Design and Analysis of an Apple-Shaped Microstrip Patch Antenna for 2.4 GHz Applications

T B n HaldiaInstit u Int.J.HIT.T R     *Cor   ORIGINA Desig n 2.4 G H 1 Shyam a 1 A ssociate Technology 2 Principal Technology 3 Project As s f or Women, 4 Professor, Women, M y 5 Professor, India, Email Id: sh ABSTRA C This pape r GHz, spec i realized o n geometry f microstrip GHz to 2. 5 p articularl y measured r reliability a integration KEYWO R Database, 1. INTRO D T he 2.4 GH z (ISM) frequ e shor t -range w B luetooth, Z n etworks. T h u teofTechnology R ANSC:ECCN. V respondingAddr e L CONTRIB U n and An a H z Appli c a la C, 2 Shiv a Professor, De p for Women, M y & Professor, D for Women, M y s istant, Depart m Mysuru, Visves v Department o f y suru, Visvesvar a Department of h yamalac.phd@ g C T r presents the d i fically engine n a dielectric s f ormed by a p o line (14 mm × 5 271 GHz. Th e y for vehic u r esults demon s a nd geometric in modern ve h R DS:Biometr i Portable Att e D UCTION z Industrial, e ncy band s u w ireless sta n igBee, and e h ese applicati o Publishing V ol.12:Issue1 A Availab l ssshyamalac.phd @ U TION a lysis of c ations a kumar M, 3 V p artment of El e y suru, Visvesvar a D epartment of E y suru, Visvesvar a m ent of Electro n v araya Technol o f Electronics an d a ya Technologi c Electronics an d g mail.com d esign and an a ered for comp a s ubstrate with o lyline-define d 2 mm), exhib i e radiation cha r u lar and IoT e s trate strong a effectiveness. h icular comm u i c Verificati o e ndance Syst e Scientific, a u pports a bro a n dards, inclu d merging lo w o ns demand a  A (2025)Page 3 l eOnlineat w AllRi @ gmail.com an Appl e V edha A S, 4 e ctronics and a ya Technologi c E lectronics an d a ya Technologi c n ics and Comm u o gical Universit y d Communicati o c al University, B d Communicatio a lysis of a no v a ct and robust a relative pe r d layout. The p r i ts a simulate d r acteristics an d e nvironments a greement wit h This study v a u nica t ion fram e o n, Fingerpri n e m, Student A nd Medical a d range of d ing Wi-Fi, w -power IoT a ntennas  3 2‐39 w ww.hithaldi a ghtsReserve e -Shaped 4 Jayanth J, 5 Communicatio n c al University, B d Communicati o c al University, B u nication Engin e y , Belagavi, Ka r o n Engineering , B elagavi, Karna t n Engineering, v el apple-shap e wireless com m r mittivity of 4 r ototype, with d impedance b a d bandwidth ar e that require c h the simulate d a lidates the ap p e works. n t Authentic a A uthenticatio that a r to int Micr o widel y profil e b oard impe d conve narro w Inter n a .in/locate/E C d  Microst r Ravikiran H n Engineering, B elagavi, Karna t o n Engineering, B elagavi, Karna t e ering, GSSS In s r nataka, India , GSSS Institut e t aka, India Malnad Colleg e e d microstrip p m unication sy s 4 .4 and featur e dimensions o f a ndwidth of 83 e optimized fo r ompactness a n d data, confir m p le-shaped an t a tion, ESP32n, Face reco g r e compact, i n egrate into p o strip patch y adopted f o e , ease of f a (PCB) tech n d ance charac t ntional recta n w imped a n ationalJournalo f  C CN r ip Patch H K GSSS Institut e t aka, India GSSS Institut e t aka, India s titute of Engin e e of Engineerin g e of Engineerin g p atch antenna s tems. The an t e s a uniquely f 40 mm × 45 m .5 MHz, span n r applications i n d efficient p e m ing the ante n t enna as a via b CAM, Fireb g nition n expensive, a p lanar hard w antennas ( M o r such use a brication us i n iques, and t eristics [4],[ 1 n gular patch e a nce ban d f HITTransaction o ISSN:097 3 Page|32 Antenn a e of Engineeri n e of Engineeri n e ering and Tec h g and Technol o g , Hassan, Kar n operating at 2 t enna structure contoured pa t m m and fed b y n ing from 2.44 3 i n the ISM ba n e rformance. T n na’s operatio n b le candidate f b ase Real-ti m a nd straightf o w are platfor m M PAs) have due to thei i ng printed c predictabl e 1 