Herbo-mineral and biological resources used for fumigation therapy in siddha medicine: Systematic review

*Corresponding author: Varnakulendran N. Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0. Herbo-mineral and biological resources used for fumigation therapy in siddha medicine: Systematic review Varnakulendran N * and Thanushiyan V Department of Gunapadam, Faculty of Siddha medicine, Trincomalee Campus, Eastern University, Sri Lanka. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 Publication history: Received on 02 August 2025; revised on 10 September 2025; accepted on 12 September 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.23.3.0825 Abstract Fumigation therapy is a one of the types of treatment in Siddha medicine, which using medicinal smoke for cure and prevent the diseases. It has been used for decontamination of the environment, infected area and also treating diseases like arthritis, sinusitis, terminal stage of piles and respiratory disorders. However, extensive use and scientific validation of fumigation remains limited. The highlights of this review are focused on the Herbal, Metal, Mineral and Biological resources on fumigation therapy with scientific validation that are extensively employed as a medicinal raw material in Siddha Medicine A systematic review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines and which incorporates studies from Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed and reputed Siddha journals. Clinical and preclinical studies, case reports and original Siddha texts were consulted to establish the pharmacological significance of fumigation therapy. The presence of significant bioactive compounds, such as volatile oils, chavicine, α-pinene, β-sitosterol, flavonoids, terpinoids, thymol, terpenes, phenolic compounds like γ-terpinene, polypeptides, proteins, muscone, musclide, steroids like muscopyridine and cyclohexadecanone, shows the significant therapeutic potential these components hold. These bioactive compounds exhibit diverse pharmacological activities that are beneficial for treating a wide range of disease conditions, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and detoxifying properties. These actions show very good effect in infections control, reducing inflammation, enhance the healing of chronic wounds and subside the respiratory diseases. In addition to these therapeutic properties, fumigation therapy has been exhibited for its positive impact on mental well-being and public health. Fumigation helps to reduce environmental decontamination, which not only use in maintaining hygiene but also has a preventive and curative role in healthcare. It is useful for promoting health by reducing microbial activity and improving quality of air, which is essential in areas with high disease burden. This systematic review concludes that fumigation therapy significantly enhances promotion of health, prevention and cure of disease. Integrating scientific validation with siddha concepts gives an opportunity to improve evidence-based medical practices and interventions and contributing to better public health outcomes. Keywords: Scientific Validation; Preventive; Fumigation Therapy; Health; Curative. 1. Introduction Infectious diseases may spread from an individual to another person or any other mode of transmission to person. Most of the contagious diseases are airborne which spread by tiny pathogens like bacteria, fungi and viruses in the air. These World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 352 diseases are mostly spread by sneezing, coughing with phlegm. Airborne diseases are the most widespread, and complete prevention is complicated. [1] These pandemic conditions had occurred in ancient times. These may occur as pandemic conditions some time in ancient times even recent past we all had experience COVID-19 viral infections.[2] Antimicrobial properties of medicinal fumes gained attention for reducing viral transmission. At that time, “Pugai” (Fumigation therapy) had been mentioned for treating these types of airborne diseases spread by air. The “Pugai” is very easy to administer through nose, It is the best route for fumigation therapy for airborne diseases. “Sungan” a traditional inhalation apparatus which facilitates the admiration of medicinal fumes through the nose or mouth and expose to the affected area. [3] It is a method by which drugs of herbo-mineral or biological origin are used for fumigation “Pugai” (Fumigation therapy) is one of the measures suggested for the maintenance of the internal and external environment of an Individuals.