Exposure and inhaling of microplastics: An evidence of cause of cancer

 Corresponding author: Ravindra B. Malabadi Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0. Exposure and inhaling of microplastics: An evidence of cause of cancer Raju K. Chalannavar 1, Hosamani PA 2, Harish Shenoy 3, Ravindra B. Malabadi 1, 4, * and Kiran P. Kolkar 5 1 Department of Applied Botany, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri-574199, Mangalore, Karnataka State, India. 2 Department of Botany, Bangurnagar Arts, Science and Commerce College, Dandeli-581325, Karnataka State, India. 3 Department of Agronomy, ICARKrishi Vigyan Kendra, Dakshina Kannada (KVAFSU), Kankanady, Mangalore-575002, Karnataka State, India. 4 Miller Blvd, NW, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 5 Department of Botany, Karnatak Science College, Dharwad-580003, Karnataka State, India. World Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 196–204 Publication history: Received on 02 August 2025; revised on 22 August 2025; accepted on 03 September 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.23.3.0823 Abstract Microplastics are defined as plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter and can be categorized as primary and secondary microplastics. Microplastics are widely distributed in oceans, freshwater, soil, atmosphere, food chain and living organisms. Micro(nano) plastics enter the human body through the food chain, leading to their accumulation in the body. Different types of microplastics have been found in human placenta, meconium, breast milk, blood, and feces. The ingestion of microplastics may lead to impaired physiological functions in humans. Micro-and nanoplastics can serve as a source of carcinogenic or mutagenic substances, potentially causing DNA damage that can lead to carcinogenesis, the development of cancerous tumors. Currently, much remains unknown about the specific mechanisms of toxicity of micro(nano)plastics to living organisms, especially human cells. Although there are still many challenges to the direct application of micro(nano)plastics in cancer therapy, their unique physicochemical properties provide new ideas for cancer treatment. Plastics are highly persistent in nature due to which their degradation occurs at a slower rate and their accumulation at a faster pace. Plastics comprise polymers such as polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). They are distributed across the aquatic systems, land surface, inside biological organisms, human consumables and even in the air. Keywords: Micro (Nano) Plastics; Carcinogenicity; Drug Carrier; Cancer Therapy; Cancer; Toxic Chemicals; Tumorigenesis 1. Introduction Microplastics are defined as plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter and can be categorized as primary and secondary microplastics [1-10]. Microplastics are widely distributed in oceans, freshwater, soil, atmosphere and living organisms [1-10]. The increasing concern of microplastics pollution in every compartment of our environment is being globally explored, with relatively fewer studies in India [2147-63-77]. They are difficult to degrade in the environment and are able to migrate around the globe with natural forces such as wind and water currents, causing long-term impacts on ecosystems and living organisms [1-30]. These plastic particles are readily taken up into organisms via ingestion and respiration and are found throughout food webs [84-94]. Their effects have been studied extensively in a wide range of plants and animals; health effects ranging from genetic and biochemical up to organismal levels have been reported [84]. Primary microplastics mainly originate from industrial production areas such as cosmetics, personal care products, and medical drugs [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 84-94]. On the other hand, secondary microplastics are mainly formed from large plastic wastes that are gradually fragmented by physical, chemical, and biological processes under environmental conditions [1-30]. Microplastics enter the human body through the food chain, and aquatic organisms World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 196–204 197 (e.g., fish and shellfish) often accidentally ingest microplastic particles, leading to their accumulation in their bodies and subsequent consumption by humans [84-94]. Micro(nano)plastics enter the human body through the food chain, leading to their accumulation in the body. Different types of microplastics have been found in human placenta, meconium, breast milk, blood, and feces. The ingestion of microplastics may lead to impaired physiological functions in humans [1-10], including growth retardation [1], reduced fertility [1-10], and impaired immune system [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. According to the literature survey microplastics are capable of triggering cytotoxicity and chronic inflammation, and may promote cancer through mechanisms such as pro-inflammatory responses, oxidative stress and endocrine disruption [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Although current studies suggest an association between microplastics and certain cancers (e.g., lung, liver, and breast cancers), the long-term effects and specific mechanisms still need to be studied [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Microplastics may not be directly carcinogenic per se, but as a carrier, they are able to adsorb and carry a variety of toxic chemicals, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals, and plasticizers [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. The accumulation and release of these harmful substances in organisms may interfere with the normal physiological functions of cells, leading to gene mutations, abnormal cell proliferation, and disorders of the immune system, which in turn promote tumorigenesis [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. According to literature survey by Deng et al., (2025) [1], microplastics (MPs, 1 μm-5 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs, < 1 μm) are novel pollutants resulting from the degradation of plastics as well as from commercial production, and these tiny plastic particles can persist in the environment for long periods of time and pose a potential threat to the ecosystem and human health [1– 20]. According to literature survey by Deng et al., (2025) [1], microplastics may be distributed to tissues and organs throughout the body through the blood circulation system, interacting with various cells and further exacerbating tumor development and progression [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Therefore, reducing exposure and intake of microplastics and strengthening environmental regulation and plastic pollution control are important for the prevention of chronic diseases such as tumors [1-10]. Smaller microplastic particles are more likely to be ingested by cells and may lead to oxidative stress upon entry [1-10]. Oxidative stress refers to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the body, which are capable of triggering DNA damage, leading to genetic mutations and thus increasing the risk of cancer. [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Hence there are complex links and potential threats between microplastics and tumorigenesis [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. This review focuses on the role of micro(nano) plastics in cancer occurrence and development and their potential impact on treatment [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. 2. Microplastic Problems in India The plastic polymers have become indispensable in modern life because of their properties like low manufacturing cost, adaptability, water-resistant nature, high strength-to-weight ratio and high thermal and electrical insulation properties, and are prevalent in almost every area like clothing, storage, transportation, packaging and construction, and in consumer good [1-2063-78]. Plastics are highly persistent in nature due to which their degradation occurs at a slower rate and their accumulation at a faster pace. [1-2063-78]. Plastics comprise polymers such as polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [1-2063-78]. They are distributed across the aquatic systems, land surface, inside biological organisms, human consumables and even in the air [1-2063-78]. India being one of the major producers of plastic waste is gradually pacing up its research in microplastics [2163-78]. At present, the role of India in global microplastics pollution is not well understood [216378-94]. Contamination of different environmental compartments with microplastics (MPs) has widened their expanse to human consumable items as their origin is linked to these matrices [2163-78]. Salt, drinking water, tap water and seafood are the only items that have been looked upon for microplastics contamination in India while worldwide microplastics are being detected in a wide range of food and beverage items [2163-78-94]. The toxicity associated with these microplastics has not been extensively focused, and at present, the situation of microplastics prevalence in Indian food and beverage items is not very clear [2163-78-94]. 3. Microplastics: Cancer Microplastics are minuscule particles of plastic, usually smaller than 5 μm. They are produced on a small scale or arise from the disintegration of bigger plastic objects [2]. Microplastics can be found in various environmental compartments such as oceans, rivers, lakes, soil, air, and even in organisms [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. They are pervasive in the environment due to their widespread use and improper disposal. Entry points of microplastics into the human body include ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Once microplastics enter the food chain, they may be biomagnified and bio-accumulated by larger organisms and ultimately reach humans [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 6377-94]. Apart from organisms, other food materials such as salt, honey, beer, and drinking water have also been reported to have microplastic contamination [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. These products are regularly used by humans and serve as sources for the entry of microplastics into the human body [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Ingestion occurs primarily through contaminated food and water, inhalation through air contaminated with microplastic particles, and World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 196–204 198 dermal exposure through direct contact with products containing microplastics or contaminated surfaces [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Common polymers detected in the human body include polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), among others [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Organs reported to be contaminated by microplastics and nanoplastics include the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, liver, kidneys, and even brain [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Effects of microplastic contamination on these organs may include inflammation, oxidative stress, and disruption of cellular function [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Organs reported to be contaminated by microplastics and nanoplastics include the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, skin, liver, kidneys, and even the brain [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Effects of microplastic contamination on these organs can range from inflammatory responses to tissue damage and potential disruption of organ function [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Cancer is a complex disease categorized by the uncontrolled spread and growth of abnormal cells [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 6377, 79-83]. There are several types of cancer, including carcinoma, sarcoma, leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma, each