gall ik mi ada any gogän. käza=da crocodile=nom däbe that bogo 3sg.nom gall canoe ik=mi inside=loc ada like_this any something g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS ‘The crocodile was going like this inside the canoe.’ (36) Gopnaeyän. g-o-pnae-yän rem-rt_ext-turn-rem.3sgS ‘He was turning.’ (37) Ngäna däbe käza da eraeya net alle de any dägag, gänyeri tutu we deyaspun. ngäna 1sg.nom däbe that käza=da crocodile=nom era=eya which=cop.pst.sg net=alle=de net=ins=acc any something d-ä-gag rem-3nduP-aux gänyeri this_way tutu=we land=all d-ey-a-spun rem-ven-rt_ext-throw ‘I went like this to the crocodile with the net, and threw him towards the land.’ (38) Ngäna däbe giri tupi da ngämo eraeya ada ume ttäp e däträkne. ngäna 1sg.nom däbe that giri knife tupi=da long=nom ngämo 1sg.poss era=eya which=cop.pst.sg ada like_this ume mouth ttäp=e split=all d-ä-träk-ne rem-3nduP-push-ipfv ‘I pushed my long knife into his mouth.’ 134 (39) Ngäna käza matta we dan gull peyang. ngäna 1sg.nom käza crocodile matta=we shoulder=all da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg gull=peyang net=com ‘I shouldered that crocodile with the net.’ (40) Gänya gopällttäneya, Ada any dägag. gänya this g-o-pällttän-eya rem-rt_ext-start_walking-rem.1duS ada like_this any something d-ä-gag rem-3nduP-aux ‘We started walking, and went like this.’ (41) Matta we digeg. matta=we shoulder=all d-i-geg rem-ven-aux ‘I carried him back on my shoulder.’ (42) Gänye-e ma tutu gonyärabeya. gänye=e here=voc ma house tutu mountain g-o-nyärab-eya rem-rt_ext-ascend-rem.1duS ‘I carried him towards home, and started going up the hill.’ (43) Ngäna ada Sokola, “Buddog dan. ngäna 1sg.nom ada like_this Sokola pn buddog heavy da=n med.dem=cop.prs.sg ‘I said to Sokola, “It’s heavy.’ (44) Mäse eran ngäna wony e.” mäse imn eran aux.prs.1sg>3sg ngäna 1sg.nom wony=e carry=all ‘I’m struggling to carry it.”’ (45) Gänyaolle gogeya Warama bo ma we. gänya=olle here=all g-o-g-eya rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.1duS Warama=bo pn=3sg.poss ma=we house=all ‘We made it here, close to Warama’s house.’ (46) Sowati ada ikop gogän, “A!” Sowati pn ada like_this ikop see g-o-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS a ah ‘Sowati saw, “Ah!”’ 135 G Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story (47) Ngänäm ada, “Bogo käza de näbäddan o, käza wa, käza wa, käza wa!” ngänäm 1sg.acc ada like_this bogo 3sg.nom käza=de crocodile=acc n-ä-bädd-an=o rec.sgP-3nduP-kill-rec.3sgA=voc käza=wa crocodile=voc käza=wa crocodile=voc käza=wa crocodile=voc ‘He said to me, “She killed a crocodile! Oh! Crocodile, crocodile, crocodile!”’ (48) Ngäna dibaeya käza de dowanseg Warama bo ma käm me. ngäna 1sg.nom diba=aeya that=cop.pst.sg käza=de crocodile=acc d-o-wanseg rem-rt_ext-put Warama=bo pn=3sg.poss ma house käm=me underneath=loc ‘I put that crocodile down underneath Warama’s house.’ (49) “Alla ingollang näbäddalle?” alla=ingoll=ang how=like=atr n-ä-bädd-alle rec.sgP-3nduP-kill-rec.2sgA ‘“How did you kill it?”’ (50) Ada dangnoeneyo. ada like_this d-a-ngnoe-n-eyo rem-rt_ext-ask-ipfv-rem.3nsgA ‘They were asking me.’ (51) “Nett me de ke aittan.” nett=me=de net=loc=acc ke q a-itt-an rec-catch-rec.1sgS ‘“I caught it in the net.”’ (52) Ttae ada gogon, “Abo ngäna wa ttoe bäglle.” Ttae pn ada like_this g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS abo then ngäna=wa 1sg.nom=emph ttoe skin b-ä-glle fut.1A-3nduP-skin ‘Ttae went like this, “I will skin it.”’ 136 (53) Mermerae ttoe de dägllewän a sapang dowansegän. mer~mer=ae adv~good=adv ttoe=de skin=acc d-ä-glle-wän rem-3nduP-skin-rem.3sgA a and sapang separate d-o-wanse-g-än rem-3nduP-put-iii.npl-rem.3sgA ‘He skinned it properly and left it separate.’ (54) Ako mägda de koko dängkamän. ako then mägda=de main_part=acc ko~ko inf~cut d-ä-ngk-am-än rem-3nduP-start-iv.npl-rem.3sgA ‘Then he started to cut up the main part of the meat.’ (55) Däbe käza da tämamae lla de dättemänän. däbe that käza=da crocodile=nom tämamae all lla=de man=acc d-ä-ttem-än-än rem-3nduP-finish-II.npl-rem.3sgA ‘That crocodile satisfied everyone.’ (56) Ngämo yae Zanger ngänäm ada dagän, “Bongo ge käza de mani muang nägag.” ngämo 1sg.poss yae mother Zanger pn ngänäm 1sg.acc ada like_this d-a-g-än rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgA bongo 2sg.nom ge this käza=de crocodile=acc mani5 money mu=ang payment=atr n-ä-gag fut.2>3-3nduP-aux ‘My mother Zanger said to me, “You should sell this crocodile for money.”’ (57) “Ddone mani muang bäga, ada basinig, ngämo gänyan ttoe dae ikop bägag.” ddone neg mani money mu=ang payment=atr b-ä-ga fut.1A-3nduP-aux ada like_this b-a-si-nig fut.1A-rt_ext-give-sg>pl ngämo 1sg.poss gänya=n here=cop.prs.sg ttoe=dae skin=rst ikop see b-ä-gag fut.1A-3nduP-aux ‘“I will not sell it for money, I will give it away, I will only sell the skin.”’ 5from English money 137 G Donae Kurupel’s crocodile killing story (58) Ttae däbe käza de ttoe dukopän. Ttae pn däbe that käza=de crocodile=acc ttoe skin d-u-kop-än rem-3nduP-peel-rem.3sgA ‘Ttae peeled the skin off that crocodile.’ (59) Däbe käza ttoe de Sowati soltang dägagän. däbe that käza crocodile ttoe=de skin=acc Sowati pn solt6=ang salt=atr d-ä-gag-än rem-3nduP-aux-rem.3sgA ‘Sowati put salt on that crocodile skin.’ (60) Ako bogo ade gogon, “Abo ngänawa bony ttoe de Daru we.” ako then bogo 3sg.nom ade also g-o-g-on rem-rt_ext-aux-rem.3sgS abo then ngäna=wa 1sg.nom=emph b-ony fut.1A-carry ttoe=de skin=acc Daru=we pn=all ‘And then, he said, “I must take this skin to Daru.”’ (61) Bogo ddone donyän a be ako Joshua wa donyän. bogo 3sg.nom ddone neg d-ony-än rem-carry-rem.3sgA a and be but ako then Joshua=wa pn=emph d-ony-än rem-carry-rem.3sgA ‘He didn’t take it, but Joshua did.’ (62) Tu andred alle dällädeyo ttoe de. tu7 two andred8=alle hundred=ins d-ä-lläd-eyo rem-3nduP-grab-rem.3nsgA ttoe=de skin=acc ‘They bought this skin for two hundred [kina].’ (63) Dibaeya ttoenttoen a. diba=aeya that=cop.pst.sg ttoen~ttoen=a dim~story=nom ‘That was my short story.’ (64) Eso. eso thank_you ‘Thank you.’ 6from English salt 8from English two 8from English hundred 138 HKäza misima saima — The Crocodile Song Song summary Figure H.1: Bringing a käza ‘crocodile’ back to Limol village Käza misima saima is an ancient song for the Tizag (Bobeag) clan, which has the käza ‘crocodile’ as their primary totem. When a crocodile has been killed, the hunters sing this song to let the Tizag clan know that one of their totem animals has been slain. Traditionally, a gift was also offered to the elders of the clan, out of respect for the loss of their totem. Unlike the other texts in this collection, this song is made up of untranslatable words. Some say that the words belong to a lost dialect, and others say that the lyrics are sacred words that belong to the Tizag clan. There are other such untranslatable songs and phrases in the Ende language corpus. The Crocodile Song can be sung for hours, as indeed it The Ende way This collection of Ende stories and songs contains 20 texts from the Ende language corpus, a repository of Ende language and culture. The texts were compiled by the Ende Language Committee and represent a diverse set of authors, illustrators, and translators from the community. Each text is accompanied by a summary, contextual background, and presented in two formats: a running text format in parallel with an English translation, and an interlinearized format with English translations at the morpheme and sentence levels. The texts cover a broad slice of Ende life and are organized into five thematic parts: Animal Tales and Origin Stories, Tales of Hunting and Survival, Heroic or Legendary Stories, Tales of Misbehavior and Consequence, and Odes and Reflections on the Natural World. Audio versions of all the texts are available online through the Ende language corpus.