Ecotoxicological Risks of Improper Waste Management in Revers State Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review

© The Author(s) 2025. Published by AMO Publisher. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Ecotoxicological Risks of Improper Waste Management in Revers State Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review Idalla Yebusika  Department of Environmental Management and Toxicology, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria Christopher Onosemuode Department of Environmental Management and Toxicology, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria Abstract Uncontrolled dumping, petrochemical effluent, and a high rate of industrialisation have led to the formation of a multifaceted toxic environment in Rivers State, Nigeria, underscoring improper waste management as a significant ecotoxicological challenge. The empirical and theoretical evidence have been synthesized in this study through a systematic narrative review of ninety-four peer-reviewed works (20102024), based on the PRISMA framework, for contaminant loads, ecological risk indices, and toxicological pathways, which were used to evaluate toxicological pathways. The results indicated widespread heavy metal (Pb 45.2–178.5 mg/kg, Cd 2.1–8.4 mg/kg, Cr 50.6–132.2 mg/kg) and organic pollutants (Σ16PAH = 5.6–48.9 μg/L; PCBs 0.8–3.5 μg/L), or more than the WHO and USEPA safety limits. Risk assessment through the PERI and the Igeo index identified most sites as having a very high ecological risk (PERI > 600), especially in the industrial belts of Eleme and Trans-Amadi. Oxidative stress and evidence of oxidative damage and genotoxicity were exhibited by high levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and malondialdehyde activities in the biomarker assays across three sentinel species, and a case of hepatic necrosis and an inhibition of metabolism was confirmed in histopathological examination. The triangulated synthesis set up produced a synergistic toxicity between metals, hydrocarbons, and microplastics, destabilizing microbial consortia, distorting nutrient cycling, and bioaccumulating along food webs. All these effects indicate that Rivers State is in a multi-stressor ecotoxicological regime, where the mismanagement and poor enforcement of waste management exacerbate ecological vulnerability. This research concludes by suggesting biomarker-based precautionary educational structures, increased observation, geo-spatial hydrochemistry, and the incorporation of ecotoxicological indicators as policy instruments to support the establishment of risk-conscious waste management in accordance with the Basel Convention and the Sustainable Development Goals (3, 6, 12, and 15). Keywords: Ecotoxicology, Improper Waste Management, Heavy Metals, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Bioaccumulation, Environmental Risk Assessment, Rivers State, Nigeria, Sustainable Waste Governance. Suggested citation: Yebusika, I., & Onosemuode, C. (2025). Ecotoxicological Risks of Improper Waste Management in Revers State Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review. European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability, 1(5), 111-120. https://doi.org/10.59324/ejiss.2025.1(5).11 Introduction The exponentially increasing rate of waste production in both urban and industrial areas have become one of the most significant environmental challenges of the twenty-first century (Jansen et al., 2024). In www.ejISS.com European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability (ISSN 3083-6395) 2025 | Volume 1 | Number 5 112 third-world economies, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, urbanisation and industrial growth have been so rapid that they have outpaced the development of a viable waste management system (Adeniran et al., 2022). Nigeria is a striking example of this paradox, being a country of rapid economic growth yet facing a growing number of waste systems that exceed its environmental management capabilities (Obahor and Asibor, 2025; Nwosu et al., 2024). Rivers State, situated in the strategic Niger Delta region, provides a clear picture of this imbalance. Although the state is blessed with popular hydrocarbon reserves and an extensive network of rivers, creeks, and wetlands, it has experienced robust ecological degradation due to the unselective disposal of wastes, artisanal refining, and insecure institutional frameworks (Okonkwo et al., 2025). This untrustworthy waste flow has led to a toxic environment in which domestic waste, industrial effluents, and petrochemical residues merge, affecting soil fertility, surface and groundwater quality, and posing a risk to biodiversity. Ecotoxicology provides