[4] Because this have been used as a disinfectant for medicinal fumigation therapy and also it can fumigate the environment also. “Pugai” widely used in Siddha Pharmaceutical Preparation for various reasons such as: Sterilizing the pots in which medicines have to be stored, Purification and sanitization or fumigation of premises, repelling the insects and poisonous animals, treating infectious and contagious diseases. [5] It has been helping to reduce mental stress and enhance mood. This procedure deeply interconnected with the cultural and spiritual way of Siddha medicine, which make attention of holistic approach to healing. [6] Fumigation therapy gives a special fusion of siddha knowledge with a modern antimicrobial action, with its various applications from physical cure to environmental decontaminations. The growing challenges showed by the drug resistance of organisms and viral pandemics underline the importance of alternative therapy. While many siddha remedies have been listed in siddha text, scientific evaluate documentation remains limited. With increasing global identity of Siddha medicine, it is important to explore and validate the pharmacological actions of fumigation therapy. This review connects the gap between the siddha medical knowledge and scientific evidence by systematic analysis the potential of herbs, minerals and biological resources used in siddha fumigation therapy. Siddha fumigation therapy, which combining herbs, minerals and biological resources, is hypothesized to exhibit antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and healing properties, that providing diverse therapeutic benefits. This study aims to elicit the potency of herbs, minerals and biological resources for the fumigation therapy. 2. Methodology This systemic review was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines to make sure methodological stability, transparency and standard. A comprehensive search of e-database such as Scopus, Web of Science PubMed and Google Scholar were searched out to find relevant studies. In addition, primary Siddha texts, including Gunapadam Thathu Jeeva Vakuppu, Tamil English Dictionary of Medicine, Chemistry, Botany and Allied Sciences (Based on Indian Medical Science), and Siddha Maruthuvam Sirappu, were thoroughly analyzed to extract siddha medical insights and documented evidence related to fumigation practices and their therapeutic significance. Bibliographies of selected studies were manually screened to identify additional sources, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the topic. The review included studies focusing on fumigation therapy in Siddha medicine, emphasizing the use of herbs, minerals and biological resources and their chemical compositions and pharmacological properties for the diseases. Clinical and preclinical studies, reviews, case reports, and ancient Siddha manuscripts written in English were included. Exclusion criteria were studies unrelated to Siddha fumigation therapy, articles lacking full text availability, and non-peer reviewed sources. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Procedures regarding Siddha Fumigation Therapy Fumigation therapy is a milestone of Siddha medicine, which consist a various preparation and administration process involving specific tools and patient-oriented protocols. Important equipment required for the preparation process of fumigation drugs includes a stone and steel mortar and pestle, a crushing steel mortar and rod, kalkam (grinding stone), a stove, spoons, an oven and oil lamps. To make sure the effective administration, private rooms for male and female patients are arranged and sterile gloves, gauze, cotton, spirit and oils such as castor and gingelly oil are used. [3,4,5] This fumigation process involves grinding the relevant herbs into paste or powder using iron mortar and pestle. The herbal paste is wrapped in clean cloth, rolled into sticks and then ignited to release fumes; which are exposed to the specific area of administration. [2] Alternatively, herbal powder can be filled in Sungan and burned at one end, which World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 353 allowing the fumes to be inhaled through the nostrils or mouth, depending on the condition. In some cases, tamarind twigs are combined with ingredients of herbal powder, placed on burning charcoal and the resulting fumes are directed towards