PATRIARCHAL NORMS AND FEMALE TEACHERS' PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING IN AZAD JAMMU AND KASHMIR

Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1181 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1181 PATRIARCHAL NORMS AND FEMALE TEACHERS’ PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING IN AZAD JAMMU AND KASHMIR Dr Farooq Abdullah1, Sania Shoukat2, Ayesha Malik3, Shamim Akhtar4 1Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST) 2Visiting Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST) 3Visiting Lecturer, Department of Sociology, International Islamic University, Islamabad 4Coordinator Programs, Kashmir Orphans Relief Trust, Mirpur [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]@gmail.com4 DOI: https://doi.org/ Keywords Women, Teachers, School, Patriarchy, Decision-making, Leadership. Abstract This study aimed to examine the patriarchal norms and female teachers‘ participation in decision-making in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK). We focused that how patriarchal norms within both school and community settings influence women teachers‘ participation, authority and representation in institutional decision-making processes. We used qualitative research design and exploratory research methos. We employed purposive sampling technique to collect data from 12 female teachers by means of interview guide. We analysed the data by using thematic analysis technique. The study reveals that women teachers‘ limited role in school decision-making stems from patriarchal social and familial norms that restrict their mobility and authority. Despite these barriers, women demonstrate resilience by negotiating influence through informal strategies and credibility. Achieving true gender equity, however, requires both institutional reforms and broader social transformation challenging patriarchal norms. Article History Received on 27 Sep 2025 Accepted on 21 Oct 2025 Published on 31 Oct2025 Copyright @Author Corresponding Author: * Dr Farooq Abdullah Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST) Email: farooq.a[email protected] Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1182 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1182 INTRODUCTION In educational institutions across South Asian countries, including Pakistan, the presence of women in teaching roles is significant, yet their representation in decision-making bodies remains disproportionately low (Jafree, Zakar, & Anwar, 2020; Rafiq, Kamran, Zia, Munir, & Afzal, 2024). While Kabir (2015) argued that women often make up a large share of the teaching workforce, their meaningful participation in institutional governance and policy decisions lags behind. This phenomenon raises concerns about the mechanisms that limit women‘s agency and voice in school management and points to the enduring role of patriarchal norms in shaping organizational culture and power relations in schools (Abdullah, Nisar, & Ahmed, 2025; Islam et al., 2023). The present study thus aims to examine how patriarchal norms within both school and community settings influence women teachers‘ participation, authority and representation in institutional decisionmaking processes. Sultana (2010) described that patriarchy is social system in which men hold primary power, predominate in roles of leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property. Quek (2019) stated that it operates not only in the private sphere of the household but extends into public and institutional domains, shaping gendered divisions of labour and hierarchies of authority. Within the context of schools, Dankwa (2018) revealed that patriarchal norms manifest in many subtle as well as overt ways: in curriculum choices, in school leadership structures, in staff meeting dynamics, and in community perceptions of female authority. For instance, researchers have found that gendered socialisation and patriarchal educational materials influence how both male and female staff see women‘s roles in schools (Farias, Biermann, de Melo Maia, & de Oliveira Meneses, 2023; Abdullah, Nisar, & Malik, 2024). In schools specifically, Ortner (2022) unpacked the under‐representation of women in decision-making is not simply a reflection of numerical imbalance but a result of layered institutional and socio‐cultural constraints. For example, Cremer (2021) asserted that a study of school leadership noted that patriarchy underpinned barriers to women‘s advancement into school leadership, including stereotypes, androcentrism, male‐dominated networks, and gendered expectations of women‘s domestic roles. These constraints, Poyares (2023) added, are compounded by community and familial expectations: in many cases, women teachers are socially positioned primarily as caregivers or secondtier staff rather than as decision-makers, thereby limiting their institutional authority even when they are formally part of the workforce. Moreover, Bahlieda (2015) noted that the community and cultural setting around a school play a pivotal role. In patriarchal societies, Makama (2013) placed value on women‘s public and professional roles may be moderated by norms about women‘s mobility, voice, and