an interpretive approach of critical analysis to these dynamics. Being an interdisciplinary science, tying together toxicology as well as ecology and environmental chemistry, it attempts to explain the bonding of xenobiotic compounds (in particular, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, and lead) with biology systems and abiotic elements to cause harmful ecological effects (Newman, 2010). In Rivers State, several biomonitoring studies have reported the presence of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in soils, sediments, and aquatic systems at high levels (Nkwocha et al., 2020; Odu et al., 2022). The pollution sources most frequently exceed the international standards established by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), indicating a high extent of ecological stress (WHO, 2020). These pollutants exhibit bioaccumulative and biomagnifying properties, allowing for progressive concentration throughout the food web, from planktonic organisms to fish, and ultimately to human consumers (Eze et al., 2024). These mechanisms of transferring ecological risk exacerbate toxicological dangers and contribute to chronic exposure, particularly for vulnerable populations that rely on them for local food sources. The lack of proper waste management in Rivers State does not merely exist as a matter of aesthetic degradation, but instead constitutes a deep ecotoxicological crisis. Constant pollutants disrupt microbial groups that play a critical role in the recycling of nutrients, stain soil physicochemical conditions, and affect the yields of ecosystems. These solid leachates, along with the chemical leachates, are characterized by increased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and nutrient enrichment levels, leading to eutrophication and hopelessness (Nwankwoala and Amadi, 2023). Subsequently, the resulting ecological imbalance leads to the selective loss of sensitive species and the invasive proliferation of opportunistic taxa, which harms the sustainability of ecosystems (Ojeifo et al., 2022). Also, the insidious effect on the domain of domestic consumption is when—pouring toxic waste into shallow wells and boreholes, which are an indispensable part of the perspectives of many peri-urban communities—the ascent of polluting water into drinking sources may represent a hidden danger to human health (Weli and Arokoyu, 2020; Isangadighi & Udeh, 2023 and Essien et al., 2025a). This cumulative stress indicates a systemic issue in environmental governance and a complex nexus between waste mismanagement and toxicological burden. However, with ever-growing scientific evidence, institutional and regulatory frameworks in Rivers State are primarily reactive. Incomplete environmental directives, a shortage of ecotoxicology information, and insufficient implementation of the Nigerian National Environmental Regulations have had a limiting effect on proactive interventions (Eighemhenario & Iboaya, 2025). Thus, the real value of ecological and human health hazards is still under-characterized. The solution to this knowledge gap lies in synthesizing available empirical and theoretical knowledge holistically. This is thus a review article that summarizes multidisciplinary evidence to assess the ecotoxicological risks associated with improper waste management in Rivers State. It questions the toxicity mechanisms, risks to the ecosystem, and human exposure route, and establishes gaps in policy that render the environment vulnerable. The paper ultimately proposes a paradigm shift towards a more ecotoxicologically aware approach to waste management in the Niger Delta region, one that balances economic development with environmental sustainability. www.ejISS.com European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability (ISSN 3083-6395) 2025 | Volume 1 | Number 5 113 Methodology A systematic narrative review research design in this study was in line with the Preferred Reporting Items of a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) template because it used an approach to critically analyze and synthesise qualitative findings on the ecotoxicological risks associated with inappropriate waste disposal in Rivers State, Nigeria (Moher et al., 2020). The review was conducted in the spirit of both systematic reviews and their interpretation, utilising a narrative synthesis to ensure methodological accuracy and provide comprehensive coverage of both empirical and theoretical results. Literature searches were conducted using Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar, among the leading scientific databases, to obtain relevant literature, as well as information from governmental agencies, conference papers, and international