1],[14]. Ho w e s often pro v d width, e o nECCN 3 ‐6875  a for n g and n g and h nology o gy for n ataka, 2 .4 is t ch y a 3 6 n d, he n al f or m e o rward m s [7]. been r low c ircuit e input w ever, v ide a e xhibit Shyamala Cet. al./Int.J.HIT.TRANSC:ECCN. Vol.12: Issue 1A (2025)  ISSN:0973‐6875Page|33 performance degradation with the substrate variations, and offer limited gain when realized on low-cost dielectric materials. Consequently, a vari-ety of techniques—such as patch-shape modifications, ground-plane alterations, and the incorporation of engineered surfaces—have been explored to enhance performance within the 2.4– 2.5 GHz band [1], [2] [4], [5], [6], [10], [12], [15]. Recent developments include low-cost MPAs with 3D-printed enhancements for improved bandwidth and gain [2], and antennas employing meta surface or artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) backings to achieve compact circular polarization (CP) at 2.45 GHz [1], [5]. Shaping the patch element is an effective approach for improving performance without increasing the antenna stack height. Modifying the current path through non-rectangular geometries enables miniaturization, bandwidth broadening, and multiresonance operation while retaining a single-layer configuration. Shapes inspired by symbols, logos, or product themes—combined with structural elements such as slots and notches—have been shown to deliver dual or triple resonances around 2.4 GHz, as well as enhance visual integration into consumer products [6],[8],[12]. Partial ground planes or parasitic edges are often added to further adjust impedance and radiation characteristics. Addition-ally, defected ground structures (DGS) are commonly used to suppress cross-polarization and improve impedance bandwidth, forming an established design tool for planar antennas [2],[4],[5]. The use of artificial surfaces, including AMCs and meta surfaces, offers further opportunities for 2.4 GHz antenna optimization. By altering the local boundary conditions beneath or around the patch, these surfaces can support constructive image currents, reduce profile, and enable CP operation within a compact footprint [5]. For example, a corner-truncated patch over an AMC surface has been demonstrated to produce wider axialratio bandwidth and stable boresight radiation patterns, which are advantageous for devices prone to polarization mismatch [1], [5]. For mass production, the antenna design must be tolerant to fabrication variations, use minimal additional components, and maintain performance on affordable substrates such as FR-4. Among feeding methods, coaxial probe feeding has been shown to achieve better return-loss and voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) performance at 2.4 GHz compared to inset feeding when implemented under similar design conditions [3]. Following this approach, the proposed antenna targets return-loss below −10 dB over the 2.40– 2.50 GHz band with realized gain above 3 dBi. If device height permits, further enhancement can be achieved using AMC superstrates or lightweight 3D-printed structures [1], [2]. The proposed apple-shaped microstrip patch antenna, intended for compact and robust wireless communication in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, was designed and optimized using HFSS software. The antenna is fabricated on a dielectric substrate with a relative permittivity of 4.4, featuring a uniquely contoured patch defined through a polyline-based layout. The prototype, measuring 40 mm × 45 mm, is excited via a 14 mm × 2 mm microstrip feed line. For experimental validation, the antenna was constructed on a FR4 substrate to assess real-world performance. A simple apple-shaped microstrip section was connected to the SMA feed port. The optimized ground-plane configuration main-tained a stable gain response while simultaneously improving bandwidth and radiation efficiency. These findings confirm that the combination of the apple-shaped radiating patch and ground struc-ture provides a balanced trade-off between compact form factor, bandwidth, and efficiency, making it well-suited for integration into space-constrained wireless systems. 