the affected site. [3] Patients, those who are willing to get fumigation are carefully prepared before treatment. They are instructed to drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration caused by thermal exposure. Privacy is ensured by covering areas other than the site of administration. The site is cleaned thoroughly with purified water before the procedure. The inhalation process, which facilitated by the Sungan pipe, which is designed to treat respiratory issues with specific guidance provided to avoid complications. For disorders involving nasal pathways, all the patients inhale the smoke through their nostrils and exhale through the mouth to prevent heat related problems. [5] Other administration methods including fumigation direct toward specific skin manifestations, wounds or ulcers. For anorectal or vaginal conditions, patients are seated on a specialized stool with an opening that allows exposure to the medicinal fumes. [6] Each session typically lasts for 10-15 minutes and is conducted daily for a week. During the treatment period; patients are advised to avoid food before the procedure but are encouraged to drink water. Posttreatment plan for patients that are instructed to eat milk rice and avoid sour, salty or spicy foods to enhance the therapy efficacy of therapy. [4,5] Fumigation therapy is contraindicated for certain populations that including infants, pregnant and lactating women, alcoholics, anemic patients and those with bleeding disorders or gonorrhea. This precautionary approach emphasizes the personalized and patient-centered nature of Siddha medicine. [2,3] 3.2. Therapeutic Role of Herbs, Minerals and Biological Resources 3.2.1. Herbal Plants Herbal plants are very significant to Siddha fumigation therapy, because which offering a wide range of therapeutic benefits. The reputed siddha pharmacology text, which mentioned that the fumes of plants such as Seed of Kothamalli (Coriandrum sativum L.) and Eluppai (Madhuca longifolia (L.) J.F.Macbr.); leaves of Oomathai (Datura metel. L.), Mul Murukku (Erythrina variegata var. alba), Nochi (Vitex negundo L.) and Thumbai (Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link.); bark of Agil (Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.) and Puliyampattai (Tamarindus indica. L.); tuber of Kottam (Costus speciosus (J.Koenig) Sm.) and Visha Mungil (Crinum asiaticum. L.); whole plant of Brahmathandu (Argemone mexicana L.) effectively cures the diseases such as microbial infections, eczema, asthma, eye diseases, sinusitis, insect bites, relieving nausea decomposed ulcers, Insomnia, Chronic wounds and dental issues like toothaches respectively. [7] These plants mainly contain chemical composition such as linalool, sapogenins, scopolamine, hyoscyamine, flavonoids, terpenoids, diosgenin, lycorine and sanguinarine; mainly act as an anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic and bronchodilators. [8] Seeds of Milagu (Piper nigrum. L.) contains piperine, volatile oils, chavicine, flavonoids and phenolic components, which exhibit antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, that fume make it effective in relieving colds, cough, rhinitis and respiratory issues while against microbial infections. [9] Rhizome of Sukku (Zingiber officinale. Roscoe.) is rich in gingerol, shogaol and phenolic compounds, which provide anti-inflammatory, mucolytic and stimulant action, so it fumes relieves sinusitis, respiratory congestion and nausea. [10] Rhizome of Manjal (Curcuma longa L.), with curcumin and turmerone, offers antiseptic and immune boosting properties and fumigation of manjal helps in the treatment of respiratory ailments and wound healing. [11] Seed of Kandankathari (Solanum surattense Burm.f.) consist of solanine and solasodine, which act as bronchodilators and antimicrobial, that fume help to treat asthma, bronchitis and also reduce toothache and expel the worms from teeth. [12] Bark of Santhanam (Santalum album L.) contains santalol and terpenoids, which provide antiseptic, analgesic and cooling effects, so that fume relieves headaches, fevers and skin issues. [13] Flower of Erukku (Calotropis gigantea. (L.)) contains calotropin and glycosides, which providing anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects that fume relieve chronic ulcers, asthma and eczema. [14] Leaves and bark of Maa (Mangifera indica L.) have mangiferin and tannins, exhibits antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, fume that treating