Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria

Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved © 2025 GLOBAL PUBLICATION HOUSE |INT. Journal of Agriculture and Research| Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria By: Funso Omolayo Alabuja1, Favour Obiageri Nwakodo2, Beatrice Itoya Oyediji3, Joseph Bamidele4 & S. O. Sennuga 5 * 1Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Abuja, FCT, P.M.B. 117, Abuja, Nigeria 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Agriculture, Umuahia Campus Abia State University, Nigeria. 3Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture University of Ibadan, Nigeria 4Faculty of Business and Law, University of Northampton, Waterside Campus, University Drive, Northampton NN1 5PH, United Kingdom 5Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Abuja, FCT, P.M.B. 117, Abuja, Nigeria Abstract: This study examined gender differentials in resource utilization and efficiency of tomato production in Kuje Area Council, Abuja. Primary data were obtained from 200 farmers using a multistage sampling technique, and analyzed with descriptive and inferential statistics, including stochastic frontier production analysis. The findings revealed that male farmers were slightly older (mean age=42.1 years) compared to females (39.3 years) and has higher years of farming experience (11.6 vs. 9.4 years). Men accessed more credit (₦158,000) than women (₦112,000) and had longer cooperative membership (6.8 vs. 4.6 years). Resource accessibility showed clear disparities: males recorded higher mean scores for land (4.00), cooperative support (3.80), and better access to farm inputs (4.00), while females reported lower values, especially for cooperative support (2.20) and adopting new technologies and farming innovations (2.20). Profitability analysis over 2022–2024 indicated higher Net Farm * Corresponding Author’s email: dr.yemi[email protected].uk Manuscript ID: #02129 10.5281/zenodo.17532355 Vol. 08 Issue 10 October - 2025 e-ISSN 3050-9602 p-ISSN 2795-4340 Page 01 of 19 Alabuja, F., Nwakodo, F., Oyediji, B., Bamidele, J., & Sennuga, S. O. (2025). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria. GPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Research, 8(10), 01-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17532355 2 Volume 8 Issue No 10 (2025) Access: https://gphjournal.org/index.php/ar Income (₦171,067 for men vs. ₦133,067 for women) and Benefit–Cost Ratio (1.86 vs. 1.82), confirming profitability but with stronger gains for men. Stochastic frontier results indicated sub-optimal efficiency for both groups; however, women demonstrated higher mean technical efficiency (0.71) compared to men (0.55), reflecting better resource use despite limited access. Efficiency was significantly influenced by seed, fertilizer, seed, fertilizer, farm size, agrochemicals, and labour. The major constraints included high input costs (81.7% male; 78.8% female), limited credit (70.8% male; 85.0% female), poor storage (73.3% male; 81.3% female), and marketing challenges (75.0% male; 82.5% female). The study highlights pronounced gender disparities in access, profitability, and challenges, although women exhibited relatively higher production efficiency. Keywords: Gender differential, Tomato production, Resource utilization, Efficiency. How to cite: Alabuja, F., Nwakodo, F., Oyediji, B., Bamidele, J., & Sennuga, S. O. (2025). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria. GPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Research, 8(10), 01-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17532355. INTRODUCTION Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most important vegetable crops in Nigeria, both as a source of income for farmers and as a vital contributor to national food security. Nigeria is the largest producer of tomato in Sub-Saharan Africa, yet the country paradoxically remains a net importer of tomato products due to inefficiencies in production and postharvest handling (Adeoye et al., 2021). The crop plays a significant role in rural livelihoods by generating employment and serving as a key dietary source of vitamins. Despite its economic importance, tomato production faces serious challenges, including low productivity, limited access to quality inputs, high post-harvest losses, and weak market linkages (Okoye et al., 2019; Idu et al., 2025). Among these challenges, gender disparity in access to and utilization of resources has emerged as a critical factor influencing productivity. Studies consistently show that male and female farmers differ significantly in their access to land, credit, extension services, labour, and