2. Antenna Design 2.1 Design Objective and Constraints The antenna targets the 2.4 GHz ISM band and is intended for compact, mechanically robust wireless systems. The layout is restricted to a 40 mm × 45 mm substrate (“board window”) while maintaining a standard 50-Ω input interface and manufacturable geometry suitable for FR-4–class processes. The design emphasizes three outcomes: (i) reliable matching across the intended Wi-Fi/ZigBee band, (ii) stable broadside  r t 2 T t w l p t a F 2 P T e a ISSN:0973‐68 7 r adiation wit h t olerance to r 2 .2 Substrat e T he radiato r substrate w i t hickness 1. 6 w eight clad d size is 40 m m l ayer hosts t h p atch; the b o t hat is select a s shown in facilitate im p (a) Frontend (b) back side F ig.1. Anten n side ground p 2 .3 Rad i P olyline Pat c T o meet sacrificing r e mploys an “ a nd redistr i 7 5 h minimal cr o r outine PCB f e , Stackup, a r is imple m i th relative 6 mm. Cop p d ing on both m (width) by h e feed line a o ttom layer p r ively pertur b figure 1 to p edance contr o of the propo s ground plan e n a topology: ( p lane. Unit: m i ating Eleme c h the footpri n r esonance p “ apple-shape d i butes the  o ss-polarizati f abrication v a a nd Global D m ented on a permittivit y p er is reali z sides. The o v 45 mm (leng t a nd the shap e r ovides the g r b ed by a rect a enhance ba n o l s ed antenna. e ( a) front patc h m m. n t: Apple-S h n t constrai n lacement, t h d ” contour th a surface c u Shya m  on, and (iii) a riations. D imensions a dielectric y 4.4 and z ed as fullv erall board t h). The top e d radiating r ound plane a ngular slot n dwidth and h , (b) back h aped n t without h e radiator a t lengthens u rrent path m ala C et. al./I n  comp a b oun d polyli n list (u n (8, 6) , (36, 2 6 Dupli c segm e intro d narro w provi d contr o reson a to ce n portio proce s 2.4 F e A mi c width edge t mm w chara c servi n overa l comp a impe d resid u comp o tight v footp r stabil 2.5 P a Desig n •Base l refere n verif y reson a subst r curre n •Cont o were cente r the st e (1–2 m nt .J.HIT.TRA NS   a red with a d ing box. Th e n e at z = 1.6 n its in milli m , (8, 14), (1 4 6 ), and back t c ate points a e nt joins d d uces gentle w ed regions d e additional o l of input r a nt behavior. n ter the ele c n of the 2.4 s s-induced di e e eding Netw o c rostrip line o 2 mm) exc t hrough a st a w idth is ch o c teristic on t h n g as a pre d l l match. T h a ct way to n d ance towar d u al reactance o nents. The v ia fence to r int t o mini m l ize the refer e a rametric T u n proceeded i l ine sizing. n ce patch a n y that a 40 m m a nce in the r ate. This ste p n t path length o ur shaping . tuned to pu l r and to man a e m and shou l m m) to the l NS C:ECCN. Vo l Page|34 plain recta n e contour is d mm using t h m eters): (34, 2 4 , 20), (8, 2 6 t o (34, 20). a re kept inte n d uring imp curvature (“stem” an d degrees o r eactance an d The final co n c trical resp o GHz band, l e lectric varia b o rk and 50Ω o n the top la y ites the pat c a ndard SMA o sen to be h e selected s d ictable seri e h is t udge the re a d 50 Ω and without re s feed launch ground aro u m ize parasiti c e nce plane. u ning Strate g i n three pass e A conven t n d a 2-mm f m × 45 mm a p intended ba n p establishes and feed loc a . The apple l l the reson a a ge local cu r l der regions. S l obe curvatu r l .12: Issue 1 A n gle of the d efined as a c h e following v 2 0), (36, 14), 6 ), (8, 34), ( 8 n tionally to c ort. This and two l d side necks o f freedom f o d for mild m n tour was a dj o nse in the l eaving mar g b ility. Ω Interface y er (length 1 4 c h from the connector. T close to