bodies such as the UNEP, WHO, and FAO. The identified sources were published between 2010 and 2024, which implies a rapid rate of industrialisation and, consequently, the growth of the petrochemical industry and population in Rivers State (Odu et al., 2021). Properly designed search queries based on Boolean operators and controlled keywords like “Ecotoxicology, Waste management, Rivers State, Nigeria, Heavy metals, PAHs, Soil contamination, Aquatic toxicity, and Environmental risk assessment were used to make sure every type of study containing the desired information would be retrieved. This search yielded 428 original documents, which underwent a stringent screening process involving both abstract and full-text assessments based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. The studies had to be qualified if they reported empirical data or conceptual analysis that directly explained improper waste management and ecotoxicological effects, specifically, in soil, sediment, water, or biota. Articles without environmental data, articles that only deal with socioeconomic aspects, and articles published before 2010, except those fundamental to toxicological theory, were excluded. After quality screening and the elimination of duplication, 94 methodologically sound articles remained for detailed synthesis and elucidation. Information extraction was a systematic tabular method, where vital information obtained during the study was organized in terms of the research design, including the location, type of pollution, mode of analysis, ecotoxicological parameters, and main results. The particular attention was drawn to the studies where intensive analytical methods such as atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (ICPMS) are used because these approaches are discussed as being precise when it comes to quantification of the main agents of pollution, namely, heavy metals and organic toxins (Nkwocha et al., 2020). The extracted data were categorized into four broad dimensions, which were labelled as soil contamination, aquatic toxicity, bioindicator response, and pathways of public health exposures. Analytical interpretation was based on an ecotoxicological evaluation model, which incorporated such indices as Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) Hakanson (1980), Pollution Load Index (PLI), Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) and Enrichment Factor (EF) of heavy metals, and the Risk Quotient (RQ) and Hazard Index (HI) models of organic contaminants (Li et al., 2021; National Research Council, Global Affairs, Technology for Sustainability Program, and Committee on Incor Synthesis was considered to intersect thoroughly as independent studies; consistency and reduced bias was achieved through the validation of conversing findings. The quality of methods and analytical reliability were evaluated based on the adequacy of the sample size, precision of the tool used, and statistical transparency (Adeniran et al., 2022; Essien et al., 2025b). Drawing on a synthesis between empirical measurements and theoretical constructs, this review presents a unified understanding of how inadequate waste management exacerbates ecotoxicological threats in the land and water ecology of Rivers State, while ensuring epistemic soundness and methodological quality assurance. www.ejISS.com European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability (ISSN 3083-6395) 2025 | Volume 1 | Number 5 114 Results Table 1. Major Sources and Types of Pollutants Identified in Rivers State Source of Waste Dominant Pollutants Analytical Techniques Used Environmental Medium Ecotoxicological Concern References Municipal solid waste (Port Harcourt, Ahoada) Pb, Cd, Cr, Zn AAS, ICP–MS Soil, groundwater Soil fertility decline, microbial inhibition Nkwocha et al. (2020) Petrochemical effluents (Eleme Industrial Area) PAHs, PCBs, Fe, Ni GC–MS, AAS Sediment, water Aquatic toxicity, oxidative stress in fish Odu et al. (2021) Artisanal crude refining (Bonny, Bodo) Crude oil hydrocarbons, Pb, V, As GC–FID, AAS Soil, mangrove sediments Genotoxicity, bioaccumulation Eze et al. (2021) Abattoir waste and leachates N, P, Pb, microbial load Spectrophotometry, culture assays Surface water Eutrophication, pathogen exposure Industrial wastewater (Onne, TransAmadi) Cr, Cu, Ni, cyanides AAS Groundwater, topsoil Metal toxicity, enzyme inhibition Adeniran et al. (2022) Medical and domestic waste Hg, Pb, dioxins, pathogens ICP–OES, microbiology Dumpsite soils, runoff Endocrine disruption, infection risk Nwosu et al. (2024) Table 2. Summary of Ecotoxicological Indicators and Risk Characterization Pollutant Mean Concentration Range Igeo Classification PERI Score Ecological Risk Level Ecological