Soil alterations due to flooding: An examination of morphological and physical properties of soils in imo and Anambra states, Nigeria

 Corresponding author: Sydney C. Uzoma Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Soil alterations due to flooding: An examination of morphological and physical properties of soils in imo and Anambra states, Nigeria Sydney C. Uzoma 1, *, Linus A. Nwaogu 1, Cosmas O. Ujowundu 1, Emmanuel U. Onweremadu 2, Chimdi E. Esonu 1, Okereafor D. Ohaerilam 3 and Blessing A. Mba 1 1 Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology, Owerri Imo State, Nigeria. 2 Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Technology, Owerri Imo State, Nigeria. 3 Department of Soil Science, University of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Umuagwo. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 Publication history: Received on 12 September 2025; revised on 19 October 2025; accepted on 22 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.24.1.0916 Abstract The morphological and physical properties of soils largely determine their behaviour, productivity and resilience to flooding in low-lying ecosystems. Soil samples were collected from six high-risk flood locations in Imo and Anambra States at 0–15 cm, 15–30 cm and 30–45 cm depths, with two control samples from elevated non-flooded towns. Results showed significant differences in colour, structure, drainage and texture reflecting local hydrological regimes. Floodplain sites such as Akili-Ozizor, Atani and Odekpe exhibited olive to grey gleyic hues, poor drainage and medium subangular blocky structures, features typical of prolonged saturation and iron reduction. In contrast, the upland control at Ihiala displayed reddish, well-drained profiles with friable consistencies. Hydromorphic patterns were also observed at Abacheke, Ekeugba and Mmahu, where dark greyish colours and fine roots indicated fluctuating water tables and limited pedogenic development. Particle-size analysis revealed predominantly sandy clay to clay loam textures, with clay enrichment up to 410 g kg⁻¹ at Abacheke and Amafor linked to sedimentation during floods. Sandto-clay ratios, bulk density (1.27–1.44 Mg m⁻³), total porosity (45–52%) and gravimetric moisture (10–25%) varied widely, reflecting microtopographic influences on drainage, aeration and compaction. High porosity and moisture in Amafor and Ihiala favoured water retention, whereas higher bulk density and lower porosity in Akili-Ozizor suggested greater susceptibility to waterlogging and restricted root growth. These findings underscore the strong influence of flooding, sediment dynamics and soil physical properties on land use and floodplain agriculture, where texture, bulk density and porosity shape crop suitability, nutrient cycling and microbial activity under recurrent inundation. Keywords: Flooding; Morphology; Physical Properties; Hydromorphism 1. Introduction Flooding is defined as the temporary overflow or accumulation of water onto land that is normally dry. [1]. Over the years, South-east Nigeria has experienced a series of recurring and increasingly severe flood events due to both climatic and anthropogenic factors [2]. Climate variability and change, characterized by more intense short-duration rainfall events and alterations in seasonal patterns, have been widely recognized as contributing to the heightened flood risk across Nigeria [2]. When soils are inundated, oxygen is displaced from pore spaces, pushing conditions from aerobic toward anaerobic. This shift reduces the effectiveness of soil microorganisms that depend on oxygen, thereby favoring anaerobic microbes that thrive without oxygen, Nutrient cycles, particularly for nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and iron, are disrupted: for instance, denitrification may increase, making nitrogen gases escape into the atmosphere. Iron and manganese oxides can dissolve under reduced conditions, altering soil fertility [3]. Flooding alters soils biochemistry through multiple, interacting mechanisms: Flooded soils become oxygen deprived, quickly