Cinnamomum Verum: A Critical Review of Its Phytochemical Constituents and Therapeutic Applications

Pakistan Journal of Medical & Cardiological Review https://pakjmcr.com/index.php/1/about Online ISSN Print ISSN 3007-2387 3007-2379 Vol. 4 No. 4 (2025) Pakistan Journal of Medical & Cardiological Review Page 100 Cinnamomum verum: A Critical Review of Its Phytochemical Constituents and Therapeutic Applications. Parwan Ali Ujjan (Corresponding Author) Department of Biochemistry, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur Email: parwanaliujj[email protected] & P[email protected] +92-304-3523778 Shakeel Ahmed Ibupoto Date Palm Research Institute, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur Abdul Wahab Lighari Institute of Physiology, University of Sindh Shumaila Aurangzaib Department of Pharmacology, Federal Urdu University Dua Khowaja Institute of Physiology, University of Sindh Dr. Shahnila Gyne unit-1 SZWH Larkana, University SMBBMU Larkana Shazia Parveen Solangi Department of Biochemistry, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur Maqbool Ahmed Soomro Department of Biochemistry, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur This review provides a critical analysis of the phytochemical composition and pharmacological efficacy of Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl), a culinary staple with extensive ethnomedicinal use. Recent investigations confirm that the spice's broad therapeutic spectrum is directly attributable to a diverse profile of secondary metabolites, predominantly comprising phenylpropanoids (e.g., cinnamaldehyde and eugenol), various flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, and terpenoids. The integrated pharmacological evidence supports the use of C. verum as a potent agent against several chronic human health challenges. Its documented effects include robust antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective activities. Mechanistically, these beneficial effects are achieved through the modulation of critical cellular signaling cascades. Bioactive constituents are shown to regulate pathways such as NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K/Akt, and Nrf2, which govern inflammation and oxidative stress responses. Furthermore, C. verum exhibits direct inhibitory effects on β-amyloid aggregation—a hallmark of neurodegenerative pathology—and on carbohydrate-digesting enzymes, which is relevant to postprandial glucose control. Significantly, the species is distinguished by its negligible coumarin content, contrasting sharply with common cassia varieties. This enhanced safety profile is a key Abstract Author Details Keywords: Cinnamomum verum; Ceylon Cinnamon; Phytochemicals; Phenylpropanoids; Flavonoids; Proanthocyanidins; Cinnamaldehyde; Eugenol; Antioxidant Activity; AntiInflammatory; Antimicrobial; Antidiabetic; Neuroprotection; Nf-Κb; Mapk; Pi3k/Akt; Nrf2 Signaling; Functional Foods; Nutraceuticals. Received on 01 Sep 2025 Accepted on 25 Sep 2025 Published on 06 Oct 2025 Corresponding E-mail & Author*: Parwan Ali Ujjan Department of Biochemistry, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur Email:[email protected] Parwan.a[email protected] Page 101 factor underscoring its suitability for long-term or chronic application. By synthesizing these phytochemical and mechanistic insights, this review validates C. verum's potential as a highly effective functional food ingredient and a promising lead candidate for nutraceutical development aimed at mitigating metabolic disorders, infectious diseases, and neurodegeneration driven by oxidative stress. Abbreviations: DPPH – 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; NO – nitric oxide; ROS – reactive oxygen species; MIC – minimum inhibitory concentration; MLE – methanolic leaf extract; NF-κB – Nuclear Factor-kappa B; MAPK – Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase; COX – Cyclooxygenase; LOX – Lipoxygenase;Nrf2 – Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2–Related Factor 2; PI3K – Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase; Akt – Protein Kinase B; GLUT4 – Glucose Transporter Type 4; ACE2 – Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2; TMPRSS2 – Transmembrane Serine Protease 2; TNF-α – Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; IL-1β – Interleukin-1 beta; IL-6 – Interleukin-6; HbA1c – Glycated Hemoglobin. Introduction Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, commonly known as Ceylon cinnamon or “true cinnamon,” is an evergreen tree belonging to the Lauraceae family. It has been revered for centuries in traditional medicine systems, particularly in Ayurveda, Unani, and Traditional Chinese Medicine, for its therapeutic and aromatic properties (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021; Ju et al., 2023; Guo et al., 2024). Various parts of