modern technologies, which directly affects efficiency outcomes (Olawuyi et al., 2020; FAO, 2021). These inequalities are not merely technical but deeply rooted in cultural norms and institutional frameworks that privilege male farmers (Yunus et al., 2025). The concept of resource-use efficiency, particularly in agricultural production, has attracted attention in Nigerian agricultural economics literature. Efficiency is commonly decomposed into technical, allocative, and economic dimensions, all of which provide insights into how well farmers utilize available resources (Oboh & Ekpebu, 2021; Adeyemi et al., 2025). Several empirical studies have applied stochastic frontier analysis and related models to evaluate smallholder farmers’ efficiency, often highlighting significant inefficiencies that stem from suboptimal input combinations (Ogunniyi et al., 2022; Joel et al., 2025). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria © 2025 Published by GLOBAL PUBLICATION HOUSE | International Journal of Agriculture & Research Importantly, gender plays a decisive role in determining these efficiency levels. For instance, Agboola et al. (2021) found that while male tomato farmers in Oyo State had greater access to inputs such as land and fertilizers, female farmers exhibited higher efficiency in resource utilization under constrained conditions. This paradox underscores the resilience and adaptive strategies often adopted by women farmers, despite systemic disadvantages. Similarly, Oladeebo & Fajuyigbe (2019) reported efficiency gaps between male and female vegetable farmers in Osun State, attributing the disparities to differences in access to credit and extension services. Such findings suggest that improving women’s access to agricultural resources could yield disproportionate gains in productivity, as women already demonstrate the capacity to maximize efficiency under limited access scenarios (Maisule et al., 2025). Beyond technical concerns, gender differentials in resource utilization and efficiency have profound implications for rural development, poverty reduction, and food security in Nigeria. Women constitute a significant proportion of the agricultural workforce, yet they remain marginalized in access to productive assets and decision-making processes (Afolami et al., 2025; Olaitan et al., 2025). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2021) estimates that closing the gender gap in agricultural productivity could increase yields on women’s farms by 20–30%, potentially raising total agricultural output in developing countries by up to 4%. For Nigeria, where tomato is both a staple food and an industrial raw material, such gains would contribute significantly to reducing import dependency, stabilizing rural incomes, and fostering agribusiness development.(Oyediji et al., 2025). Moreover, addressing gender inequalities aligns with broader sustainable development goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 5 (Gender Equality). However, without targeted policies that address structural barriers—such as unequal land tenure systems, inadequate rural credit markets, and male-biased extension services—the efficiency potential of female tomato farmers will remain underutilized (Nwosu et al., 2024; Akomolafe et al., 2025). This study aims to evaluate the gender differential in resource utilization and efficiency of tomato production in Nigeria. To accomplish this, the following objectives are put forward: i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of the male and female tomato farmers in the study area; ii. assess the levels of gender accessibility and resources utilization in tomato production; iii. determine the gender differential on profitability of tomato farmers; iv. examine the gender differential in production efficiency of tomato farmers v. identify the challenges confronting strawberry farmers in the study area. LITERATURE REVIEW Theoretical Framework The theoretical foundation of this study rests primarily on production theory and efficiency analysis models within agricultural economics. Production theory provides the basis for understanding how inputs are transformed into outputs in tomato farming. Within this context, the Cobb-Douglas production function and related econometric models are widely applied to evaluate the relationship between resource inputs (such as land, labour, seed, fertilizer, and capital) and output (tomato yield). The theory posits that differences in productivity arise not only from the quantity of inputs but also from the efficiency with which they are utilized. The Alabuja, F., Nwakodo, F., Oyediji, B., Bamidele, J., & Sennuga, S. O. (2025). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria. GPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Research, 8(10), 01-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17532355 4 Volume 8 Issue No 10 (2025) Access: https://gphjournal.org/index.php/ar application of Farrell’s (1957) efficiency theory further refines this perspective by decomposing efficiency into three components: technical efficiency (the ability of farmers to obtain maximum output from a given set of inputs), allocative efficiency (the ability to use inputs in optimal proportions given their prices), and economic efficiency (a combination of technical and allocative efficiency). These models are particularly relevant for examining how male and female farmers differ in resource utilization and efficiency outcomes (Agboola et al., 2021; Oyotombe et al., 2025). Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study, exploring the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variables (efficiency outcomes in tomato production) being mediated by the intervening variables. The independent variables in this study are the core variables that represent the key inputs that differ between male and female farmers and are expected to influence efficiency outcomes, and these include socio-economic characteristics of age, education level, household size, farming experience, gender, access to extension services, access to credit as well as resource utilization variables of labour input (family and hired labour), access to credit and capital, use of improved seeds and fertilizers, and access to extension services. The intervening variables are contextual factors that can mediate effect of gender and resources on efficiency outcomes. They include market access and infrastructure, institutional support (cooperatives, farmer associations), cultural norms and gender roles in farming households, policy environment (land tenure laws, agricultural policies) and climatic/seasonal conditions affecting tomato production. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Kuje Area Council is one of the six area councils of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Nigeria, located about 40 km southwest of Abuja city center. The council shares boundaries with Gwagwalada, Bwari, and Abaji Area Councils. Geographically, it lies within the Guinea savannah zone, which is characterized by a sub-humid tropical climate suitable for a wide range of crops. The area experiences two distinct seasons: a rainy season from April to October and a dry season from November to March, with annual rainfall ranging between 1,100 and 1,600 mm (FCT-ADP, 2018). Fertile soils, coupled with favourable rainfall, make the area suitable for vegetable farming, particularly tomatoes. The population of Kuje Area Council is estimated at over 170,000 people, most of whom depend on farming as their primary source of livelihood (National Population Commission, 2006; NPC, 2019). Agricultural activities are largely smallholder-based, with farmers cultivating less than three hectares on average. Major crops include tomato, maize, yam, cassava, and leafy vegetables, while livestock farming also contributes to household income. Tomato production is especially significant due to the council’s proximity to Abuja, which provides farmers with ready access to high-value urban markets (Adeoye et al., 2021). However, production faces persistent challenges, including limited irrigation facilities, inadequate storage and processing infrastructure, poor access to credit, and high post-harvest losses (Okoye et al., 2019). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria © 2025 Published by GLOBAL PUBLICATION HOUSE | International Journal of Agriculture & Research Socio-economic dynamics in Kuje reflect broader gender roles in Nigerian agriculture. While both men and women participate actively in tomato production, men generally have greater access to land, credit, and farm inputs, whereas women contribute substantially through labour, processing, and marketing (Afolami et al., 2025; Olawuyi et al., 2020). These disparities influence resource allocation and efficiency levels, making the area a representative case study for investigating gender differentials in tomato production. Kuje Area Council, therefore, provides a strategic context where ecological suitability for tomato farming intersects with socio-economic and institutional factors that shape gendered resource utilization and efficiency outcomes in Nigerian agriculture. Population of the Study and Research Design The study population comprises male and female tomato farmers in Kuje Area Council, FCT, Nigeria, where tomato