Effect Observed References Lead (Pb) 45.2–178.5 mg/kg Strong to extreme 320– 450 High Enzyme inhibition, neurotoxicity Nkwocha et al. (2020) Cadmium (Cd) 2.1–8.4 mg/kg Moderate to strong 190– 260 High Bioaccumulation, DNA damage Li et al. (2021) Chromium (Cr) 50.6–132.2 mg/kg Strong 210– 280 High Carcinogenic potential, oxidative stress Adeniran et al. (2022) Nickel (Ni) 18.3–72.4 mg/kg Moderate 140– 210 Moderate Reduced fertility in soil fauna Odu et al. (2021) PAHs (Σ16) 5.6–48.9 μg/L Severe — High Mutagenicity, aquatic mortality Adeniran et al. (2022) PCBs 0.8–3.5 μg/L Moderate — Moderate Endocrine disruption, fish liver damage Nwosu et al. (2024) Table 3. Summary of Major Pollutants Identified from Improper Waste Management in Rivers State Pollutant Type Common Sources Average Reported Concentration Range Affected Ecosystem Ecotoxicological Effects Reference Heavy Metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Hg) E-waste, Industrial sludge, Leachate 0.02–3.8 mg/L Soil and Surface Water Bioaccumulation in benthic fauna; inhibition of photosynthesis (Okoro et al., 2021) www.ejISS.com European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability (ISSN 3083-6395) 2025 | Volume 1 | Number 5 115 PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) Open burning, Oil residues 0.1–6.3 mg/kg Sediment and Biota Genotoxicity; endocrine disruption in fish Owoh-Etete, et al. (2023) Microplastics Urban runoffs, Plastic dumps 120–540 particles/m³/m³ Rivers and Estuaries Physical ingestion: a vector for toxins Attah et al. (2023) Pathogenic Microbes Municipal solid waste Variable Soil, Water Disease transmission, eutrophication Abraham (2011) Table 4. Bioindicator Response and Toxicity Pathways Indicator Organism Biomarker Measured Observed Effect Toxicological Mechanism Reference Tilapia guineensis Catalase (CAT), SOD Elevated oxidative stress ROS overproduction (Akani et al., 2020) Penaeus monodon DNA strand breaks Genetic mutation PAH-DNA adduct formation Chima et al., 2022 Anadara senilis Heavy metal load Reduced growth Bioaccumulation, metabolic inhibition Wokocha et al., 2019 Periophthalmus barbarus Liver histopathology Necrosis, lipid degeneration Chronic exposure to metals and PAHs Kawano & Blob, 2022 Table 5. Comparative Ecological Risk Indices from Literature Location in Rivers State Contamination Factor (Cf) Pollution Load Index (PLI) Ecological Risk Index (RI) Risk Level Classification Reference Eleme 4.8 2.6 152 High Risk Okoro et al., 2021 Okrika 3.5 1.9 110 Considerable Risk Edeh et al., 2022 Port Harcourt Metropolis 2.4 1.3 68 Moderate Risk Wokocha et al., 2019 Trans-Amadi Industrial Axis 6.2 3.4 210 Very High Risk Table 6. Summary of Ecotoxicological Knowledge Gaps Identified Thematic Area Observed Gap Research Need Policy Relevance Bioaccumulation Dynamics Limited temporal monitoring Longitudinal biomonitoring Early warning system Soil-Water Interface Lack of coupled assessment Geo-spatial hydrochemistry Site prioritization Risk Communication Weak community involvement Risk literacy programs Public health planning Waste Governance Poor integration of eco-risk data Science–policy translation Environmental decisionmaking Discussion The analysis of overlaying study material reveals an overlay history of environmental ecotoxicology destabilization resulting from improper waste handling in Rivers State. Throughout the discussed literature, a tendency towards simultaneous contamination with heavy metals and hydrocarbons emerges, inviting a more complex examination of the interface between toxicological interactions and the impact of industrialization, urban waste, and ecosystem disruption. The fact that the measured concentrations of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni) (Table 2) are significantly higher than the threshold concentrations in the international system (WHO, 2020) indicates an increase in anthropogenic stress factors. Such metals remain as redox-sensitive contaminants and must undergo processes of www.ejISS.com European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability (ISSN 3083-6395) 2025 | Volume 1 | Number 5 116 speciation, ion exchange, and complexation to regulate their solubility and bioavailability as pH and Eh conditions change, as is common in the Niger Delta floodplains (Adeniran et al., 2022; Essien et al., 2025c). Their presence in the soils of dumpsites and in downstream sediments supports toxic soil-water feedback mechanisms, results in decreased microbial richness and reduced nutrient cycling, and leads to secondary groundwater aquifer contamination. This is consistent with the ecological stress-response theory, which hypothesizes that continued exposure to xenobiotics triggers a series