tonsillitis, hiccups and fungal infections while repelling mosquitoes. [15] Seed of Sathakuppai (Anethum graveolens L.), rich in scopoletin and flavonoids, acts as anti-inflammatory; That fumigation relieves respiratory disorders. [16] Leaves of Thulasi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) that contain Ocimum and phenol which act as an antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal, so fume heal the wound effectively. [17] World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 354 Barks of Vembu Pattai (Azadirachta indica Adr. Juss.), containing azadirachtin, which has antibacterial and antiviral properties, fume that treating chickenpox, wounds and insect infestations. [18] Resin of Sambirani (Styrax benzoin Dryand.) provides aromatic, antimicrobial and its fume repels the insects, sterilizing room and reducing chronic coughs. [19] Seed of Thippili (Piper longum L.), with piperine and thymol, act as bronchodilator and mucolytic action, fume that relieves rhinitis and improves respiratory function. [20] Leaves of Adathodai (Justicia adhatoda L.), containing vasicine, which is potent expectorant and its fume effective in treating asthma and clearing respiratory passages. [21] Seed of Karambu (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr.), which contains sesquiterpenes and eugenol, which are act as antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antifungal and anti-bacterial, so fume of karambu cures dental carries, toothache and chronic wounds. [22] Resin of Parangi Sambrani (Boswellia glabra Roxb.), with boswellic acid, which is a bronchodilator, fume that cleanses the air and treats respiratory conditions. [23] Root of Ven Kodi Veli (Plumbago zeylanica L.) and Seng Kodi Veli (Plumbago rosea L.), containing plumbagin and chitanone respectively, both acts as anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and antiseptic, so their fume eliminates fungal growth, heals chronic wounds and infections. [24] Leaves of Thalisapathiri (Cinnamomum tamala (Buch. Ham.)), containing and eugenol, which have anti-inflammatory action and that fume treats sinusitis and headaches. [25] Seed of Karuncheeragam (Nigella sativa L.) that contains nigellicine, nigellimine and dithymoquinone and those are act as bronchodilator, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory, fume useful to treat respiratory disorder. [26] Rhizome of Vasambu (Acorus calamus L.), which has glycosides and flavonoids, act as insecticidal and sedative; that fume eliminates pests and relieves anxiety. [27] Bulb of Vellulli (Allium sativum L.), that contains alliin and allicin, which act as anti-bacterial and antiseptic, that treats respiratory infections and repels pests. [28] Bark of Devadaru (Cedrus deodara. (Roxb.)) has β sitosterol, that provides anti-inflammatory effects and fume treats respiratory issues. [29] Leaves of Kuppai meni (Acalypha indica L.), rich in alkaloids, and act as antimicrobial, that fume treats wounds and eliminates pests. [30] Seed of Cheek kai (Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr.), containing phenols; that fume, which treats infections and enhances air quality. [31] Resin of Kungiliyam (Shorea robusta C.F.Gaertn) has tannins that shows anti-fungal and antiseptic actions, so that fume heals wounds and infections. [32] 3.2.2. Minerals in Fumigation Therapy After the purification process of minerals which are compatible and palatable to use as internal medicine. So, they can be safely used in a fumigation process. [33] Purified Karuvangam (Plumbum) has antiseptic and astringent properties, fume which is highly effective in treating venereal ulcers and the action of karuvangam, which disinfects the affected areas, providing relief from infections and enhance the wound healing. [33, 34] Similarly; Purified Rasam (Mercury) is very potent for its anti-inflammatory properties and traditionally employed in fumigation therapy to cure vatha-related diseases such as rheumatism and pricking pain. In addition to its anti-inflammatory effects, Rasam demonstrates antimicrobial and detoxifying actions; making it highly beneficial for purifying the air and treat chronic inflammatory conditions through fumigation. [33, 35] Purified Thalagam (Yellow Arsenic Tri Sulfide) exhibits potent anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory effects. The fumes with this compound are particularly effective for managing deep wounds and foul-smelling ulcers by disinfecting and reducing inflammation in