Migration, Motherhood, and Family Ties: A Comparative Study of The Buddha in the Attic and The Joy Luck Club

International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 243 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 Migration, Motherhood, and Family Ties: A Comparative Study of The Buddha in the Attic and The Joy Luck Club Ann Mary Anil, Postgraduate student Research and Postgraduate Department of English, St Joseph‘s College [Autonomous], Irinjalakuda ABSTRACT Migration is the movement of people from one place to another due to different reasons. The process of migration is thus an evolutionary process that transforms the lives of individuals and families, especially women. The intricacies of dislocation, cultural assimilation, and identity construction can deeply impact familial relationships and motherhood. This paper makes an analysis of migration, family dynamics, and motherhood, exploring how these themes are presented in Julie Otsuka‘s The Buddha In The Attic and Amy Tan‘s The Joy Luck Club. A comparative reading of these novels will reveal the myriad ways in which women fight cultural dislocation caused by migration and how it affects their interpersonal relations. This study is largely about the complicated struggles, family relationships, and motherhood of Japanese and Chinese immigrant women that unfold within the context of migration. Ultimately, this is a paper that attempts to understand that migration involves not only the physical journey but also a psychological transformation that transforms the lives of women and families. Keywords: Migration, Assimilation, Motherhood, Family Dynamics, Identity Construction Introduction ―The moment we step into the boat that takes us away from our homeland, we begin to weave the tapestry of our new lives, thread by thread, stitch by stitch, with every memory, every loss, every longing‖ (Otsuka 3). Migration is a normal human activity. Migration is the movement of people from one location to another. People migrate for a wide range of reasons. But the main reason for the relocation is the desire for a better life. The process of migration started from an early age. Early humans were hunters and gatherers who moved around in search of food. Later, migration was stimulated by the development of sea trade and maritime activities. Mass International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 244 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 migrations occurred due to the population increase and improved transportation that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Since World War II, large long-distance migrations have occurred. In most cases, the group of people from developing countries has moved into the industrialised countries of the West. Migration falls into several broad categories. First, internal and international migrations may be distinguished. Internal migration is the process of people voluntarily moving within the internal boundaries of a country. People migrate within their countries due to economic, cultural, demographic, environmental, and political causes. International migration refers to the movement of people across international borders to settle in a country. Second, migration can be forced or voluntary. Forced migrations and slave migrations have been part of human history. This usually involves people who have been expelled by the government during war or any other political disturbances, or who have been forcibly transported to other countries as slaves or prisoners. During the 16th and 19th centuries, African slaves were consigned to American markets, and a lot of them died in the appalling conditions of the voyage. Voluntary migrations occur when migrants knowingly and willingly decide to leave their country and enter another country with the approval of the authorities. Most voluntary migrations are for labour, family formation, and also for education. A rich body of literature is available that has explored migrations from a theoretical point of view. Earlier contributions to this field are Lee‘s(1966) theory of migration, Mabogunje‘s (1970) migration systems theory, Zenlinsky‘s (1971) mobility transition theory, Skeldon‘s (1990) work on migration transitions, Harris and Todaro‘s (1970) neoclassical migration theory, Piore‘s (1979) dual labormarket theory, Stark‘s (1978,1991) new economics of labor migration and Massey‘s (1990) cumulative causation theory. These theories have tried to establish a broad understanding of the migration process. More recent theories that focus on migrant‘s everyday experiences, perceptions, and identity are transnational, diaspora, and creolization theories. Push and pull factors—that is, influences that either compel people to relocate or force them to leave their current residences—determine the causes behind migration. Push factors are circumstances that force people to leave their homes. These factors include the non-availability of adequate livelihood opportunities, poverty, poor healthcare, etc. The exact opposite of push factors are pull factors. Pull factors fascinate people to a specific location. Some examples of pull factors are more job opportunities, religious freedom, and better living conditions. The next main theory of International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 245 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 migration is transnationalism. It refers to the connections between migrants and their countries of origin. These include cross-border movements and the circulation of bodies, ideas, information, and things. Examining migration‘s impact on families is important, as it affects cultural identity, community development, and collective bonding among the people. Migration has brought moderate changes in hardships and gender roles within families; acted as a medium for upward social mobility, and families started to adjust well in the absence of male or female migrants. There was an improvement in the education, health facilities, and the quality of life of the migrant families. The children became more independent in the migration process. But there are also many negative