production is a key livelihood activity. Both men and women are actively engaged in production, although they differ in terms of resource access, input utilization, and participation in market activities. For the purpose of this research, the target population will specifically include male and female tomato farmers cultivating tomatoes either as a primary or supplementary crop within the council. The study adopted a survey design, using structured questionnaires and interviews for data collection. Primary data was collected using structured questionnaires and interviews, covering variables such as farm size, input usage (land, labour, seeds, fertilizer, capital, extension services), socio-economic characteristics (age, education, household size, farming experience), and output levels. Sample Size and Sampling Techniques This study adopted a multi-stage sampling technique to select tomato farmers in Kuje Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory. In the first stage, four major tomato-producing communities—Gaube, Chibiri, Kiyi, and Kwaku—were purposively selected based on their prominence in tomato farming, as identified by the FCT-ADP (2018). In the second stage, lists of tomato farmers were obtained from extension officers, farmer cooperatives, and community leaders to serve as the sampling frame. In the third stage, farmers were stratified by gender to ensure fair representation of both men and women, given the focus of the study. In the final stage, respondents were randomly selected from each stratum in proportion to their relative numbers in the farming population. A total of 200 respondents were sampled for the study, comprising 120 male farmers (60%) and 80 female farmers (40%). These respondents were evenly distributed across the four selected communities, with each community contributing 50 farmers—30 males and 20 females. This distribution not only ensured balance in gender representation but also provided geographical spread across the major tomato-producing areas of Kuje. Data Collection The primary instrument for data collection in this study was a structured questionnaire designed to obtain detailed information from tomato farmers in Kuje Area Council. The questionnaire covered socio-economic characteristics, access to resources, production practices, and output levels, enabling the study to capture gender differences in resource Alabuja, F., Nwakodo, F., Oyediji, B., Bamidele, J., & Sennuga, S. O. (2025). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria. GPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Research, 8(10), 01-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17532355 6 Volume 8 Issue No 10 (2025) Access: https://gphjournal.org/index.php/ar utilization and efficiency. To ensure validity and reliability, the instrument was pre-tested through a pilot study involving a small group of tomato farmers outside the main sample. The pilot helped identify ambiguities and weaknesses in the design, after which the questions were refined to improve clarity, accuracy, and relevance to the research objectives. The final version of the questionnaire was therefore well-tailored to the study’s focus. To enhance data quality, trained enumerators were engaged to administer the questionnaires, ensuring that farmers fully understood the questions and provided accurate responses within a reasonable timeframe. Data Analysis The data collected were analyzed using a combination of descriptive and inferential statistical tools aligned to the study’s objectives. Descriptive statistics such as means, percentages, frequency counts, and standard deviations were used to address objectives (i) and (v), which focused on the socio-economic characteristics of farmers and the challenges faced. A Likerttype scale was employed to achieve objective (ii), measuring levels of gender accessibility and resource utilization in tomato production. To address objective (iii), the costs and benefit ratio (BCR) model was applied to estimate the profitability of tomato production for male and female farmers. Finally, for objective (iv), the stochastic frontier production function (SFPF) was used to estimate technical, allocative, and economic efficiency among tomato farmers. All analyses were conducted using SPSS (version 24) and Frontier 4.1, which provided a robust framework for generating reliable results. Model Specification Likert-Type Scale A five-point Likert scale (Strongly Agree = 5 to Strongly Disagree = 1) was used to assess gender accessibility and resource utilization. Weighted means were computed to categorize responses, where mean values between 1.00–1.49 indicated strong disagreement, while 4.50– 5.00 reflected strong agreement. Costs and Benefit Ratio (Profitability Analysis) Profitability of tomato farming was analyzed using the benefit–cost ratio (BCR): Where:  VNR = Variety Net Revenue (₦)  TC = Total Cost (₦), comprising Total Variable Cost (TVC) and Total Fixed Cost (TFC)  NFI = Net Farm Income (₦)  TR = Total Revenue (₦). Fixed costs (land rent, tool depreciation) were estimated using the straight-line depreciation method. The Returns per Naira Invested (RNI) was also computed: Decision rule: RNI > 1 = profit; RNI = 1 = breakeven; RNI < 1 = loss. Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria © 2025 Published by GLOBAL PUBLICATION HOUSE | International Journal of Agriculture & Research Stochastic Frontier Production Analysis The Cobb–Douglas stochastic frontier production function was specified as: InY = β₀ + β₁ InX₁ + β₂ InX₂ + β₃ InX₃ + ... + β4 InX4 + ( ) Where:  Y = Tomato output (kg)  β₀ = Constant term  X₁ = Seed (kg)  X₂ = Fertilizer (kg)  X₃ = Labour used (man-days)  X₄ = Quantity of agrochemicals (litres)  Vi = Random error outside the farmer’s control  Ui = Inefficiency term influenced by socio-economic factors. Inefficiency effects were modelled as: Ui=δ0 + δ1Z1 + δ2Z2 + δ3Z3 + δ4Z4 + δ5Z5 + δ6Z6 + δ7Z7 Where explanatory variables (Z) included age, household size, education, credit access, extension contact, cooperative membership, and farming experience. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Socio-Economic Characteristics of Tomato Farmers The mean age of male tomato farmers was 42.1 years, while that of females was 39.3 years, indicating that both groups are within their productive years. This suggests tomato farming is actively practiced by the economically active population, consistent with Adeoye et al. (2020), who noted that middle-aged farmers dominate horticultural production due to strength, energy, and higher adaptability to farm innovations. Marital status results showed that 65% of males and 56.3% of females were married, reflecting the significance of family support in tomato farming. Oladejo and Adetunji (2022) similarly emphasized that marriage often strengthens resource pooling and farm labour availability, which benefits household-based production systems such as tomato farming. Male farmers had a mean of 11.6 years of farming experience, while female farmers averaged 9.4 years, suggesting men have more prolonged engagement in tomato production. Yahaya et al. (2019) observed that farming experience enhances farmers’ ability to make better production decisions and adopt improved practices, positioning male farmers with a comparative advantage. Educational attainment revealed gender differences, with 20% of males attaining tertiary education compared to only 12.5% of females. In contrast, 22.5% of women had no formal education, while only 11.7% of men fell in this category. Education plays a critical role in innovation adoption and farm management (FAO, 2019). Thus, the lower education levels among women may reduce their capacity to apply modern farming techniques, limiting productivity compared to men. Alabuja, F., Nwakodo, F., Oyediji, B., Bamidele, J., & Sennuga, S. O. (2025). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria. GPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Research, 8(10), 01-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17532355 8 Volume 8 Issue No 10 (2025) Access: https://gphjournal.org/index.php/ar Household size was larger among men, averaging 6.2 members compared to 5.4 for women. Larger households provide family labour crucial for labour-intensive tomato farming. Okoye et al. (2019) noted that household size significantly contributes to labour availability, thereby influencing production efficiency and reducing the dependence on hired labour. Male farmers accessed more credit, averaging ₦158,000, compared to ₦112,000 for females. Adebayo and Adeola (2021) observed that structural constraints such as collateral requirements and gender bias limit women’s ability to secure loans, restricting their capacity to invest in critical inputs for tomato farming. Extension contact was higher among men, with an average of 3.2 visits annually compared to 2.1 for women. Akpoko et al. (2019) highlighted that female farmers often have limited extension access due to social barriers, weakening their chances of adopting new knowledge that could enhance tomato production efficiency. Cooperative membership was stronger among men, with an average of 6.8 years, compared to 4.6 years for women. Since cooperatives often provide platforms for accessing inputs, credit, and markets, men are more advantaged. Adeola et