leadership. For instance, Ferdoos (2025) conducted a study on educated women‘s political participation in Pakistan. She found that despite advanced education, many women perceived strong patriarchal family norms restricting their public participation. Rahim (2024) and Abdullah et al. (2024) analysed that women teachers feel discouraged from participating actively in decision-making forums, mistrusted as leaders, or overlooked for key committees and governance roles. Understanding how patriarchal norms operate at both the community level (expectations, gender roles, socialization) and the institutional level (leadership culture, formal Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1183 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1183 and informal power structures, staff dynamics) thus becomes essential (Noreen et al., 2025; Abdullah & Nisar, 2024; Sanauddin, Chitrali, & Owais, 2016). The present research objective—to examine how these norms influence women teachers‘ participation, authority, and representation in decision‐making—is motivated by the recognition that increasing the presence of women teachers is not alone sufficient (Abdullah & Ullah, 2022; Naheed, Zaheer, Shah, & Durran, 2021). What matters is whether they have real responsibility, influence, and recognition in those roles. Without that, gender equity in educational leadership remains elusive. In the Pakistani context, Tabassum (2011) stated that teaching is often feminised at certain levels, but leadership and governance remain male‐dominated (Abdullah, Matloob, & Malik, 2024; Malik & Courtney, 2011), this research holds relevance that how school structures, staff culture, community expectations and gender norms intersect to shape the decision-making experiences of women teachers. By illuminating these patterns, the study seeks to contribute to policy discussions and institutional reforms aimed at enhancing women‘s agency, strengthening gender‐equitable decision bodies in schools, and thereby improving institutional effectiveness and the professional status of women educators. In sum, this study addresses the vital question: How do patriarchal norms within school and community settings constrain or enable women teachers‘ participation in institutional decision-making? By focusing on participation, authority and representation, it aspires to uncover the mechanisms of gendered power in schools and offer insights for fostering more inclusive, gender‐sensitive governance in education. Literature Review Research on gender and school governance shows that patriarchal norms operate simultaneously at community and institutional levels to restrict women teachers‘ decisionmaking roles (Choge, 2015; Smith, 2025; Abdullah, Sultana, & Nisar, 2025). At the societal level, Dhesi (2025) stated that gendered socialization, expectations about women‘s domestic responsibilities, and moral codes that limit women‘s public visibility create a context in which women‘s authority is devalued even when they occupy professional roles. Several studies in Pakistan report that cultural expectations about women‘s mobility, caregiving roles, and modesty reduce their opportunities to take visible leadership positions and hamper their participation in formal decision forums such as school management committees and curriculum panels (Fakhar, Munir, Zia, & Rasheed, 2024; Rafiq et al., 2024; Abdullah & Ullah, 2016). These community constraints therefore shape both women‘s aspirations and the extent to which communities and male colleagues accept them as legitimate decisionmakers. Within schools, patriarchal organisational cultures—expressed through male-dominated leadership networks, gendered informal practices, and biased staff meeting dynamics—further limit women teachers‘ authority (Ashraf, 2013; Durrani & Halai, 2018). Empirical work shows that even in settings where women form the majority of teachers (especially at primary level), leadership positions remain disproportionately male and key administrative roles are less accessible to women due to entrenched hiring/promotion norms and informal exclusion from decision networks (Daraz, Ali, Khan, & Hussain, 2025). Studies of female principals and headteachers in Pakistan reveal that women who do attain leadership often Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1184 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1184 face undermining behaviours (Ferdoos, 2025), constrained autonomy (Chauhan, 2014), and expectations to adopt gender-conforming (often conciliatory) leadership styles, reducing their influence on strategic decisions (Shoaib, Kausar, Ali, & Abdullah, 2025; Shah & Lashari, 2023). Evidence from Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJK) and other Pakistani regions highlights distinct local manifestations of these broader patterns. Descriptive studies of female primary teachers in AJK document professional, social and personal problems— limited professional development, heavy domestic workload, and community pressures—that collectively weaken teachers‘ ability and confidence to engage in institutional decision-making (Arif, Shaoan, Ismail, & Okafor, 2025; Shoaib, Rasool, Iqbal, & Abdullah, 2025). Such