the plant, including the bark, leaves, and roots, have been utilized to treat a wide range of ailments. In Ayurveda, C. verum has been employed to manage digestive disorders such as indigestion and diarrhea, respiratory conditions like cough and bronchitis, and inflammatory diseases (Kumari et al., 2019; Sharma et al., 2024). Its bark and essential oils have also been used to alleviate menstrual irregularities, improve circulation, and act as a general tonic (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021; Guo et al., 2024). The therapeutic potential of C. verum is attributed to its diverse phytochemical constituents, including cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, cinnamic acid, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds (Pagliari et al., 2023; Guo et al., 2024). These bioactive compounds exhibit a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and anticancer effects (Ju et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2024). Cinnamaldehyde, the major component of cinnamon bark oil, has been shown to modulate inflammatory pathways and inhibit microbial growth, while eugenol contributes to analgesic and antiseptic properties (Guo et al., 2024). Recent studies have also highlighted its neuroprotective and cardioprotective roles, suggesting its potential in managing chronic diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions (Ju et al., 2023; Virutkar et al., 2023). The resurgence of interest in natural products for drug discovery is driven by limitations of synthetic drugs, including adverse effects, toxicity, and the emergence of drug resistance (Newman & Cragg, 2020; Guo et al., 2024). Natural products, with their structural diversity and complex mechanisms of action, offer a rich source of novel therapeutic agents (Harvey, 2008; Ju et al., 2023). Traditional medicine systems provide valuable insights into the efficacy and safety of these natural compounds, forming the basis for modern pharmacological investigations (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2024). The increasing prevalence of chronic diseases and lifestyle disorders has further fueled the demand for plant-based remedies and functional foods, positioning C. verum as a promising candidate for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications (Pagliari et al., 2023). Advancements in analytical techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and Page 102 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy have significantly enhanced the ability to identify and isolate bioactive compounds from C. verum (Guo et al., 2024; Sharma et al., 2024). These technological breakthroughs, combined with computational chemistry and molecular docking studies, have accelerated the drug discovery process by elucidating mechanisms of action and predicting pharmacokinetic properties (Ju et al., 2023). Such integrative approaches have paved the way for the development of standardized cinnamon-based formulations with improved efficacy and safety profiles. In conclusion, the combination of historical knowledge, modern scientific validation, and technological advancements underscores the importance of Cinnamomum verum as a versatile medicinal plant. Its rich phytochemical profile and diverse pharmacological activities make it a valuable resource for developing innovative therapies to address unmet medical needs. However, further research is essential to establish clinical efficacy, optimize dosage, and ensure long-term safety (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021; Guo et al., 2024). By bridging traditional wisdom with modern science, researchers can unlock the full therapeutic potential of C. verum and contribute to the advancement of natural product-based drug discovery. Cinnamomum verum: A Botanical Overview Taxonomy and Botanical Description Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, commonly known as Ceylon cinnamon or “true cinnamon,” belongs to the family Lauraceae and the genus Cinnamomum. It is a small to medium-sized evergreen tree native to Sri Lanka and southern India, though it is now cultivated in several tropical regions worldwide, including Madagascar, Seychelles, and parts of Southeast Asia (Saha et al., 2023). The species was historically referred to as Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, which remains a widely recognized synonym (Soumya & Krishnamohan, 2024). Table 1:Taxonomic Classification of Cinnamomum verum Category Classification Kingdom Plantae Clade Angiosperms Order Laurales Family Lauraceae Genus Cinnamomum Species Cinnamomum verum J. Presl Botanical Description Cinnamomum verum is an aromatic evergreen tree that typically grows 8–15 meters in height in its natural habitat, though cultivated plants are often pruned to about 3 meters for easier harvesting. The trunk is stout, with a