shifting soil redox potential World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 300 [3]. Floodwaters promote soluble nutrient transport (particularly nitrate and dissolved organic carbon) and, under anaerobic conditions, increase gaseous N losses (denitrification) together worsening soil fertility and altering plant nutrient availability [4]. Aerobic microbes are suppressed while anaerobic taxa proliferate; processes like denitrification, sulfate reduction and methanogenesis accelerate under low oxygen (O₂). These changes alter nutrient availability and greenhouse-gas fluxes [4][5]. Flooding commonly reduces activities of some extracellular enzymes and shifts microbial community composition: obligate aerobes decline and anaerobic or facultative organisms increase, with consequences for decomposition rates and nutrient cycling [5]. Rapid infiltration and saturated conditions can lead to compaction when machinery or trampling occurs after flooding; alternation between flooding and drying also affects aggregate stability and porosity [6] [7]. Floodwaters mobilise sediments and contaminants (heavy metals, hydrocarbons, pathogens) from upstream or contaminated urban/industrial areas, depositing them on floodplains and farmland. This can produce shortand long-term contamination risks for agriculture and human health. [7] [8]. Therefore, the aim of this research is to examine the morphological and physical properties of soils in Imo and Anambra states, Nigeria. 2. Materials and Method 2.1. Study Area The study areas, Ohajiegbema, Ihiala and Ogbaru in (Southeastern) Nigeria, is made up of five Igbo speaking States which includes; Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. These States constitute one of the six geo-political zones in Nigeria. It is located between latitudes 4◦ 20′ to 7◦ 10′ north of the equator and longitudes 6◦ 35′ to 8◦ 25′ east of the Greenwich Meridian with a land size of about 28,983km2. The region is bounded to the north by Benue and Kogi States, to the south by Rivers State, to the east by Cross River State and to the west by Delta State. Source: Garwin Ltd USA (2024) Figure 1 Maps of Nigeria showing the Geographical and Sampling Points in Ohaji-Egbema L.G.A. of Imo State and Ihiala and Ogbaru L.G.A. of Anambra State World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 301 2.1.1. Field Study Soil samples were collected from six distinct high risk flood locations in southeast, Nigeria, using soil auger. At each location, soil samples were gridded and collected with depths; 0–15cm, 15– 30cm and 30– 45cm, representing top soil, sub soil and bottom soils respectively. One control sample was also collected from high elevation town within the region, not affected by flood. The sampling site/points were geo-referenced via GPS coordinates for accurate map generation. A total of eight (8) soil samples were collected in the month of October, 2024, a transition period from rainy session to dry session, the reason for the period is simply to regulate leachate migration in the soil. The soil samples were air-dried in a clean well – ventilated laboratory [9] homogenized by grinding, passed through a 2mm (10mesh) stainless sieve and stored in labeled plastic cans ready for analysis. However, the use of soil auger for sampling and subsequent airdrying and sieving were adopted in other to preserve the quality of the sample. The soil auger allowed for the collection of consistent soil cores, promoting uniform sample depth and minimizing contamination from other layers. In other to reduce moisture content and as well preserve the chemical composition of soil, air drying method were used while 2mm sieve mesh helps to remove debris and larger stones thereby promoting homogeneity of samples, 2.1.2. Location The study area, Ohaji-Egbema in Imo state (Southeastern) Nigeria, is made up of five Igbo speaking States which includes; Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. These States constitute one of the six geo-political zones in Nigeria. It is located between latitudes 4◦ 20′ to 7◦ 10′ north of the equator and longitudes 