originating from different cell types and having distinct characteristics [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 79-83-94]. Carcinoma is a type of cancer that grows from epithelial cells, which are found in the skin and the lining of organs. It often forms solid tumours and is the most common type of cancer, accounting for the majority of cases [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 7983]. Sarcoma, on the other hand, arises from connective tissues such as bones, muscles, and cartilage, and tends to manifest as tumours in these tissues [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 79-83]. Leukemia affects the blood and bone marrow, leading to abnormal increases in WBC and impairing the body’s ability to fight infections [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 7983]. Lymphoma originates in the lymphatic system, specifically in lymphocytes, and can affect lymph nodes and lymphoid tissues [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 79-83]. Myeloma develops from plasma cells in the bone marrow and can lead to overproduction of abnormal cells, weakening bones and impairing the immune system [79-83]. Oral cancer refers to cancer that grows in the mouth or throat, including the lips, cheeks, tongue, floor of the mouth, hard and soft palate and sinuses [79-83]. Causes of oral cancer can include tobacco and alcohol use, poor oral hygiene, “human papilloma-virus” (HPV) infection, and genetic factors [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 79-83]. Oral cancer can lead to death if not diagnosed and treated early, but survival rates vary depending on factors such as the stage of cancer at diagnosis and the effectiveness of treatment [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 79-83]. Microand nanoplastics can serve as a source of carcinogenic or mutagenic substances, potentially causing DNA damage that can lead to carcinogenesis, the development of cancerous tumours [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 79-83]. Particularly in critical organs such as the bone marrow, the accumulation of microplastics can lead to more serious consequences [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. According to literature survey by Deng et al., (2025) [1], the epidemiologic studies directly demonstrating that microplastic exposure contributes to the development of specific cancers are still limited [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 7983]. However, laboratory studies have shown that micro(nano)plastics are capable of accumulating in living organisms and may cause cellular damage, which in turn promotes cancer development [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77, 79-83]. Microplastic particles in the air may enter the lungs through breathing and be deposited in the lungs [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Long-term exposure to high concentrations of microplastic particles may cause damage to lung cells, which in turn increases the risk of lung cancer [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Several studies have shown that micro(nano)plastics in the food chain may enter and accumulate in the liver through the digestive tract [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Studies have indicated that exposure to microplastics may be linked to the development of cancers other than lung and liver cancers, including breast cancer [53] and prostate cancer [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Micro(nano)plastics, as a foreign object, are able to trigger an immune system response when they enter the body [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils rapidly recognize and attempt to remove these microplastic particles [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. However, due to the tiny size and difficult degradation properties of micro(nano)plastics, they are often difficult to remove completely, thus persisting in the body and triggering chronic inflammation [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. According to literature survey by Deng et al., (2025) [1], the effect of micro(nano)plastics on intracellular redox balance and the resulting increase in DNA damage and mutation rates is one of the important ways to increase cancer risk [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Furthermore, additives commonly found in micro(nano) plastics such as plasticizers and antioxidants have endocrine disrupting effects that can affect hormone levels and cell proliferation processes in the body, thereby increasing the risk of specific types of cancer [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Many studies confirmed that micro(nano)plastics pose potential risks and challenges to tumor therapy by affecting the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of tumor drugs, thereby interfering with therapeutic efficacy and toxicity responses at multiple levels [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. The micro(nano)plastics, as an emerging environmental pollutant, are closely related to the development of cancer [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Exploring the occurrence, development and treatment of cancer from the perspective of micro(nano)plastics is of great scientific significance and social value [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Future studies should further reveal the toxicity mechanisms of micro(nano)plastics and their effects on cell division, migration and endocrine system; meanwhile, interdisciplinary cooperation and technological innovation should be strengthened to promote the application and development of micro(nano)plastics in cancer therapy [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Through in-depth research and active response to the problem of World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 196–204 199 microplastic pollution, we can make a greater contribution to the protection of human health