diameter of 30–60 cm, and covered by a thick, greyish-brown bark that is the primary source of the spice cinnamon. The leaves are simple, opposite, and leathery, measuring 5–18 cm long and 3–10 cm wide, with an ovate to elliptic shape. They exhibit three prominent longitudinal veins running from the base to the apex. Young leaves are reddish and later turn dark green on the upper surface with paler undersides (Prathibhani et al., 2023). The flowers are small (about 3 mm in diameter), pale yellow to greenish, and arranged in axillary or terminal panicles. They emit a slightly unpleasant odor and bloom seasonally. The fruit is a fleshy, ovoid drupe, about 1–1.5 cm long, turning from green to purple or black when ripe, and contains a single seed (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). Table 2 Botanical Characteristics of Cinnamomum verum Feature Description Plant Type Aromatic evergreen tree Page 103 Height 8–15 m (wild); pruned to ~3 m in cultivation Trunk Stout, 30–60 cm diameter, greyish-brown bark Leaves Simple, opposite, leathery; 5–18 × 3–10 cm; ovate to elliptic; 3 prominent veins Young Leaves Reddish, turning dark green above and pale beneath Flowers Small (3 mm), pale yellow-green, in axillary or terminal panicles; seasonal bloom Fruit Fleshy ovoid drupe, 1–1.5 cm; green to purple/black when ripe; single seed Habitat and Distribution C. verum thrives in tropical climates with an annual rainfall of over 2,000 mm and prefers well-drained soils. It is primarily grown in Sri Lanka, which accounts for the majority of global production, but it is also cultivated in India, Madagascar, and other tropical regions (Andrade-Hoyos et al., 2023). Geographical Distribution and Ecological Significance Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, commonly known as Ceylon cinnamon, is native to the wet evergreen forests of Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats of India, where it thrives in tropical climates with high humidity and well-drained soils (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). Today, its cultivation has expanded to several tropical regions, including Madagascar, Seychelles, and parts of Southeast Asia, due to its economic and medicinal importance (Guo et al., 2024). Sri Lanka remains the primary global producer, accounting for more than 80% of the world’s Ceylon cinnamon supply (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). Geographical Distribution: C. verum grows optimally in regions with annual rainfall between 1,250–2,500 mm and temperatures ranging from 20°C to 30°C (Pagliari et al., 2023). It prefers sandy loam soils rich in organic matter and is commonly cultivated in lowland tropical zones up to 1,000 meters above sea level (Guo et al., 2024). While it is primarily grown in Sri Lanka, commercial plantations are also found in India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu), Madagascar, and the Caribbean islands, where similar agro-climatic conditions prevail (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). Table 3.Geographical Distribution of Cinnamomum verum Parameter Details Native Range Sri Lanka and Western Ghats of India Current Cultivation Sri Lanka, India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu), Madagascar, Seychelles, Caribbean, Southeast Asia Optimal Rainfall 1,250–2,500 mm annually Temperature Range 20°C–30°C Soil Preference Sandy loam, rich in organic matter, well-drained Altitude Up to 1,000 m above sea level Ecological Significance: Cinnamomum verum plays a vital role in tropical forest ecosystems as an evergreen species that contributes to soil stabilization, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation (Guo et al., 2024). Its dense canopy provides habitat for various insects and birds, while its flowers serve as a nectar source for pollinators, particularly bees Page 104 and flies (Pagliari et al., 2023). Additionally, cinnamon plantations help prevent soil erosion in hilly regions and support agroforestry systems, promoting sustainable land use (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). From an economic and ecological perspective, cinnamon cultivation offers environmentally friendly income opportunities for rural communities, reducing pressure on natural forests by providing an alternative to timber extraction (Guo et al., 2024). Furthermore, the use of cinnamon-based agroforestry systems enhances soil fertility and water retention, contributing to climate resilience in tropical regions (Pagliari et al., 2023). Table 4.Ecological Significance of Cinnamomum verum Aspect Ecological Role Soil Stabilization Prevents erosion in hilly regions Carbon Sequestration Contributes to climate regulation Biodiversity Provides habitat for insects and birds Pollination Flowers serve as nectar source for bees and flies Agroforestry Role Enhances soil