6◦ 35′ to 8◦ 25′ east of the Greenwich Meridian with a land size of about 28,983km2. The region is bounded to the north by Benue and Kogi States, to the south by Rivers State, to the east by Cross River State and to the west by Delta State. Ohaji-Egbema in Imo States was selected for this study since it is among the Local Government Areas severely affected in Imo States since 2012 flood event. Imo State lies between latitude 5◦10′N to 5◦25′N and longitude 6◦35′E to 7◦23′E of the Greenwich meridian with a total land area of about 5,183sqkm. 2.1.3. Climate Southeastern Nigeria lies within tropical wet-and-dry climate or Aw climate based on Koppen’s climate classification. It usually experiences an average of eight months of rainfall and four months of dry season. The two major seasons experienced in this region are; the rainy season (March to October) and the dry season (November to February). Heaviest rainfall usually occurs in July and September while December records the driest month while the month of March records the hottest weather. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 1800mm to 2000mm. It experiences high temperatures all year round with an average value of 27°C while the average relative humidity ranges between 60-70% and 80-90% in January and July respectively. Floods in south eastern Nigeria, are greatly influence by the rainfall pattern, and are usually experienced between July and October which is also the harvest season for most crops. 2.2. Methods Soil profile morphological characteristics studied included soil color, texture, consistence, structure. Soil color was determined by Munsell soil color charts [10]. Texture was determined by Bouyoucos hydrometer method [11]. Bulk density was determined by the core method of Grossman and Reinsch [12]. Total porosity was calculated from particle and bulk densities using the relationship by Brady and Weil [13]; TP = (1 = 𝐵𝑑 𝑃𝑑) × 100 Where:TP = Total porosity (%), Bd = Bulk density (Mg/m3), Pd = Particle density (Mg/m3). Moisture content was determined as outlined by Obi [14]. 2.3. Statistical Analysis Data generated were analyzed using SPSS statistical software package (Version 23.0). All data were presented as the mean and standard deviation values of three replicate, where multiple comparison were done using post hoc to determine which pair of means was significantly different from each other. 3. Results Table 1 outlines the morphological properties of soil samples collected in Akili-Ozizor, Atani, Odekpe, Ihiala in Anambra and Abacheke, Mmahu, Ekeugba, Amafor in Imo States. Soil samples from flooded regions in Akili-ozizor, Atani and Odekpe (Anambra State) and Abacheke, Ekeugba (Imo State) exhibited grey colours such as olive (e.g. 5Y5/3), dark grayish brown (2.5Y4/2) and blue-gray hues (5Y3/2) particularly at deeper horizons while the control regions had dark red (10R3/6) and (2.5YR3/6) at deeper horizons. Roots are consistently classified as fine root while Ekeugba were very fill. The soil structures includes: massive subangular blocky (MSBK) and fine crumb (FCR), with more aggregate structures at depth. Poorly drainage (PD) dominated in floodplains World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 302 of Atani, Akili-Ozizor, Odekpe and Abacheke. Both control regions exhibited well drainage.Top (shallow) soil layers are usually friable while bottom (deep) layers are firm indicating compaction. Table 2 presents the physical properties of soil samples in Akili-Ozizor, Atani, Odekpe, Ihiala in Anambra State and Abacheke, Mmahu, Ekeugba, Amafor in Imo state Across locations, there is no statistically significant difference (p<0.05) in sand, silt, clay and SCR. Abacheke and Amafor exhibited highest values for clay; 410.000g/kg. Both control locations exhibited lower bulk density thus significant at (p< 0.05) compared with the floodaffected locations. Total porosity and Gravimetric moisture showed a significant increase (p<0.05) when compared with other flood -affected locations. Table 1 Result of Soil Morphological Properties in Akili-Ozizor, Atani, Odekpe, Ihiala in Anambra