a s tackup whil e e s element i t ransition o ff a l part of the to can-cel s orting to d i is supporte d u nd the con n c radiation a g y e s: t ional recta n f eed were u s p erture can s u n d on the c a starting po i a tion. polyline v e a nce into the r rent bottlene S mall adjus t - r e and stem (2025) same c losed v ertex (8, 6), 8 , 34), on t rol shape ocally ) that o r fine m ultidj usted upper g in for 4 mm, board T he 250-Ω e also i n the ff ers a input small i screte d by a n ector a nd to n gular s ed to u pport c hosen i nt for e rtices band cks at ments width  w w b 2 A A u r w a r p t m b e w 2 C m p t i c i p r r k 2 v c m t w m l t 3 ISSN:0973‐68 7 w ere especi a w indow and b ias. 2 .6 Simulati o A ll designs A nsys HFS S u sing a wav e r eference pl a w ere app l a ir margin o r efinement w p olyline cor n t o stabilize m etrics. Co n b oth |S11| m e nsure that b w ere mutuall 2 .7 Fabricat i C opper cle a m aintained a p revent t argeted co n i ncludes a c rowding. T h i s stitched w i p itch, formi n slot corners a r educe fi e r epeatability k ept away fr o 2 .8 Toleran c Sensitivity s v ariation in c opper showed ben i m inimal d e t heassisted i m w idth provid e m ask swell l ayout maint a t hese pe r tur b for low-cost m 3 . Results a 7 5 a lly effective reducing s e o n Configur a were mod e S Software. T e guide port d e a ne. Open-sp a l ied with at l e o n all sides. w as used nea r n ers, and the the input i m n vergence cr i m agnitude an d b andwidth a n y consistent. i on and Lay o a rances of a a round the ove r -etch i n tour. The small tape r h e ground pl a i th vias at ap p n g a quasi-co a a re filleted w e ld singul a across fabri c o m high-fiel d c e, Robustne s s weeps wer e substrate pe r geometry b i i gn shifts i n e gradation i m pedance s m e d acceptabl e and plating a ined stable b b ations, indic a m anufacturin a nd Discuss  for centerin g nsitivity to c a tion e lled and o p T he antenna w e -embedded t a ce radiation e ast a quarte r - A local ad a r the feed tr a edges of the m pedance a n i teria were e d total radiat e n d efficiency o ut Practice s a t least 0.3 polyline in f i ng from di s feed-to-pat c r to mitig a a ne around t h p roximately 1 a xial launch. w ith a small a rities and c ation lots. S d edge of the p s s, and Repe e performe d r mittivity an d i as. The ap p center fre q i n matchin g m oothing. The e ma r -gin ag a variations. T b roadside pa t a ting suitabl e g. ion Shya m  g the match c opper etch p timized in w as excited t o the SMA boundaries - wavelength a ptive mesh a nsition, the ground slot n d radiation e nforced on e d power to predictions s mm were f lections to s torting the c h junction a te current h e connector 1 .5–2.0 mm The ground radius to improve S ilkscreen is p atch. atability d for ±5% d ±0.1 mm p le contour q uency with g due to 2-mm feed a inst solde r - T he overall t terns under e robustness m ala C et. al./I n  The patch a simul a perfo r coeffi c standi direct i demo n stable b and w 3.1 R e The s anten n a w e frequ e occur r retur n range 2.527 1 impe d MHz. 2.4 G with fabric a detun i The s m spuri o indic a patch suppr e single impro on th e elong a conto u the archit e nt .J.HIT.TRA NS   proposed a ntenna was a tions in A r mance met r c ient (|S11|), ng wave r i vity, and r n strate that t h operation a c w i t h a compa e flection Co e s imulated |S 1 n a is shown i e ll-defined r e ncy range, r ing near th e n -loss criterio n extending 1 GHz ( m d ance band w This band w G Hz ISM al l additional a tion tole r i ng effects. m ooth |S11| c o us resonanc a te that the c o and the rec t e sses highe r - o -mode oper a vement over e same sub s a ted current p u r and the i m defected g r e cture for re a NS C:ECCN. Vo l Page|35 apple-sh a evaluated A nsys HFS S r ics extract e imped-ance atio (VSW R r adiation pa t h e optimized c ross the inte n ct form facto r e fficient and 1 1| response i n Fig. 2. Th e esonance w with the e band cen t n is satisfied from 2.443 6 m 3), corres p w idth of ap p w idth is suffi c l ocation (2. 