of consequences resulting from enzymatic blockage and metabolic restraint in biotic communities (Newman and Clements, 2022). Pathways of chronic exposure are supported by the high values of Geo-accumulation (Igeo) and Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI), which indicate that Pb and Cd are the primary ecological risk producers, accounting for more than 60% of toxicity synergism (Li et al., 2021). When biological endpoints are triangulated with these results, there is some obvious biochemical translation of chemical stress. Phenomena such as the increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in Tilapia guineensis (Akani et al., 2020) are also features of reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction, which is one of the adaptations to oxidative stress. This biochemical finding supports the concentration levels of PAH contamination in the sediment (Table 3), as well as benzo[a]pyrene and anthracene hydrocarbons, which produce PAH DNA adducts that cause genotoxic and carcinogenic effects in aquatic life (Okoye & Nduka, 2021; Isangadighi & Ukudo, 2025). In the same way, bioaccumulation of Cr and Ni in Anadara senilis and hepatic necrosis in Periophthalmus barbarus (Table 4) demonstrate cross-toxic action in conformity with the theory of trophic transfer, which is a mechanism of magnifying contaminants along food chains. These organism interactions confirm the (quantitative) risk estimates using PERI (Table 5) and, more importantly, show crossvalidation between biochemical biomarkers and ecological indicators, one of the crucial requirements of multi-source evidence triangulation. The incorporation of microplastic classes as vectors of pollutants (Table 3) introduces a new facet: the adsorption of metals and organic toxins onto their hydrophobic surfaces, which react and establish multi-pollutant co-delivery and secondary consumption via planktons and benthic feeders. The combination of heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and microplastics forms bioaccumulative and toxic mixed pollutants, with greater persistence and bioavailability—an effect that is being observed on a global scale in industrial deltas, such as the Mekong and Ganges (OECD, 2021). Triangulated interpretation of the soil, water, and biota at the ecosystem level reveals that the functional ecological services are facing a systemic threat. The diminution of the physicochemically indicative nitrifying and phosphate-solubilizing bacterial communities, occurring in regions of waste hotspots, supports the disruption of biogeochemical biases by waste-generated toxicity, and supports the legitimacy of biogeochemical disruption, as reported in physicochemical studies of enzyme inhibition and ratios of nutrients, catalyzed by waste (Nwankwoala & Amadi, 2021; Acha et al., 2025). In the same measure, the eutrophication as evidenced by the abattoir leachate areas (Table 1) coincides with high nitrogen and phosphorus loads, manifesting an ecological-biochemical nexus that causes oxygen removal and impoverished biodiversity. The joint progressive indices of risk (Table 5) reflect the spatial distributions of contamination, with the highest scores of PERI being Eleme and Trans-Amadi (>200 on the score), which is in line with their high petrochemical and industrial density. This spatial pattern contrasts with the hydrological links model of contaminant migration, which involves plumes emanating from high-risk industrial cores to peri-urban and estuarine areas. These routes of contamination reflect the research worldwide in the coastal industrialized zones, indicating that the geomorphological structure significantly influences the distribution of contaminants. Governance Triangulates. The evidence triangulates a systemic disjunction between science and policy. Although there is considerable empirical evidence of toxicity, the frameworks governing waste control in Rivers State are mostly input-regulating rather than output-regulating. There is poor incorporation of ecotoxicological indices in the Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), which constrains the ability to conduct a diagnostic early warning. Table 6 reveals a severe knowledge gap: the lack of longitudinal biomonitoring means a lack of time for risk trend analysis; there is also a lack of policy debate due to the www.ejISS.com European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability (ISSN 3083-6395) 2025 | Volume 1 | Number 5 117 inability to communicate the risk of affecting any group. This applies to the larger issue of democratizing environmental data, as scientific conclusions do not ultimately find their way to affecting community adaptations. Empirical evidence, toxicological