research indicates that increased numbers of women teachers at lower levels do not automatically translate into decision-making power, because structural and normative barriers persist (Kakar, 2021). Scholars have also investigated the microprocesses through which patriarchal norms are reproduced in school decision forums (Hodorovska & Rankovová, 2024; Orina, 2014). Gendered communication patterns in staff meetings (interrupted speech, sidelining of women‘s proposals), differential assignment of ―care‖ tasks (which are less valued), and reliance on male networks for information and influence are repeatedly documented (Parsons & Priola, 2013). Quantitative and qualitative analyses suggest that these everyday micro-practices accumulate to form a ―glass wall‖ that limits women‘s substantive participation—even when they are present at the table. Interventions such as mentorship, gendersensitivity training, and formal quotas for women‘s representation show some promise but require supportive institutional change to be effective (Shoaib, Rasool, Iqbal, & Abdullah, 2025; Rigual, Udasmoro, & Onyesoh, 2022). A growing body of Pakistan-specific work points to enabling factors that mitigate patriarchal constraints and targeted leadership training and women educators, and genderaware human resource policies (transparent promotion criteria, childcare support), community engagement to shift attitudes about women‘s public roles, and active teacher-union or network support that can help women access informal influence channels (Iqbal & Liang, 2025; Schmid & Phelan, 2025) Case studies of women who became headteachers in rural, patriarchal areas demonstrate that strategic use of community legitimacy, performance credibility, and coalition-building can expand women‘s decision-making space—though such successes are often individual and contingent rather than systemic (Shoaib, Ali, Iqbal & Abdullah, 2025; Sanger & Lynch, 2018). Research Methodology Design: This study uses a qualitative, exploratory design to generate in-depth understanding of how patriarchal norms in school and community settings shape women teachers‘ participation, authority, and representation in institutional decisionmaking. A phenomenological orientation is adopted to explore participants‘ lived experiences and meanings attached to participation and decision-making processes. Population: The study population comprises women teachers working in public schools located in District Mirpur, Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJK). Inclusion criteria: (1) female teachers with at least two years‘ continuous service; (2) currently employed in a position Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1185 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1185 that involves institutional decision-making (e.g., membership of staff committees, subject panels, head); (3) willing to be interviewed. Exclusion criteria: non-teaching staff and teachers who have less than two years‘ experience. We interviewed women teachers from two girls‘ high schools of Mirpur. Sample and sampling technique: Purposive sampling was used to select 12 participants who provided rich and relevant information. A sample of 12 women teachers reached to saturation during the interviews. Measurement: Patriarchal norms—local gender expectations, role prescriptions, and informal rules affecting women‘s public roles as described by participants (examples: mobility restrictions, family expectations, gendered stereotypes). Participation in decision-making—forms and frequency of involvement in formal (committees, meetings) and informal (consultations, influence through networks) decision processes. Authority & representation—perceived ability to influence outcomes, held positions of authority, and the visibility/recognition of women in governance roles. Data will capture participants‘ narratives, examples, and perceptions rather than numeric scores. Data collection tool: We designed a semistructured interview guide (45–70 minutes). We adopted following procedures to conduct these interviews. We did pilot testing for two interview to refine wording and flow while interviews were conducted in Urdu/ English per participant preference. We recorded the interviews with the consent of participants. A short demographic form was completed before interview. Data analysis: Interviews were transcribed verbatim and translated to English. Popular six step Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was used to familiarize with data, generating codes, developing themes, reviewing and refining themes while defining and naming and report of findings was developed. Ethical considerations: We obtained clearance from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University. We also took written (or recorded verbal) consent for participation and audio recording; participants informed about purpose, voluntary nature, confidentiality, and right to withdraw without penalty. We used pseudonyms; remove identifying details; store consent forms separately from transcripts. We encrypted storage of audio, transcripts and consent forms; access limited to research team; data retained per institutional policy then securely