fertility, water retention, and sustainable land use Economic Impact Provides eco-friendly income, reduces pressure on natural forests Traditional Uses of Cinnamomum verum in Various Cultures Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, commonly known as Ceylon cinnamon, has been an integral part of traditional medicine, cultural practices, and religious rituals for centuries. Its applications span across medicinal, ornamental, and spiritual domains, reflecting its multifaceted significance in human societies. Medicinal Uses In traditional medicine systems such as Ayurveda, Unani, and Traditional Chinese Medicine, C. verum has been extensively used to treat a variety of ailments. In Ayurveda, it is classified as a warming spice and prescribed for digestive disorders (indigestion, diarrhea), respiratory conditions (cough, bronchitis), and circulatory issues (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2019). Its bark and essential oils have been used as carminative, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory agents, while decoctions were administered for menstrual irregularities and as a general tonic (Pathak & Sharma, 2021). In Chinese medicine, cinnamon bark (Rou Gui) is considered a yang tonic, used to warm the body, improve kidney function, and alleviate cold-related disorders (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021). Modern pharmacological studies have validated many of these traditional claims, demonstrating that cinnamon possesses antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties, primarily due to its bioactive compounds such as cinnamaldehyde and eugenol (Kumar et al., 2019; Pagliari et al., 2023). Ornamental Uses Beyond its medicinal value, C. verum is cultivated as an ornamental plant in tropical gardens due to its evergreen foliage and aromatic bark. Its glossy green leaves and fragrant nature make it a popular choice for landscaping in regions where it thrives (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021). Additionally, cinnamon trees are often integrated into agroforestry systems, contributing to biodiversity and soil conservation while providing economic benefits to farmers (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). Religious and Cultural Significance Page 105 Cinnamomum verum holds a prominent place in religious rituals and cultural traditions across Asia and the Middle East. In Hindu rituals, cinnamon is used in incense and offerings for its pleasant aroma and symbolic association with purity and prosperity (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021). In ancient Egypt, cinnamon was employed in mummification and temple offerings, signifying its sacred status (Touwaide & Appetiti, 2024). Similarly, in Christian traditions, cinnamon was historically valued as a precious spice mentioned in biblical texts, symbolizing wealth and divine favor (Touwaide & Appetiti, 2024). The widespread use of cinnamon in culinary practices also reflects its cultural importance. It is a key ingredient in traditional dishes, sweets, and beverages across South Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, often associated with festive occasions and hospitality (Pathak & Sharma, 2021). Phytochemical Profile of Cinnamomum verum A Comprehensive Review of the Major Phytochemical Classes Identified in the Plant The phytochemistry of Cinnamomum verum is dominated by phenylpropanoids, particularly in its volatile fraction, along with polyphenols (including proanthocyanidins and flavonoids) and a diverse set of terpenoids. Minor or sporadic reports also indicate the presence of alkaloids, lignans, and coumarins, although coumarin levels in C. verum are significantly lower than in cassia, making it safer for long-term consumption (Singh et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021; Rana & Sheu, 2023). These phytochemical classes collectively underpin the plant’s antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and metabolic health benefits (Guo et al., 2024). Volatile (essential-oil) phenylpropanoids The essential oil fraction of C. verum bark is primarily composed of (E)-cinnamaldehyde, which often accounts for 70–90% of the oil, while the leaf oil is typically rich in eugenol (Farias et al., 2020; Narayanankutty et al., 2021). Chemotype studies reveal significant variability in oil composition across geographic regions, with some leaf oils dominated by linalool or benzyl-benzoate (Xavier et al., 2022; Saha et al., 2023). These variations influence both aroma and pharmacological activity. Polyphenols (non-volatile) The non-volatile fraction of C. verum contains abundant proanthocyanidins (A-type and B-type), phenolic acids (such as cinnamic and gallic acids), and flavonoids (including kaempferol, quercetin, and rutin) (Liu et al., 2021; Pagliari et al., 2023). Advanced LC–MS and UPLC