al. (2020) observed that male dominance in cooperatives enhances their participation in decision-making and resource-sharing, boosting their production capacity. Table 1: Socio-Economic Characteristics of Tomato Farmers by Gender (n = 200) Variable Male (n=120) % Female (n=80) % Mean (Male) Mean (Female) Educational level No formal education 14 11.7 18 22.5 Primary school 32 26.7 24 30.0 Secondary school 50 41.7 28 35.0 Tertiary education 24 20.0 10 12.5 Age 20–30 18 15.0 20 25.0 42.1 39.3 31–40 36 30.0 28 35.0 41–50 42 35.0 20 25.0 >50 24 20.0 12 15.0 Marital Status Single 22 18.3 19 23.8 Married 78 65.0 45 56.3 Widowed 10 8.3 11 13.8 Divorced/Separated 10 8.3 5 6.3 Years of farming Experience 1–5 20 16.7 22 27.5 11.6 9.4 6–10 34 28.3 26 32.5 11–15 40 33.3 20 25.0 >15 26 21.7 12 15.0 Household Size 1–4 30 25.0 28 35.0 6.2 5.4 5–7 54 45.0 34 42.5 8–10 26 21.7 12 15.0 >10 10 8.3 6 7.5 Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria © 2025 Published by GLOBAL PUBLICATION HOUSE | International Journal of Agriculture & Research Cooperative Membership (years) None 22 18.3 20 25.0 6.8 4.6 1–3 36 30.0 26 32.5 4–6 34 28.3 18 22.5 >6 28 23.3 16 20.0 Amount of Credit Received (₦) None 28 23.3 26 32.5 158,000 112,000 1–100,000 38 31.7 30 37.5 100,001–200,000 34 28.3 16 20.0 >200,000 20 16.7 8 10.0 Extension Visits per Season None 30 25.0 28 35.0 3.2 2.1 1–2 40 33.3 26 32.5 3–4 32 26.7 18 22.5 >4 18 15.0 8 10.0 Source: Field Survey, 2025 Level of Gender Accessibility to Productive Resources by Tomato Farmers The findings in Table 2 showed that male farmers had greater control over farmland ownership and decision-making (MS = 4.00), while female farmers recorded moderate access (MS = 3.50). This reflects the entrenched cultural norms in Nigeria, where land tenure systems are male-dominated, restricting women to secondary rights through husbands or relatives (Agarwal, 2018). Interestingly, both genders faced challenges in accessing credit. Male farmers recorded a mean score of 2.20, while female farmers scored slightly higher at 3.20. Similar patterns were noted by Ndiritu et al. (2019), who observed that rural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa face financial exclusion, limiting investment capacity in agricultural inputs and mechanization. Male farmers reported low access to extension services (MS = 2.00), and female farmers also scored low (MS = 2.10). This reflects widespread inadequacies in extension delivery, consistent with Akinola and Alene (2020), who found that extension agents in Nigeria are overstretched and often neglect gender-sensitive approaches. Male farmers were more involved in cooperatives (MS = 3.80) compared to female farmers (MS = 2.20). According to Nwaobiala (2025), women often lack time and autonomy to engage in group activities, which diminishes their access to training, credit, and markets provided through cooperative structures. Male farmers reported high accessibility to farm inputs (MS = 4.00), while female farmers rated low (MS = 2.40). This demonstrates a gender gap in accessing improved seeds, fertilizers, and agrochemicals. Women’s lower access often results from limited income, reduced bargaining power, and discriminatory input distribution mechanisms (Ogundari & Ojo, 2018; Olaitan et al., 2025) Male farmers scored highly in access to both family and hired labour (MS = 4.05), while female farmers scored lower (MS = 3.18). This aligns with Alabuja, F., Nwakodo, F., Oyediji, B., Bamidele, J., & Sennuga, S. O. (2025). Analysis of Gender Differential in Resource Utilization and Efficiency of Tomato Production in Kuje Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria. GPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Research, 8(10), 01-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17532355 16 Volume 8 Issue No 10 (2025) Access: https://gphjournal.org/index.php/ar Based on the findings of the study, here are recommendations, derived from the data and analysis: 1. Policies and programs should focus on improving female farmers’ access to land, credit, and cooperative societies, as these were found to be disproportionately limited compared to male farmers. 2. Both male and female farmers reported poor access to extension services, but the problem was more severe among women. Recruiting more extension officers and adopting gender-sensitive training approaches can close this gap. 3. The high cost of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and agrochemicals remains a major constraint for both genders. Input subsidy schemes or cooperative input purchase programs should be expanded to reduce costs. 4. 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