the affected areas. [33, 36] Similarly; Purified Lingam (Red Sulphide of Mercury), shows antiinflammatory, analgesic and antimicrobial properties. It is very effective for deep wounds and foul-smelling ulcers by promoting healing and reducing microbial infections in fumigation. [33, 37] Purified Chunnambu (Calcium carbonate) contains phenolic compounds, which are flavonoids such as hesperidin and limocitrin and phenolic acids such as ferulic and p-hydroxybenzoic acids along with monoterpenoids like D-limonene, β-pinene and γ-terpinene. These compounds exhibit anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant properties. These fumes beneficial for fumigation to address conditions like sinus infections, respiratory inflammation and infectious skin diseases. [33, 38] Purified Gandhagam (Sulfur) indicates antiseptic and insecticidal properties and its fumes are particularly useful in venereal diseases, dermatological conditions, anorectal diseases, ulcers and swellings. Sulfur fumigation is a Siddha remedy for treating chronic and infectious conditions. [33,39] Likewise, Purified Gowri (Arsenic Penta Sulfide) demonstrates antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Its smoke is traditionally used to treat delirium, scabies, poisonous bites and hemorrhagic conditions and also disinfecting and soothing the affected areas. [33, 40] Purified Veeram (Hydrargyrum Perchloride) possesses antiseptic and allergenic properties. The fumes from Veeram are widely recognized for treating leprosy, morbid growths of flesh, venereal diseases and piles, as well as for disinfecting chronic wounds and skin infections. [33, 41] Similarly; Purified Vellai Paadaanam (White Arsenic/Arsenious Acid) acts as an antibacterial and antipyretic agent. These Chemical properties are particularly effective for treating skin World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 355 diseases, wounds and syphilis; which are enhancing wound healing and providing cure from chronic infections in fumigation. [33, 41] Purified Manosilai (Bisulphuret of Arsenic) is traditionally used in fumigation therapy for its effective treatment for vitiligo. The fumes promote healing and pigmentation restoration in affected skin areas. [33] Purified Navacharam (Ammonium Chloride) exhibits expectorant, diaphoretic and stimulant actions. Its fumes are effective for conditions such as headaches, rhinitis, syncope with pain and cold body and as well as scabies, eczema, herpes zoster and Hansen’s disease. This therapy helps to relieve congestion and disinfect the skin lesions. [33, 42] Purified Ambar (Ambra Grasea) acts as a stimulant and its fumes are particularly beneficial for subside migraines by providing soothing and calming effects on the nervous system. [33] Lastly, Purified Thrusu (Copper Sulphate) exhibits astringent, antiseptic, stimulant, styptic and mild caustic properties. Fumigation with Thrusu is effective in controlling nose bleeding, disinfecting wounds and managing inflammatory conditions, making it an essential resource in fumigation applications. [33, 43] 3.2.3. Biological Resources in Fumigation Therapy Animal derivatives offer unique therapeutic properties. Kadal Nurai (Sea Foam) comprises of magnesium, strontium, iron, trace amounts of copper and zinc, aragonite and β-chitin; which exhibit healing and restorative components. In the fumigation therapy, it shows therapeutic effects by facilitating in the healing of wounds and chronic ulcers through its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity. [33, 44] Pavazham (Coral) consists of sodium, iron, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur and magnesium, which elicit antimicrobial, hemostatic and astringent properties. Its fumigation uses to reduce excessive phlegm, controls cough and venereal diseases through its disinfecting and drying effects. [33, 45] Muthu (Pearl), composed of conchiolin, orthorhombic acid and calcium carbonate, which exhibits mucolytic and properties of enhance respiratory and that fume provides therapeutic effects by relieving respiratory disorders, clearing mucus and improving airflow during congestion. [33, 46] Similarly, Kasthoori (Musk from Moschus moschiferous) contains polypeptides, proteins, muscone, musclide, steroids and muscopyridine, which exhibit anti-inflammatory and hyperthermic properties. Its smoke exerts its therapeutic effects by treating delirium, asthma and epilepsy conditions, helping to calm the nervous system and open respiratory passages. [33, 