4 ma r -gin t o r ances and c urve and ab s es within t h o mbination o t angular gro u o rder modes a tion. The o b a comparabl e s trate can b e p ath introdu c m pedance-s m r ound stru c a l-time perfor m l .12: Issue 1 A a ped mic through ful l S Software, e d for re fl bandwidth, v R ), realized t terns. The geometry a c n ded 2.4 G H r . Bandwidth of the pro p e antenna ex h w ithin the t a minimum t er. The −1 0 over a freq u 6 GHz (m 2 p onding to p roximately c ient to cove r 4 00–2.4835 G o accomm o environm s ence of sec o h e simulated o f the apple-s u nd slot effe c while maint a b served ban d e rectangular e attributed t c ed by the p o m oothing act i c ture.co-engi n m ance [6]. (2025) rostrip l -wave with fl ection v oltage gain, results c hieves H z ISM p osed h ibits a rget |S11| 0 dB u ency 2 ) to an 83.5 r the G Hz) o date ental o ndary span haped c tively a ining d width patch t o the o lyline i on of n eered  3 F a r F M w r h n p r t n 3 T d t d b c c ISSN:0973‐68 7 Fig.2. S M 3 .2 Voltage S F ig.3 presen t a cross the fr e r emains belo w F ig.3. VS W M icrostrip p a w ith the lo w frequency. A r eturn losses h igh de-gre e n etwork to t p rofile is sy m r eflecting t h t hrough car e n etwork inte g 3 .3 Realized T he realize d d epicted in F t he matched d esirable fo r b udgets over frequency-h o c ommunicati c an be attrib u 7 5 11 paramete r M icrostrip p a S tanding W a t s the simulat e e quency rang e w 2.0 over th W R paramet e a tch antenna. w est value oc c A VSWR b e better than e of power t he radiatin g m met-ric ab o h e impedan c e ful feed pl a g ration. Gain d gain of F ig.4, remai n band. The g r systems r e channel freq u o pping o ons in the IS u ted to the c o  r of Proposed a tch antenna. a ve Ratio (V S e d VSWR of e of interest. e entire matc h e r of Prop o c urring at th e e low 2 cor r −9.54 dB, i transfer fro m g structure. T o ut the reso n c e symmetr y a cement an d the propos e n s nea r ly con g ain plateaui n e quiring con u ency variati o o r spre a M band. Th e o mbined infl u Shya m  Apple S WR) the antenna The VSWR h ed band, o sed Apple e resonance r esponds to i ndicating a m the feed T he VSWR n ance point, y achieved d matchinge d antenna, stant across n g effect is sistent link o ns, such as a d-spectrum e stable gain u ence of the m ala C et. al./I n  optim i radiat i of th e distri b The m range consi s layer m and r b and w on a l o Fig. 4 ]3.4 D The s i a tre n value s radiat i patter n with a the n o direct i is co n b eam, for o deplo y nt .J.HIT.TRA NS   i zed ground i on cancellat i e band and b ution on the m aximum si m of 3–3.5 d B s tent with ex p m icrostrip ra d r epresents a w idth enhanc e o ssy FR4–cl a 4 . Gain of Pr o D irectivity i mulated dir e n d similar t o s slightly ex c i on efficienc y n is broad in a fundament a o n-rectangula r i vity at frequ e n sistent with a which does o mnidirectio n y ment scenar i NS C:ECCN. Vo l Page|36 slot location ; i on at the lo w the controll e apple-shape d m ulated reali z B i at boresi g p ectations for d iator of the g a good co m e ment and r a a ss substrate. o posed Appl e antenna. e ctivity, sho w o the realize d c eeding the r e y less than u n the principa l a l TM10-like r contour. T h e ncies near t h a modest nar r not adverse l n al or qu a i os. l .12: Issue 1 A ; which min i w er and upper e d surface c d patch. z ed gain is i g ht. This va a compact, s g iven apertur e m promise be a diation effi c e Microstrip p w n in Fig.5, f o d gain, with e alized gain d n ity. The dire c l planes, con s mode modif i h e slight incr e h e upper ban d r owing of th e l y impact co v a si-omnidire c (2025) i mizes edges urrent i n the lue is s inglee size, tween