State Locations Depth (cm) Colour Roots Structure Drainage Consistency Akili-Ozizor 0-15 O(5Y5/3) Fine root 1FCR PD Friable Akili-Ozizor 15-30 PO(5Y6/4) Fine root 2MSBK PD Friable Akili-Ozizor 30-45 OY(5Y6/8) Fine root 2MSBK PD Firm Atani 0-15 OG(5Y4/2) Fine root 2FRGR PD Friable Atani 15-30 O(5Y4/3) Fine root 2MSBK PD Firm Atani 30-45 O(5Y5/6) Fine root 3MSBK PD Firm Odekpe 0-15 LYB (2.5Y4/2) Fine root 1FCR PD Friable Odekpe 15-30 DGB (2.5Y4/2) Fine root 2MSBK PD Firm Odekpe 30-45 GB (2.5Y5/2) Fine root 2MSBK PD Firm Ihiala (control) 0-15 DRB(2.5YR3/3) Fine root 1FGR WD Friable Ihiala (control) 15-30 R(2.5YR5/6) Fine root 2MGR WD Friable Ihiala (control) 30-45 DR (10R3/6) Fine root 3MSBK WD Firm PD: poor drainage, WD: well drainage Table 2 Result of Soil Morphological Properties in Abacheke, Mmahu, Ekeugba, Amafor in Imo State Locations Depth (cm) Colour Roots Structure Drainage Consistency Abacheke 0-15 G(2.5Y6|2) Fine root IFGR ID Firm Abacheke 15-30 DGB (2.5Y4/2) Fine root 2MSBK ID Firm Abacheke 30-45 GB(2.5Y3|2) Fine root 3MSBK ID Firm Mmahu 0-15 DOG(5Y3/2) Very fill 2FBK WD Friable Mmahu 15-30 VDG(5Y3/1) Fine root 1FGR WD Friable Mmahu 30-45 B (5Y2.5/2) Fine root 2MFSK WD Firm Ekeugba 0-15 B (2.5Y2.5/1) Very fill 1FCR ID Friable Ekeugba 15-30 DGB (2.5Y4/2) Very fill 2MSBK ID Friable Ekeugba 30-45 LOB (2.5Y5/4) Very fill 3MSBK ID Firm Amafor(control) 0-15 RB(5YR4/3) Fine root IFGR WD Friable Amafor (control) 15-30 YR(5YR4/6) Fine root 2MSBK WD Friable Amafor (control) 30-45 DR(2.5YR3/6) Fine root 2MSBK WD Friable PD: poor drainage, WD: well drainage World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 303 Table 3 Result of Soil Physical Properties in Anambra and in Imo States Locations Sand (g/kg) Silt(g/kg) Clay (g/kg) SCR BD (mg/m3) TP GM Anambra State Akili-Ozizor 433.33±90.73a 256.67±20.82c 336.6667±110.51a 0.8033±0.22b 1.4433±0.07b 45.5300±2.51a 11.3333±0.64a Atani 433.33±75.06a 223.33±32.15b 343.3333±55.08a 0.6567±0.11b 1.4067±0.08ab 46.9133±2.89ab 10.5667±0.31a Odekpe 436.67±76.38a 206.67±15.28b 356.6667±65.06a 0.5867±0.78b 1.4200±0.09b 46.4100±3.40a 10.5333±0.42a Ihiala 423.33±130.51a 216.67±23.09b 360.0000±52.92a Imo State 0.6000±0.66b 1.2733±0.08a 51.9433±2.83b 24.6667±9.55b Abacheke 493.33±105.36a 96.67±15.28a 410.0000±145.26a 0.2633±0.14a 1.4267±0.07b 46.1600±2.57a 17.6667±6.81ab Mmahu 500.00±105.36a 126.67±11.55a 373.3333±96.09a 0.3467±0.08a 1.3900±0.07ab 47.5433±2.72ab 15.4333±4.46ab Ekeugba 486.67±105.99a 130.00±5.00a 383.3333±101.04a 0.3500±0.89a 1.4233±0.07b 46.2833±2.45a 15.7333±5.06ab Amafor 460.00±111.36a 130.00±10.00a 410.0000±121.24a 0.3433±0.14a 1.2700±0.09a 52.0700±3.22b 24.3333±8.75b Values represent mean±SD of triplicate values while columns with different superscript alphabets are statistically significant (p<0.05). World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 304 4. Discussion The morphological properties of soils are crucial parameters for understanding the behavior, functionality and potential uses of soils. Results across Akili-Ozizor, Atani, Odekpe, Ihiala (Anambra State) and Abacheke, Mmahu, Ekeugba, Amafor (Imo State) revealed significant differences in colour, structure, drainage, and consistency with depth. Soils at AkiliOzizor and Atani exhibit olive and yellow hues (5Y), fine roots, and predominantly medium subangular blocky structures with poor drainage (PD) and friable to firm consistencies. This reflects a floodplain environment where prolonged water saturation promotes reducing conditions that impart greyish or olive gleyed colours due to iron reduction and mobilization [15]. Soils in Odekpe also display gleyed colours (2.5Y) with poor drainage and medium subangular blocky structures, indicating alluvial deposition and seasonal flooding. By contrast, the control site at Ihiala shows reddish hues (2.5YR), well-drained (WD) profiles, and friable consistencies typical of upland, better-aerated soils. The differences suggest that flooding and drainage status exert strong control on morphological properties. Profiles from Ohaji-egbema show similar trends: Abacheke and Ekeugba have greyish