47] Additionally, Punugu (Civet) contains cyclopentadecanone, cyclohexadecanone, cycloheptadecanone and 6-cis-cycloheptadecenone, which exhibit mucolytic and properties which are soothing the respiratory. Its fume particularly effective in loosening thickened mucus and controlling intractable cough in conditions like whooping cough; especially in children. [33, 48] In concern to the fumigation therapy, the challenges while increased levels of particulate air pollution are associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular system but Ultrafine particles (UFP; less than 0.1 micro meter in aerodynamic diameter) may contribute to the health effects of particulate matter (PM) for a number of reasons.[49] 4. Conclusion This systematic review concludes that fumigation therapy act as a powerful sterilization technique, decontaminating surroundings and preventing the spread of infections. Utilization of diverse herbs, purified minerals and biological resources rich in pharmacological actions and phytochemical constituents causes very effective approach to health. Hence, significantly enhances promotion of health, prevention and cure of disease. Integrating scientific validation with siddha concepts gives an opportunity to improve evidence based medical practices and interventions and contributing to better public health outcomes. Compliance with ethical standards Disclosure of conflict of interest No conflict of interest to be disclosed. References [1] Aliabadi, Amir A., Rogak, Steven N., Bartlett, Karen H. & Green, Sheldon I. . 2011. Preventing Airborne Disease Transmission: Review of Methods for Ventilation Design in Health Care Facilities. Advances in Preventive Medicine 1–21. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 356 [2] Lalitha, S., Anavarathan, V., Mahalakshmi, V., Muththu kumar, N. J., & Scholar, P. (2018). International Journal of Ayurveda and Pharma Research PUGAI (FUMIGATION) AS A PURA MARUTHUVAM (EXTERNAL THERAPY) IN THE SIDDHA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE. 6, 76. http://ijapr.in [3] Dr. R. Thiyagarajan, 1995. Siddha Maruthuvam Sirappu. 2nd ed. Chennai: Director of Indian Medicine & Homeopathy. [4] M. Dharani1, J. A. K. S. S. S. M. T. M. W. (2016). ROLE OF PUGAI (FUMIGATION) IN SIDDHA SYSTEM. Siddha Papers, 1. [5] Standard Operative Procedure on Pugai (Fumigation) in Siddha system of medicine. (2017). International Journal of Current Research in Medical Sciences, 3(7), 66–69. https://doi.org/10.22192/ijcrms.2017.03.07.011 [6] Sivamurugan, V. (2019). Overview of Wound Healing Siddha Medicines. Open Access Journal of Complementary & Alternative Medicine, 1(5). [7] Murugesa mudaliyar K.S., (2013), Gunapadam-Mooligai (Siddha Materia Medica), Directorate of Indian Medicine and Homeopathy. [8] Askaran, Shanmuga Priya & Ranganathan, Geetha & Sahoo, Ajaya & Kumar, Kishan & Amaresan, Jayalakshmi & Ramesh, Kundhanathan & R.P., Vivek Ananth & Samal, Areejit. (2025). sCentInDB: A database of essential oil chemical profiles of Indian medicinal plants. 10.1101/2025.02.24.639916. [9] Damanhouri, Z. and Ahmad, A. (2014) A Review on Therapeutic Potential of Piper nigrum L. (Black Pepper): The King of Spices, Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, 3 (3), pp. 1-6. [10] Kumar, G., Karthik, L. and Rao, K.V.B. (2011) A Review on Pharmacological and Phytochemical Properties of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae), Journal of Pharmacy Research, 4 (9), pp. 2963-2966. [11] Chauhan, P., Keni, K. and Patel, R. (2017) Investigation of Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of Curcum longa, International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences, 4 (4), pp. 1-11. [12] Singh, O.M. and Singh, T.P. (2010) Phytochemistry of Solanum xanthocarpum: an amazing traditional healer, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 69 (1), pp. 732-740. [13] Krishnakumar, N. and Parthiban, K.T. (2018) Comparison of Phytochemical Constituents of the Identified Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) Genetic Resources in India, Journal of Essential Oil-Bearing Plant, 21(3), pp. 658-666. [14] Mushir, A., Jahan, N. and Ahmed, A. (2016) A review on phytochemical and biological properties of Calotropis gigantea (Linn.), Discovery Phytomedicine, 3 (2), PP.15-21. [15] Parvez, G.M.M. (2016) Pharmacological Activities of Mango (Mangifera Indica): A Review, Journal of Pharmacognosy and Pytochemistry, 5(3), pp.1-7. [16] Jadhav, V. K., Sunil, S., & Vidyapeeth, P. B. (n.d.). FTIR Spectroscopic Analysis of Anethum graveolens L. Leaves Extract. https://doi.org/10.61289/jibs2024.10.31.1168. [17] Pandey, G. and Madhuri, S. (2010), Pharmacological activities of Ocimum sanctum: A review, International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, 5 (1), pp. 1-7. [18] Royani, A., Hanafi, M., Mubarak, N. M., Aigbodion, V. S., & Manaf, A. (2024). Exploitation of Azadirachta indica extracts for multifunctional: antibacterial, anticorrosive, antioxidant activities, and its chemical constituents. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05717-2. [19] Susanti, N., Purba, J., & Simatupang, D. P. (2021). Increased Stability of Styrax benzoin Extract and Fraction with the Addition of Cosolvents. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1819(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/17426596/1819/1/012049. [20] Abdul-Jalil, T.Z. and Nasser, Z.A. (2020) Piper longum: phytochemical and pharmacological review of a routinely used spices, International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 2020 (1), 1-9. [21] Jayaweera, U., Shivashekaregowda, N. K. H., Herapathdeniya, S. K. M. K., & Paranagama, P. A. (2024). Ethnopharmacological uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities and toxicity of Justicia adhatoda L.: a review. Discover Plants, 1(1), 41. [22] Batiha, G.E., Alkazmi, L.M., Wasek, L.G., Beshbishy, A.M., Nadwa, E.H. and Rashwan, E.K. (2020) Syzygium aromaticum L. (Myrtaceae): Traditional Uses, Bioactive Chemical Constituents, Pharmacological and Toxicological Activities, 10 (2), pp. 1-10. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 357 [23] Mishra, N. K. (n.d.). Anti-arthritic activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Boswellia serrata and their synergistic activity in combined formulation studied in freund’s adjuvant induced arthritic rats. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.25257.36961 [24] Shukla, B., Saxena, S., Usmani, S. and Kaushwaha, P. (2021) Phytochemistry and pharmacological studies of Plumbago zeylanica L. and Plumbago rosea : a medicinal plant review, International Journal of Phytomedicine and Phytotherapy, 34 (7), pp. 1-11. [25] Raksha, R., Rajesh, K., Preeti, S. and Seema, R. (2021) Phytochemical Screening and Free Radical Scavenging Activity of Cinnamomum tamala Leaf Extract, International Journal of Zoological Investigations, 7(2), pp. 376386. [26] Zafar, K., Noorul, H., Nesar, A., Vartika, S., Khalid, M., Prashant, S., Zeeshan, A. and Zohrameena, S. (2016) Pharmacological Activity of Nigella Sativa: A Review, World Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4 (5), pp. 234241. [27] Mukherjee, P.K., Kumar, V., Mal, M. and Houghton, P.J. (2007) Acorus calamus.: Scientific Validation of Ayurvedic Tradition from Natural Resources, Pharmaceutical Biology, 45 (8), PP. 651-666. [28] Batiha, G.E., Beshbishy, A.M., Beshbishy, Wasef, L.G., Elewa, Y.H.A., Al-Sagan, A.A., El-Hack, M.E.A., Taha, A.E. and Elhakim, Y.M.A. and Devkota, H.P. (2020) Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Activities of Garlic (Allium sativum L.): A Review, Nutrients, 12 (1), pp.1-21. [29] Deodara, A., Prashar, B. and Arora, P. (2018) Cedrus deodara: A Medicinal Herb, International Journal of Current Research, 10 (2), pp. 65758-65762. [30] Chekuri, S., Lingfa, L., Panjala, S., Bindu, K.C.S. and Anupalli, R.R. (2020) Acalypha indica L. - an Important Medicinal Plant: A Brief Review of Its Pharmacological Properties and Restorative Potential, European Journal of Medicinal Plants, 31 (11), pp.1-10. [31] Vijayasekhar, V.E., Prasad, M.S., Joshi, D.S.D.S., Narendra, K., Satya, K. and Rao, K.R.S.S. (2016) Evaluation of phytochemicals and in vitro pharmacological activity of Acacia sinuata plant leaves, International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 7 (6), pp.2423-2434. [32] Soni, R.K., Dixit, V., Irchhaiya, R. and Singh, H (2013) A review update on Shorea robusta gaertn F. (SAL), Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics, 3 (6), pp. 127-132. [33] Dr.R. Thiyagarajan, L.I.M. (2009) Gunapadam (Dhathu Jeeva Vaguppu). 1st edn. Chennai: Sri Venkateshwara Enterprises. [34] Aliyu Haruna Sani, & Musa Amanabo. (2021). Lead: A concise review of its toxicity, mechanism and health effect. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 15(1), 055–062. https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2021.15.1.0096. [35] Liu, C., Huang, Y., Wei, W., Hu, X., Yang, J., & Zhao, Y. (2025). Mercury poisoning-associated membranous nephropathy and autoimmune encephalitis. BMC Nephrology, 26(1), 148. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-02504082-7. [36] Meena, A.A., Indrakumar, J., Gnanasundari, R. and Madhavan, R. (2019) Standardization of Siddha drug Thalagam by Comparative Physiochemical evaluation in accordance with regulatory guidelines, International Journal of Current Research in Medical Sciences, 5 (10), PP. 53-59. [37] Jeganathan, M. (2019) Scientific validation of siddha herbomineral formulation linga mathirai, World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 8 (13), PP.746-757. [38] Yang, Y.-L., Guo, X.-W., Meng, Y.-F., Zhang, W.-Z., Mao, L.-B., & Yu, S.-H. (2025). Biomimetic calcium carbonatecalcium phosphate composite films with tunable cytological behaviors. Nano Research, 18(1), 94907055. [39] Wang, H., Yu, Z., Broder, T., Göttlicher, J., Steininger, R., Wagner, S., Biester, H., & Knorr, K. (2025). Elevated Atmospheric Sulfur Deposition Affects Predominant Forms of Sulfur in Ombrotrophic Peatlands. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 130(2). https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008563 [40] Lu, S., Cai, Y., Kang, T., Zhu, C., Feng, Z., Chen, S., & Chen, S. (2023). Arsenic sulfide Triggers Ferroptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells via TRPC6/GPX4 Signaling. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3389098/v1 [41] T.V. Sambasivam pillai (1977) Tamil - English Dictionary of Medicine, Chemistry, Botany and Allied sciences (Based on Indian Medical Science). 1st edn. Coimbatore - 18: ILWA Press. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 358 [42] Peng, Q. (2025). Effect of Ammonium Chloride on Fermentation Quality and Bacterial Community of Distillers Grains Silage. Pakistan Journal of Zoology. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20230530080553 [43] Ranasinghe, K. M. I. U., & Thirumavalavan, K. (2023). A fatal case of acute copper sulphate poisoning presenting with methaemoglobinemia and intravascular haemolysis: a case report. Journal of the Ceylon College of Physicians, 54(2), 127–130. https://doi.org/10.4038/jccp.v54i2.7987 [44] Rahlff, J., Stolle, C., Giebel, H. A., Mustaffa, N. I. H., Wurl, O., & Herlemann, D. P. R. (2021). Sea foams are ephemeral hotspots for distinctive bacterial communities contrasting sea-surface microlayer and underlying surface water. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 97(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiab035 [45] Rathinam, R. and Moonandi, M. (2014) Pavalam: A valuable Siddha Mineral Drug, International Journal of Research Ayurveda Pharmacy, 5 (3), pp.1-5. [46] Garzia, M., Doneddu, M., Giacobbe, S., Salvi, D., Trainito, E., & Mariottini, P. (2024). Molecular and morphological data provide evidence for only one alien species of pearl oyster in the Mediterranean Sea. Scientia Marina, 88(2). [47] Feng, H., Feng, T., Mo, Y., Sun, S., Wang, L., Lu, C., Feng, C., Xing, K., & Su, Z. (2023). Integrated multi-omics analysis reveals insights into Chinese forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) genome evolution and musk synthesis. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2023.1156138 [48] Hien, N. T. T. (2024). Morphological, Nutritional and Some Behavioral Characteristics of Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) in Captivity. European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, 2(6), 733– 739. [49] Frampton MW, Utell MJ, Zareba W, Oberdörster G, Cox C, Huang LS, Morrow PE, Lee FE, Chalupa D, Frasier LM, Speers DM, Stewart J. Effects of exposure to ultrafine carbon particles in healthy subjects and subjects with asthma. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2004 Dec;(126):1-47; discussion 49-63. PMID: 15768531. Appendix Coriandrum sativum Madhuca longifolia Datura metel Erythrina variegata Vitex negundo Leucas aspera Aquilaria agallocha Tamarindus indica Costus speciosus Crinum asiaticum World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 351-360 359 Argemone mexicana Piper nigrum Zingiber officinale Curcuma longa Solanum surattense Santalum album Calotropis gigantea Mangifera indica Anethum graveolens Ocimum sanctum Azadirachta indica Styrax benzoin Piper longum Justicia adhatoda Syzygium aromaticum Boswellia glabra Plumbago zeylanica Plumbago rosea Cinnamomum tamala Nigella sativa Acorus calamus Allium sativum Cedrus deodara Acalypha indica Acacia sinuata