destroyed. We interviewed them at safe, private locations; participants may skip questions or stop interview; referral information for counselling provided if interviews cause distress. Key findings Out of the data, we generated the following themes. We discussed themes in line with empirical literature and concluded the study, Societal and Familial Expectations Restricting Women‘s Mobility, Voice, and Leadership Ambitions Exclusion of women from formal and informal decision-making forums (e.g., management committees, policy meetings) Women‘s strategies to navigate patriarchal constraints (e.g., building alliances, informal persuasion, performance-based credibility) Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1186 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1186 Theme: Societal and familial expectations restricting women’s mobility, voice, and leadership ambitions The findings of the study reveal that societal and familial expectations remain powerful forces limiting women teachers‘ mobility, public participation, and leadership aspirations in District Mirpur. Participants repeatedly described how patriarchal family structures and cultural norms dictate women‘s behaviour and professional boundaries. For many, teaching is viewed as an acceptable profession for women only because it aligns with socially approved ideals of modesty and caregiving. However, when women attempt to move beyond classroom teaching into administrative or decision-making roles, they encounter both overt and subtle resistance. Families often discourage travel for training sessions, meetings, or leadership workshops, citing safety or reputation concerns. One participant explained, ―My father said, teaching is fine, but there is no need to attend every meeting outside the city. People start talking when women move around too much.‖ Such statements highlight how mobility is socially policed through moral and reputational control. Another teacher reflected, ―Even if I want to apply for a headmistress post, my husband feels it will disturb family life and make me neglect home duties.‖ These narratives illustrate how domestic responsibilities and expectations of obedience continue to constrain professional ambition. Participants also shared that expressing opinions during staff meetings is often perceived as immodest or confrontational. One respondent noted, ―When I speak in meetings, some male colleagues smile as if I‘m crossing my limits. It makes me hesitant next time.‖ The internalization of these gendered expectations silences women‘s voices and reinforces selfcensorship. Teachers from rural areas described even stricter mobility restrictions, where community gossip and social surveillance discourage women from assuming visible roles in school management. Despite such barriers, a few participants expressed a desire for gradual change, acknowledging support from educated spouses or progressive families. As one teacher stated, ―My brother encourages me to attend workshops; he says women must lead too.‖ This shows that while patriarchal expectations dominate, pockets of transformation exist within families that value education and gender equality. Overall, the findings demonstrate that women‘s limited mobility and constrained leadership ambitions are not solely institutional issues but are deeply embedded in social and familial belief systems that define appropriate femininity. These gendered expectations continue to shape women‘s participation and authority in school decision-making, making social change a necessary precondition for institutional reform. Theme: Exclusion of women from formal and informal decision-making forums The study findings reveal that women teachers in District Mirpur experience systematic exclusion from both formal and informal decision-making spaces within schools. Participants consistently reported that key administrative and policy decisions are often made by male principals or senior male staff, with women‘s voices either marginalized or entirely absent. Many women teachers shared that even when they are officially members of committees, their input is rarely sought or valued. One participant stated, ―We are called to meetings only to sign the attendance sheet. The actual discussion happens among male staff before the meeting.‖ This highlights how token participation is used to create an appearance Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1187 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1187 of inclusivity without genuine involvement. Another teacher mentioned, ―Important policy discussions take place in the principal‘s office after school hours, and we are never informed. Decisions are just conveyed to us the next day.‖ Such informal male networks—what some respondents described as ―backroom meetings‖—serve as powerful gatekeepers of influence. Teachers also noted that leadership positions in committees, such as discipline in-charges or event organizers, are disproportionately assigned to men, even when women have greater experience or qualifications. As one senior teacher expressed, ―I have been teaching for fifteen years, but whenever there is a need for a committee head, they prefer a younger male colleague. They think men can manage better.