pathways, and analysis of the policy triangulate to suggest that Rivers State may be placed in a multi-stressor regime, where layers of uncontrolled waste, hydrocarbon leakages, and bacterial influx all intersect to degrade ecological stability and human health security within the State. Cross-sectoral integration between geo-spatial hydrochemistry, biomarker surveillance, and risk literacy programs among the population would then be a key component of a comprehensive mitigation paradigm, in accordance with international laws such as the Basel Convention and SDGs 3, 6, 12, and 15. Finally, this triangulated synthesis paints a picture that poor waste management in Rivers State should not be viewed as a solitary ecological issue, but rather as an ecotoxicological syndrome, cumulative in its effects, both chemically, biologically, and institutionally facilitated. It is argued that sustainable remediation needs to be transformed into an ecological risk management approach, grounded in biomonitoring expertise, community involvement, and science-policy integration as pillars of resilience. Conclusion This review confirms that multiple ecotoxicological crises caused by inadequate waste management in Rivers State entail the everyday interaction of contamination with heavy metals, persistent organic compounds, as well as emerging contaminants such as microplastics in the soil, water, and biotic structures. The total sum of the toxic load from cities, industry, petrochemical, and artisanal refining processes has disrupted ecological homeostasis, altered the functions of microbes, and caused genotoxic, oxidative, and bioaccumulative impacts at the trophic levels. The empirical data from the examined literature indicate that pollutant concentrations remain significantly above international standards, resulting in the majority of the considered areas being classified as high to very high ecological risk. The use of bioindicators to generate mechanistic cues reveals biochemical stress pathways characterized by a high degree of antioxidant enzyme activity, DNA fragmentation, and histopathological changes, confirming sub-lethal toxicity and ecological stress. The resistance of these pollutants in the abiotic stores and their subsequent transfer between trophic tiers underscores the need for integrated ecotoxicology monitoring and adaptive waste management models. On the whole, it is possible to state that the existing reactive and incomplete manner of governance is no longer adequate to halt the situation of increasing ecological degradation, thus giving rise to the necessity of a paradigm shift towards prevention-based, risk-focused, and scienceand evidence-driven interventions that can secure environmental sustainability and save human lives. Recommendations Based on the evidence synthesized, environmental governance in Rivers State must be redesigned to prioritize integrative ecotoxicity evaluation as the core of waste management policy and practice. Regulators are required to establish longitudinal biomonitoring systems to measure the trend of contaminants, form ecological early warnings, and incorporate bioindicator-based diagnostics into environmental assessment protocols. To facilitate evidence-based decision-making, the use of indices such as PERI, PLI, and Igeo should be required in Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). In addition, waste management systems should move past compliance-based models to ecologically outcome-based regulations that would bring local standards into the international arena. Recent recommendations include those from the USEPA, WHO, and OECD for ecotoxicological guidelines. Science-policy translation, on the one hand, requires an academic policy partnership to support policy collaboration; on the other hand, the community will become involved in waste management through the provision of risk communication and eco-literacy programs. Ultimately, both regulatory reform and www.ejISS.com European Journal of Innovative Studies and Sustainability (ISSN 3083-6395) 2025 | Volume 1 | Number 5 118 technological investment in waste treatment and ecosystem restoration programs are essential to mitigate the cumulative ecological and toxicological risks identified, enhance resilience in the Brazilian ecosystem, and achieve the objectives of sustainable environmental stewardship under SDGs 3, 6, 12, and 15. References Abraham, W. R. (2011). Megacities as sources for pathogenic bacteria in rivers and their fate downstream. International Journal of Microbiology, 2011, Article ID 798292. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/798292 Acha, S., Dave, U. J., John, A., Isangadighi, G. 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