implications, such as broken families, emotional imbalance, and a lack of parenting for children. Migrants eventually induce social, economic, demographic, and environmental problems in receiving countries, including population growth, economic remittances, resource depletion, climate change, and increased demand for goods and services. Julie Otsuka‘s The Buddha in the Attic (2011) and Amy Tan‘s The Joy Luck Club (1989) are both impactful investigations of the experiences of Japanese and Chinese immigrant communities in the United States. The novel The Buddha in the Attic explores the story of Japanese picture brides who travelled to the United States in the early 1900s. This narrative explores their experiences, hardships, and resilience as they navigate a new country, culture, and marriage. The novel The Joy Luck Club (1989) by Amy Tan explores the relationships between four Chinese immigrant mothers and their four American-born daughters. The story delves into the complexities of cultural identity, family dynamics, and the immigrant experience. Both these novels focus on women‘s stories and perspectives, and also the challenges of confronting multiple cultures. The process of migration is thus an evolutionary process that transforms the lives of individuals and families, especially women. The complexities of dislocation, cultural assimilation, and the construction of identity significantly affect family relationships and motherhood. This paper will examine the aspects of migration, family, and motherhood, and how these ideas are framed by Julie Otsuka‘s The Buddha in The Attic and Amy Tan‘s The Joy Luck Club. A comparative reading of these novels will demonstrate how women combat cultural dislocation through migration, as well as the impact on their relations with each other. The study International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 246 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 will represent the rich struggle of Japanese and Chinese women in relation to their families and motherhood that occurs through migration. Migration and motherhood Migration and motherhood are deeply connected experiences that transform the lives of women. The journey of migration is filled with challenges, emotional struggles, and complexities. Both these concepts are very well depicted in The Buddha In The Attic by Julie Otsuka and The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan. California is the birthplace and upbringing of Japanese American author Julie Otsuka. The Buddha in The Attic was published in 2011. This novel elaborates upon the lives of Japanese picture brides who travelled to the United States in the hope of a better life. The young Japanese women were a community of ―picture brides‖ who were married off to immigrant workers living along the American West Coast. Through the idea of the picture bride, the male immigrant workers who worked as cheap labourers on plantations were matched with and sent a bride from their native country. This initiative was facilitated by the matchmakers and the women‘s family. The young Japanese women, on their long boat ride from Japan to California, compared photographs of their Japanese husbands who awaited their arrival in the United States. Some of the women come from poorer families, while some come from rich families. Some of the women were just 12-14 years of age. They have only seen their future husband‘s photographs and have never met in person. Despite all the harsh conditions on the boat, the women believed that their husbands were handsome and financially stable. They are also excited to lead a happy and prosperous life in the United States. When the boat arrived in San Francisco, the women discovered that their husbands weren‘t who they claimed to be. The husbands were older, poorer, and less educated than described in the letters. The dreams and expectations of the young Japanese women were shattered after this realisation. Many women were still optimistic and decided to fight against all the odds. As the husbands were poor, they took their wives to small hotel rooms that had the smell of rat droppings. Even the bedsheets were shabby. Some of the husbands were gentle in bed. But most of them were abusive and violent, and brutally treated their wives. The women started to work in the fruit and vegetable fields along with their husbands for a living. Picture brides faced severe labour exploitation. They had to work for long International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 247 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 hours in farms, factories, and households and were answerable to racist white bosses. Many of them fell ill due to their physical labour, and some white bosses even asked them for sexual needs. The white people tortured them for being skilled workers in the eyes of the white bosses. The young women struggled to learn and speak English and to adapt themselves to the new customs and surroundings. They were forced to abandon traditional Japanese practices and adopt American ways. Many of the women gave birth to their first children without adequate medical facilities. The hospitals were not ready to accept Japanese patients. The women had to soon get back to their work fields and bring their newborn babies with them. When the children grew up, the women felt estrangement from these children who grew up speaking a language they did not understand. Later, after Japan attacked Pearl Harbour, these women and their families were suspected as traitors. The authorities accused their husbands of being spies and took them away. The government captured all Japanese Americans and sent them to internment camps in various locations around the country. Women also felt a sense of loneliness in the migrant country, and they wished to see their family members who are residing in their native country. Otsuka‘s portrayal of motherhood is a powerful exploration of the complexities of motherhood. Otsuka highlights the selfless sacrifices made by the picture brides for their families, leaving their own identities and dreams. The novel also emphasises the break, rather than the