analyses have quantified procyanidin dimers and trimers, which are key contributors to antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties. Terpenoids. Beyond eugenol, C. verum essential oils contain monoterpenes (e.g., linalool, α-terpineol) and sesquiterpenes (e.g., β-caryophyllene), which contribute to antimicrobial and antioxidant activities (Farias et al., 2020; Xavier et al., 2022). Alkaloids and lignans. While genus-level studies report alkaloids and lignans in Cinnamomum species, their presence in C. verum is minimal and requires further targeted research (Singh et al., 2020). Coumarins (safety context). Analytical studies confirm that C. verum contains negligible coumarin compared to cassia, reinforcing its safety for culinary and medicinal use (Liu et al., 2021; Rana & Sheu, 2023). Detailed Discussion of Specific Compounds Page 106 Flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, kaempferol, rutin) LC–MS profiling and in-vitro digestion studies have shown that flavonoids such as kaempferol and quercetin persist after simulated gastrointestinal digestion, maintaining antioxidant and antiinflammatory activity (Pagliari et al., 2023). Comparative metabolomics confirm that C. verum has a distinct flavonoid profile compared to cassia (Liu et al., 2021). Terpenoids (e.g., linalool, β-caryophyllene) Terpenoids like linalool and βcaryophyllene are chemotype-defining in leaf oils and contribute to antimicrobial and antioxidant properties (Farias et al., 2020; Saha et al., 2023). Phenylpropanoids: cinnamaldehyde & eugenol. (E)-Cinnamaldehyde is the dominant compound in bark oil, responsible for its aroma and pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory activity via NF-κB/MAPK modulation and antimicrobial properties (Aggarwal et al., 2022; Karadag et al., 2024). Eugenol, abundant in leaf oil, exhibits analgesic, antiseptic, and antifungal effects (Narayanankutty et al., 2021). Proanthocyanidins Both A-type and B-type procyanidins have been identified in C. verum, with recent studies reporting A-type hexamers. These compounds are linked to antioxidant, neuroprotective, and antidiabetic effects (Peterson et al., 2009; Sun et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2021). Potential Health Benefits of Major Phytochemical Groups in Cinnamomum verum Flavonoids such as quercetin, kaempferol, and rutin are potent antioxidants that neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress, a key factor in chronic diseases like cardiovascular disorders and diabetes. These compounds also exhibit antiinflammatory effects by modulating signaling pathways such as NF-κB and MAPK, thereby reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021). Additionally, flavonoids contribute to vascular health by improving endothelial function and reducing lipid peroxidation (Dabeek & Marra, 2019). Terpenoids, including linalool and β-caryophyllene, provide antimicrobial and antioxidant benefits. Linalool has demonstrated antibacterial and antifungal activity, while β-caryophyllene exhibits anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties through interaction with cannabinoid receptors (Fatima et al., 2023; Tsigoriyna et al., 2024). These compounds also enhance the sensory and preservative qualities of cinnamonbased products. Phenylpropanoids, particularly cinnamaldehyde and eugenol, are the most pharmacologically active constituents. Cinnamaldehyde exerts strong antimicrobial effects against bacteria and fungi and has been shown to inhibit viral enzymes such as ACE2 and TMPRSS2, suggesting potential antiviral applications (Guo et al., 2024). It also improves insulin sensitivity and reduces blood glucose levels, making it beneficial for managing type 2 diabetes (Guo et al., 2024). Eugenol, abundant in leaf oil, offers analgesic, antiseptic, and antioxidant properties, supporting oral health and wound healing (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021). Proanthocyanidins (A-type and B-type) are powerful antioxidants with neuroprotective and antidiabetic effects. They inhibit tau aggregation and β-amyloid oligomerization, reducing the risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s (Lu, 2024). Additionally, these compounds enhance pancreatic β-cell function and Page 107 inhibit carbohydrate-digesting enzymes, contributing to glycemic control (Gong et al., 2022). Collectively, these phytochemicals make C. verum a promising candidate for functional foods, nutraceuticals, and therapeutic agents targeting oxidative stress, inflammation, infections, metabolic disorders, and neurodegeneration. Phytochemical Class Key Compounds Occurrence Major Biological Activities / Health Benefits References Phenylpropan oids (Volatile) (E)- Cinnamaldehy de, Eugenol Bark oil (cinnamaldeh yde 70–90%), Leaf oil (eugenol-rich) Antimicrobial, antiinflammatory (NFκB/MAPK