‖ This exclusion is further reinforced by subtle gender norms that discourage women from asserting authority, as speaking firmly or disagreeing in meetings is often judged as disrespectful or ―unfeminine.‖ Additionally, women reported challenges in accessing informal decision-making networks that function through social interactions outside the workplace—such as tea breaks, community gatherings, or male-only discussions—where important consensus often forms before official meetings. The cumulative effect of these exclusions is a deep sense of professional marginalization. One participant remarked, ―We work hard in classrooms, but when it comes to decisions that affect us, we are invisible.‖ Despite this, a few respondents noted gradual improvement in schools led by progressive male principals who encourage open discussion and involve women teachers in planning activities. However, such cases remain exceptions. Overall, the findings underscore that exclusion from both formal and informal forums limits women‘s institutional agency and perpetuates gender hierarchies in school governance, where men remain the default decision-makers and women‘s participation is symbolically acknowledged but substantively constrained. Theme: Women’s strategies to navigate patriarchal constraints The findings reveal that despite the pervasive influence of patriarchal norms, many women teachers in District Mirpur actively employ various strategies to navigate, negotiate, and subtly challenge gender-based constraints within their professional environments. Rather than confronting patriarchal authority directly, women often adopt culturally acceptable forms of agency—building alliances, exercising informal influence, and proving their competence through consistent performance. Several participants described relying on informal persuasion and relationship-building with male administrators to make their voices heard. One teacher shared, ―Instead of arguing in staff meetings, I talk to the principal privately. When I explain calmly, he often accepts my suggestions.‖ Such approaches reflect women‘s use of diplomacy to assert influence within gendered hierarchies. Others spoke about cultivating alliances with supportive colleagues—both male and female—to strengthen their position. A participant noted, ―We women support each other. When one of us raises an issue, others back her up, so it‘s harder to ignore.‖ These small acts of solidarity were described as essential to countering institutional bias. Performance-based credibility also emerged as a significant strategy. Many teachers reported that their commitment, discipline, and student results gradually earned them respect and informal authority. One senior teacher stated, ―When you work sincerely and your class performs well, they cannot deny your capability. Then even men start consulting you.‖ This demonstrates how Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Review (PJSSR) ISSN (e) 2959-8052 (p) 2959-8044 1188 https://pjssr.com.pk/index.php/Journal/issue/archive | Khan 2025 |Page 1188 professional competence becomes a means of legitimizing women‘s leadership within patriarchal structures. However, participants also recognized the emotional labour required to maintain a balance between assertiveness and societal expectations of modesty. As one respondent observed, ―We must speak carefully—too soft and we‘re ignored, too strong and we‘re labelled proud.‖ This constant negotiation highlights the fine line women must walk to sustain credibility without transgressing cultural norms. Some teachers mentioned seeking family or community approval before accepting leadership roles, framing their ambitions in socially acceptable terms such as ―serving students‖ rather than ―seeking power.‖ A few younger teachers emphasized the role of education and digital platforms in expanding awareness and confidence to question gender norms. Overall, the findings suggest that while patriarchal structures constrain formal authority, women teachers creatively exercise agency through subtle negotiation, collective support, and professional excellence. Their strategies reveal resilience and adaptability within a restrictive environment, illustrating that empowerment in patriarchal settings often takes quiet, incremental, and contextsensitive forms rather than overt resistance. Conclusion The study concludes that women teachers‘ limited participation in school decisionmaking is deeply rooted in patriarchal social and familial structures that define acceptable boundaries for women‘s behaviour, mobility, and authority. These gendered expectations not only restrict women‘s leadership ambitions but also perpetuate their exclusion from both formal and informal decisionmaking spaces, where men continue to dominate governance processes. Despite these structural and cultural barriers, the findings also highlight women‘s resilience and adaptive agency. Through informal negotiation, alliance-building, and performance-based credibility, women teachers find subtle ways to assert influence and contribute meaningfully within patriarchal systems. 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