and ecological environment [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. Finally, it is also crucial to raise public awareness and consciousness of the microplastic pollution problem [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. According to literature survey by Deng et al., (2025) [1], through education and publicity, policy guidance and other means, we should advocate green lifestyles and consumption habits, reduce the use and waste of plastic products, and minimize the production of micro(nano) plastics at the source [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. At the same time, public knowledge and education on cancer prevention should be strengthened to enhance people’s health awareness and self-protection capabilities [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. At the same time, there is a need to strengthen international cooperation to jointly address the global challenge of microplastic pollution [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. According to literature survey by Deng et al., (2025) [1], microplastics and nanoplastics pose emerging concerns in oral health research, potentially linked to oral cancer via tissue accumulation, inflammation, and DNA damage [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77-94]. Future research directions include elucidating carcinogenic mechanisms and developing mitigation strategies through environmental regulations, public awareness, and advancements in dental care products [1-20, 47, 52, 61, 63-77]. A recent study by Marfella et al., (2024) [86] reported the presence of microplastics may increase the risk of heart attack and other cardiovascular problems among people with heart disease [86]. The tiny plastics were found to double the risk of stroke or heart attack. Scientists are finding microplastics in almost every part of the body, including lungs and the stomach [86]. The study, published recently in the New England Journal of Medicine, found heart disease patients with microplastics in the blood vessels on either side of their neck, which deliver blood from the heart to the brain and head, were twice as likely to suffer a heart attack or stroke. These patients were also more likely to die over the next three years than people who had no microplastics in their carotid arteries [86]. 4. Microplastics in Daily life Avoid drinking from disposable plastic water bottles. Avoid drinking tea, coffee and other hot beverages in the plastic bottle [84, 85, 87, 88]. During production, plastic water bottles are subject to high pressure, temperature changes and transportation, which can cause the plastic to degrade, leading to the creation of microplastics. Nearly all the bottles – 93 percent – in a 2018 study of more than 11 brands of water and 259 bottles contained microplastics [85, 87, 88]. French scientists found microplastics in seven out of nine bottled mineral waters tested last year [84-85, 87, 88]. On average, bottled water contains about 60 times more microplastics than tap water [85, 87]. Filtered water is the better choice, whenever possible, because it likely contains fewer contaminants that may be harmful to health [85, 87]. Microwave food in glass containers, rather than plastic or takeaway containers, which can release millions of microplastic particles into food [84, 85, 87, 88-94]. Microplastic particles have been found throughout human bodies, and can cross the blood-brain barrier. Research has linked them to developmental harms, hormone disruption, cancer, cardiovascular disease and other health issues [84-85, 87, 88-94]. 5. Conclusion On the basis of literature survey, scientific studies have gradually revealed a possible strong link between microplastics and tumorigenesis. Micro(nano)plastics, as an emerging environmental pollutant, are closely related to the development of cancer. Exploring the occurrence, development and treatment of cancer from the perspective of micro(nano)plastics is of great scientific significance and social value. Microplastics may not be directly carcinogenic, but as a carrier, they are able to adsorb and carry a variety of toxic chemicals, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals, and plasticizers. The accumulation and release of these harmful substances in organisms may interfere with the normal physiological functions of cells, leading to gene mutations, abnormal cell proliferation, and dis¬orders of the immune system, which in turn promote tumorigenesis. Currently, much remains unknown about the specific mechanisms of toxicity of micro(nano)plastics to living organisms, especially human cells. Although there are still many challenges to the direct application of micro(nano)plastics in cancer therapy, their unique physicochemical properties provide new ideas for cancer treatment. However, this needs to be supported by in-depth basic research and rigorous safety assessment. At present, most studies on the relationship between micro(nano)plastics and cancer remain at the laboratory stage, lacking large-scale, long-term epidemiological investigations. Compliance with ethical standards Disclosure of conflict of interest No conflict of interest to be disclosed. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 196–204 200 References [1] Deng X, Gui Y, Zhao L. The micro(nano)plastics perspective: exploring cancer development and therapy. Molecular Cancer. 2025: 24:30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12943-025-02230-z. [2] Wang Y, Xu X, Jiang G. Microplastics exposure promotes the proliferation of skin cancer cells but inhibits the growth of normal skin cells by regulating the inflammatory process. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2023; 15;267:115636. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115636. [3] Wang X, Xing Y, Lv M, Zhang T, Ya H, Jiang B. Recent advances on the effects of microplastics on elements cycling in the environment. Sci Total Environ. 2022;849:157884. 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