connection, between Japanese American mothers and their daughters. These young Japanese women become mothers in America, and they experience a sense of alienation from their daughters. Generational differences and cultural gaps create tension between mothers and daughters. Also, these women were bound by their husbands‘ authority just as their mothers were by their fathers. The novel continues through which the women‘s personal life stories and personalities are crushed by harsh living conditions and stifling stereotypes. The women‘s loss of individuality and connection to their mothers affects their relationships with their daughters. Mostly, their daughters were ashamed of them. Otsuka uses ‗We‘, a collective narrative voice, to highlight the shared experience of Japanese picture brides. The Joy Luck Club (1989) by Amy Tan describes the lives of four Asian women who left China in the 1940s and their four Americanized daughters. Amy Tan serves the readers with the intricacies of the connections between Chinese immigrant mothers and American-born daughters. Chinese women‘s problems are exposed in the tales told by the mothers, namely International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 248 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 Suyuan Woo, An-mei Hsu, Lindo Jong, and Ying Ying St. Clair. These women distinctly show the oppression they endured. The narrative goes back in time to reveal the terrible lives of the women and how they have overcome their struggles and pains for a better future. Each family faces difficulty in communicating across cultural and generational lines. The mothers and the Americanized daughters are unable to converse and comprehend one another‘s issues. The daughters grew up in Western society and fashions, whilst their mothers grew up in traditional Chinese culture. This cultural gap shows the contrasts between mothers and daughters, resulting in a variety of challenges, such as mothers refusing to allow their daughters to date white males. The work effectively portrays the experience of sexism in both Chinese and US cultures. The mothers and daughters become closer as a result of these common experiences. The two societies are extremely patriarchal. Particularly in Chinese culture, men are always in positions of economic, social, and sexual dominance. Through their accounts, these women share the difficulties faced as victims in both China and the United States. For numerous Asian American women, the rigid edicts of society were a punishment in and of themselves. The whole book is packed with examples of these events; for instance. An-mei was raped. She was forced to marry her rapist to save her face. Chinese men were, however, not bound to this rule. Shi Ping-Ping mentions two additional important elements that explain the silence of Chinese mothers in The Joy Luck Club and customs in China. First, women feel their memories of life in China to be incomprehensible, because they are full of terror and sadness. Their patriarchal lifestyle is too humiliating to discuss. They wish to keep their pasts private since sharing them would cause them to relive the hurt and remorse they once felt. Another important reason concerns language barriers since the Chinese-immigrant mother‘s American English is not standard and at the same time, their American-born daughters have an imperfect understanding of Chinese. As a result, communication can easily lead to misunderstandings. (Shi 2004: 118-162). In actuality, these two are the byproducts of sexism. In other words, women unintentionally take on a passive part in patriarchy by remaining mute about cultural oppression. Even worse, many have long believed that tragedy is their fate, the predestination that they can neither prevent nor change. One could argue that women‘s readiness to remain silent betrays them in some ways and degrades their dignity. Women are at risk due to the patriarchal system. They become the male subject‘s manipulable object, ―the other,‖ losing significance, the victim of violent men, and a voiceless International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 249 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 social being. Women are denied the chance to succeed due to sexism. It even makes women feel inferior to themselves, devoid of spirit, and uninterested in the gloomy future. In the tales of Rosu Hsu Jordan, An-mei‘s daughter, and Lena St. Clair, Ying-Ying‘s daughter, the mothers‘ sorrows inside the confines of China‘s patriarchal society recur in the lives of their daughters in the new nation, America. Although patriarchal social structures dictate the fate of women, Amy Tan empowers them to be steadfast in their resistance. Rather than not caring about their life, Amy Tan‘s women are rebellious and combat what they think is unjust and what must be rectified. They disturb the stillness, having faith in their aptitude or ―nengkan‖ or the notion that, with enough effort, they will be capable of reaching success. They express their own difficult yet powerful experiences to reveal their identity to society. This impression is articulated by the pivotal moment in the lives of the primary characters in both the Chinese immigrant mothers and their American-born daughters. They can assert their rights and discover a positive way to shape their future if they have a strong desire to make a change. The daughters eventually get out of difficulty after learning valuable life lessons from their mothers. The narrative suggests that breaking the silence when it‘s appropriate is a means of getting away from the hopelessness and bad luck of the lives of women. One of the most striking similarities between Japanese and Chinese immigrant women‘s experiences is the difficulty they endure in adjusting to new cultural standards. Both groups of immigrant women grappled with linguistic barriers. They were also separated from their loved ones and children. Despite these challenges, they remained resilient and adaptable. The Asian community is treated as a distinct " other " group in American society. The beginnings of the other in terms of Asians in America date back to the nineteenth century; it is crucial to understand how the legal system, racism, xenophobia, and other factors have contributed to this problem. The immigrant groups of Chinese and Japanese people in the US have different backgrounds and experiences that a range of circumstances. In the past, Chinese immigration happened in two ways: from 18401882, and after 1965. Japanese immigration happened between 1860 and 1924. The varying temporality had an impact on their socioeconomic environments and immigration laws that shaped their lives. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 specifically targeted Chinese immigrants rather than Japanese immigrants, who were explicitly International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 250 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 excluded instead. Such regulations had a tremendous role to play in their integration and settlement. The advancements in occupation and affiliated cultural legacies largely informed how they lived their stories. There were socioeconomic differences as well. The Japanese immigrants often entered as picture brides or workers, while Chinese immigrants came in as business owners and professionals. The resulting differences in occupational paths, professional exposure, and contact with the community influenced how they adjusted and formed a community. Another aspect relates to social hierarchies and family systems. For example, the social hierarchies and family systems of China stressed respect and loyalty to the family unit. In Japan, the collectivist culture of societal bonds influenced their experience. These cultural differences influenced how they interacted with American society as well. Lastly, where and how community support networks were established differed between the respective communities. Often with Japanese American communities, support networks were smaller and more dispersed, which made it difficult to carry on culturally consistent traditions and social networks; whereas, the ChineseAmerican communities more often established vibrant Chinatowns, which gave feelings of community and importance of being culturally preserved and consistent. Japanese immigrant mothers encountered a distinct series of obstacles that forced them to adjust and be resilient. As picture brides, women were familiar with the complexities of arranged marriages and, in many cases, found themselves in isolated circumstances in foreign countries away from family and friends. World War II simply compounded the problems of Japanese immigrant mothers, which resulted in imprisonment in internment camps, separation from family, and disruption of family life altogether. The women understood how important it was to keep Japanese customs and cultural identity alive as a means for continuity and connection to their heritage. However, it became a challenge to manage their Japanese and American identities as they dealt with the subtleties of cultural dualism. In contrast, Chinese immigrant mothers had a different set of experiences. Family reunion was a top priority, as they hoped to reconcile with husbands and children separated by distance and immigration laws. Adapting to American customs and cultural norms required extraordinary fortitude as they navigated unfamiliar social norms and expectations. Chinese immigrant mothers also demonstrated exceptional creativity in confronting occupational obstacles and starting businesses. Further, the intercultural differences International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 251 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17505065 they experienced with their American-born children and the intergenerational relationships required both patience and empathy, and a willingness to adapt. These stories highlight the complexity and diversity of immigrant life and illustrate the need for the particularity of experiences and events that mothers, Japanese and Chinese, faced in hotel and restaurant work, as well as their adaptation to American cultural forms and norms. Their stories also reveal the strength and resilience of immigrant women who navigated a variety of cultural identities, family and parenting obligations, and structural challenges to build new lives in America. Family dynamics and cultural identity The complexity of parent-child interactions in The Buddha In The Attic and The Joy Luck Club demonstrates how migration has profoundly influenced cultural traditions. Japanese and Chinese immigrant mothers fight to preserve their cultural heritage, while their American-born daughters deal with dual identities. In The Joy Luck Club, Suyuan Woo‘s relationship with her daughter Jing-mei exhibits this intergenerational conflict. Suyuan‘s traditional Chinese beliefs clash with Jing-mei‘s Americanized viewpoint, resulting in misunderstandings and disagreements. Similar struggles to uphold cultural norms in an unfamiliar setting are experienced by Japanese picture brides in The Buddha In The Attic, as they encounter social isolation and cultural displacement. However, their American-born offspring take up American attitudes and habits, widening the cultural gap even further. Cultural continuity is broken by migration, which creates conflict between maintaining one‘s cultural legacy and assimilating into new social norms. Family interactions are impacted by this struggle, which causes feelings of alienation and cultural loss. With regard to families, the factors relating to cultural adaptation and preservation are important in establishing family dynamics with their Chinese and Japanese immigrant groups. The assimilation allowed them to be a part of American society, whereas tradition and upbringing allowed them to remain connected to their cultural heritage. Though the Chinese mothers were still firmly entrenched in their American lifestyle, they were eventually able to find some kind of balance between their Chinese culture and their Western upbringing. As a result, they took a pluralistic identity. However, their daughters, who were born in America, integrated into American society and made fun of the Chinese culture. But, towards the end of the novel, they