c iency p atch o llows peak d ue to c tivity s istent i ed by e ase in d edge e main v erage c tional  3 F F i b l p i n c T l m p r a ISSN:0973‐68 7 Fig.5. Dire c 3 .5 Radiatio n F a r -field rad i F ig.6. Radiat i i llustrated i n b roadside ra d l obes in both p olarization l i ndicating th a n ot introduc c omponents. T he E-plane l obe with a sufficient to e m obile term i p attern rema i r adiation. M a cross the b a 7 5 c tivity of Pro p patch a n n Patterns i ation pattern s i on patterns f n Fig.6. T h d iation profi l the E-plane l evels are lo w a t the defect e e significan t pattern sho w a half-powe e nsure cover a i nal applicati o i ns stable, w M inor variati o a nd are attri b  p osed Apple M n tenna s for the ante n f or the design h e antenna l e with sym m and H-plane w in the prin c e d ground st r t unwanted p w s a nearly u n r beamwidt h a ge for typica o ns. In the H w ith negligibl e o ns in side l b uted to the Shya m  M icrostrip n na are ed antenna exhibits a m etric main cuts. Crossc ipal planes, r ucture does p olarization n iform main h (HPBW) l fixed or H -plane, the e back-lobe l obe levels interaction m ala C et. al./I n  b etwe these r appli c 3.6 P e Table para m anten n Para m Opera t range Impe d Peak r Direc t VSW R Radia t Cross - The c and a achie v radiat i The o mini m while typic a More o crossintegr a varia b 4. C o A co m for 2 prese n empl o on a nt .J.HIT.TRA NS   en the patch c r emain well w c ations. e rformance S 1. summ a m eters of the n a. m eter t ing frequenc y d ance bandwi d r ealized gai n t ivit y R across band t ion patter n - polarization c ombination o rectangular g v e both ban d i on performa n o bserved im p m um require m the gain a n a l WLAN, B l o ver, the sm o polarization a tion into b ility is expec o nclusion m pact apples .4 GHz IS M n ted, simulat o ys a unique l compact 4 0 NS C:ECCN. Vo l Page|37 c ontour and t w ithin accept a S ummary a rizes the proposed a Val u y 2.44 3 d t h 83.5 3–3. 5 ~4 d B < Bro a HP B Low o f a uniquel y g round slot a l d width enha n n ce within a p edance ban d m ent for the 2 n d efficiency l uetooth, an d o oth radiatio n suggest devices w ted. s haped micro s M - b and appl i ed, and ana l l y contoured 0 ×45 mm2^ 2 l .12: Issue 1 A t he ground sl o a ble limits fo key perfor m a pple-shaped u e 3 6 – 2.5271 G MH z 5 dB i Bi 2.0 a dside, stable B W in principal p y contoured l lows the de s n cement and compact foo d width excee d 2 .4 GHz ISM are sufficie n d IoT applic a n patterns a n suitability w here orie n s trip patch a n i cations has l yzed. The d radiating el 2 2 substrate (2025) o t, but r ISM m ance patch G H z p lanes patch s ign to stable tprint. d s the band, n t for a tions. n d low for n tation n tenna been d esign ement with Shyamala Cet. al./Int.J.HIT.TRANSC:ECCN. Vol.12: Issue 1A (2025)  ISSN:0973‐6875Page|38 εr=4.4, fed by a microstrip line and integrated with a rectangular defected ground slot for bandwidth enhancement. Simulation results demonstrate an impedance bandwidth of 83.5 MHz (2.4436– 2.5271 GHz), fully covering the ISM band with additional margin for fabrication tolerances. The antenna achieves a stable realized gain of 3–3.5 dBi across the matched band, broadside radiation patterns with low cross-polarization, and consistent VSWR below 2.0. The proposed configuration combines aesthetic form factor with functional advantages, offering improved bandwidth and pattern stability compared to a conventional rectangular patch of similar size. Its compact dimensions, low manufacturing complexity, and robustness to fabrication and environmental variations make it a suitable candidate for integration into WLAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee, and IoT devices. Future work may focus on implementing the design on low-loss substrates or incorporating parasitic/superstrate elements to further enhance gain, as well as adapting the geometry for dualor multi-band operation. The presented results confirm that creative radiator shaping, combined with simple ground-plane modifications, can yield high-performance, space-efficient antennas for modern wireless communication systems. References: [1]Wichaidit, P., Dentri, S., Janpangngern, P., Lertwiriyaprapa, T., Krairiksh, M., &Phongcharoenpanich, C. (2024). Broadband CP corner-truncated microstrip antenna with irregularly hexagonal AMC for 2.45 GHz applications. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 97, 88-99. [2]Ghanbarpour, G., &Ghanbarpour, M. (2024). Low-error, high-speed, and large-scale hardware implementation of retinal photoreceptor cells: Cone and rod cells. AEU-International Journal of Electronics and Communications, 185, 155456. [3] Al Hanashi, S. M., Almohamad, T. A., Aladwani, A. I., Aziz, A., Güneşer, M. T., &Albreem, M. A. (2024). Design and Comparative Analysis of a Microstrip Patch Antenna With Different Feed Technique at 2.4 GHz for Wireless Applications. In 2024 1st International Conference on Logistics (ICL) (pp. 1-6). IEEE. [4] Ullah, R., Ullah, S., Khan, J., Al‐Atawi, A. A., &Alwageed, H. S. (2024). Efficient optical fiber communication in the metro access domain based on an optical multicarrier source. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, 66(1), e33883. [5] Guha, D., Biswas, M., &Antar, Y. M. (2005). Microstrip patch antenna with defected ground structure for cross polarization suppression. IEEE antennas and wireless propagation letters, 4, 455458. [6] Ta, S. X., Park, I. (2015). Low-profile broadband circularly polarized patch antenna using metasurface. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, 63(12), 5929-5934. [7] Khaleel, H. & Al-Rizzo H.(2013). “Compact microstrip patch antenna for 2.4 GHz wireless applications,” IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, vol. 12, pp. 1234–1237, DOI: 10.1109/LAWP.2013.2273299. [8] Gautam, A. K., Kumar, L., Kanaujia, B. K., &Rambabu, K. (2015). Design of compact Fshaped slot triple-band antenna for WLAN/WiMAX applications. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, 64(3), 1101-1105. [9] Fu, H., Huang, P., & Ma, K. (2022). A 220‐GHz CMOS passive subharmonicdownconverter for low‐IF applications. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, 64(10), 1694-1699. [10] Althuwayb, A. (2021). “Design of a defected ground microstrip patch antenna for WLAN and RFID applications,” Microwave and Opti-cal Technology Letters, vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 1709–1716, Jun.. DOI: 10.1002/mop.32777. [11]Kumar, R. & Khanna, R. (2021). “Compact microstrip patch antenna with slotted ground for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth applications,” Wire-less Personal Communications, vol. 116, no. 3, pp. 1885–1897. DOI: 10.1007/s11277-020-07683-y. Shyamala Cet. al./Int.J.HIT.TRANSC:ECCN. Vol.12: Issue 1A (2025)  ISSN:0973‐6875Page|39 [12] Khadhraoui, I., Ben Salah, T., &Aguili, T. (2022). Novel directive antenna based on parabolic quasi Fabry–Pérot cavity. International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer‐Aided Engineering, 32(6), e23119. [13] Kumar, S. A., Shanmuganantham, T., Dileepan, D. (2017). Design and development of CPW fed monopole antenna at 2.45 GHz and 5.5 GHz for wireless applications. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 56(2), 231-234. [14] Ali,M. A. M., Rahman, M. A.,& Islam,T. (2022). “Performance analysis of miniaturized microstrip patch antennas for IoTapplica-tions,” IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 34567–34576,. DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3164041. [15] Radhika, S., Anitha, K., Kavitha, C., Lai, W. C., &Srividhya, S. R. (2022). Detection of Hello Flood Attacks Using Fuzzy-Based EnergyEfficient Clustering Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks. Electronics, 12(1), 123.