modulation), antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiviral (ACE2/TMPR SS2 inhibition) Farias et al., 2020; Narayananku tty et al., 2021; Aggarwal et al., 2022; Guo et al., 2024 Polyphenols (Non-volatile) Proanthocyani dins (A- & Btype), Phenolic acids, Flavonoids Bark and inner tissues Antioxidant, antiinflammatory, neuroprotectiv e, antidiabetic, vascular health Liu et al., 2021; Pagliari et al., 2023; Peterson et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2021 Terpenoids Linalool, βCaryophyllene, α-Terpineol Essential oils (leaf and bark) Antimicrobial, antioxidant, analgesic, antiinflammatory (via cannabinoid receptors) Farias et al., 2020; Saha et al., 2023; Fatima et al., 2023 Alkaloids & Lignans Trace alkaloids, lignans Minimal presence Potential pharmacologic al roles (underresearched) Singh et al., 2020 Coumarins Trace amounts Bark Safety aspect: negligible compared to cassia, safe for long-term use Liu et al., 2021; Rana & Sheu, 2023 Pharmacological Activities of Cinnamomum verum Cinnamomum verum, commonly known as true cinnamon, contains a diverse array of bioactive compounds that contribute to its therapeutic potential. This section explores Page 108 the pharmacological activities of C. verum, including its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective effects. Each subsection highlights the key mechanisms and responsible phytochemicals that underpin these health benefits. Antioxidant Properties and Free Radical Scavenging Activity Cinnamomum verum exhibits significant antioxidant potential, primarily attributed to its rich content of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins. These bioactive constituents act as potent free radical scavengers, neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH), superoxide anions (O₂•⁻), and peroxyl radicals, which are implicated in oxidative stress-related pathologies including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and neurodegeneration (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021). Oxidative stress occurs when the production of ROS exceeds the body’s antioxidant defense capacity, leading to lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and DNA damage. The phenolic hydroxyl groups in cinnamon compounds donate hydrogen atoms or electrons to stabilize free radicals, thereby interrupting oxidative chain reactions (Wu et al., 2022). Recent studies have demonstrated that ethanol and methanol extracts of C. verum bark possess high total phenolic content and exhibit strong radical scavenging activity in assays such as DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP (Xie et al., 2023; Solanki & Mohabe, 2024). For instance, Xie et al. (2023) reported that ethanol extracts of C. verum contained 36.67 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g and exhibited ABTS•⁺ scavenging activity of 1688.85 μmol Trolox equivalents (TE)/g, significantly higher than water extracts. Similarly, Soxhlet-extracted methanol fractions showed superior antioxidant capacity, correlating with higher concentrations of flavonoids and tannins (Solanki & Mohabe, 2024). The antioxidant activity of C. verum is not only limited to direct radical scavenging but also involves metal chelation and inhibition of lipid peroxidation, which further protects cellular components from oxidative damage (Wu et al., 2022). These properties make C. verum a promising candidate for functional foods and nutraceutical formulations aimed at mitigating oxidative stress and its associated chronic diseases. Anti-inflammatory Activity Inflammation is a critical physiological response to injury or infection, but chronic inflammation is linked to diseases such as arthritis, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders. Cinnamomum verum demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory activity due to its bioactive compounds, including cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, and flavonoids. These compounds modulate key inflammatory pathways, particularly nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which regulate the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021). Cinnamaldehyde, the principal phenylpropanoid in C. verum, inhibits the activation of NF-κB by preventing the phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα, thereby reducing the transcription of inflammatory mediators (Guo et al., 2024). Additionally, eugenol exhibits cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitory effects, reducing prostaglandin and leukotriene synthesis, which are key mediators of inflammation (Wu et al., 2022). Flavonoids such as quercetin and kaempferol further enhance antiinflammatory effects by scavenging reactive oxygen species and downregulating MAPK signaling (Dabeek & Marra, 2019). 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