or dark greyish colours (2.5Y), indicative of hydromorphic conditions and impeded drainage (ID), while Mmahu shows dark olive to black colours at depth with well-drained conditions, suggesting mixed fluvial and upland influences. This agrees with earlier findings that floodplain soils in southeastern Nigeria tend to be gleyic, poorly drained, and with weak to moderate subangular blocky structures due to seasonal inundation [16] [17]. The presence of fine roots throughout the horizons, despite poor drainage, indicates vegetation adapted to fluctuating water tables. Structural variations from fine crumb (FCR) at the surface to medium or coarse subangular blocky (MSBK) at depth are typical of hydromorphic soils where periodic saturation limits pedogenic development. ). Similar hydromorphic colour patterns have been reported in southeastern Nigeria’s floodplains [18] [19]. The particle size distribution results reveal that the soils across the studied floodplains are predominantly sandy clay to clay loam in texture, with sand fractions ranging from 423.33 to 500 g/kg, silt fractions from 96.67 to 256.67 g/kg, and clay fractions from 336.67 to 410 g/kg. The relatively high clay content, particularly in Abacheke (410 g/kg) and Amafor (410 g/kg), reflects the depositional nature of floodplains, where fine particles tend to accumulate due to sedimentation processes during inundation. Such clay-rich soils often have higher water and nutrient retention capacities, but when combined with frequent flooding, they may develop poor aeration and slow drainage, predisposing them to anaerobic conditions [20]. The sand-to-clay ratio (SCR) ranged from 0.2633 in Abacheke to 0.8033 in Akili-Ozizor. Lower SCR values, as observed in Abacheke, Amafor, and Ekeugba, suggest dominance of fine-textured soils that are structurally compact and less permeable [21]. Conversely, relatively higher SCR values in Akili-Ozizor and Atani indicate a more balanced textural composition, which may enhance drainage and aeration. These differences are consistent with microtopographic variations within floodplains, which influence sediment sorting and deposition [22]. Bulk density (BD) values ranged from 1.27 mg/m³ in Ihiala and Amafor to 1.44 mg/m³ in Akili-Ozizor. The comparatively lower BD in Ihiala and Amafor suggests higher organic matter incorporation, better aggregation, and lower compaction, characteristics often linked with higher biological activity and organic inputs in low-lying floodplains [23]. By contrast, higher BD values in Akili-Ozizor may indicate soil compaction due to repeated flooding and sediment deposition. Flooding can increase bulk density through sediment layering and loss of soil organic matter [24]. The observed BD values are within the moderate range for agricultural soils, but values above 1.4 mg/m³ (as in Akili-Ozizor and Abacheke) could begin to restrict root penetration and water movement [25]. Total porosity (TP) varied significantly among sites, with Amafor and Ihiala recording the highest values (52.07% and 51.94%, respectively), while Akili-Ozizor had the lowest (45.53%). High porosity in Amafor and Ihiala supports better aeration and moisture infiltration, favoring root growth and microbial activity [26]. Conversely, lower porosity in AkiliOzizor aligns with its higher BD, implying reduced pore space and increased susceptibility to waterlogging during floods. Gravimetric moisture (GM) values showed distinct variability, ranging from 10.53% in Odekpe to 24.67% in Ihiala. The higher GM observed in Ihiala and Amafor corresponds with their elevated porosity and finer texture, which enhances water retention [27] In contrast, the relatively lower GM in Atani and Odekpe may reflect coarser fractions and better drainage. Floodplain soils often show strong spatial variation in water retention, influenced by textural heterogeneity and hydrological gradients [28]. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 305 5. Conclusion Morphological analyses showed clear indications of hydromorphism in flooded soils, including low chroma values, hard consistencies in subsurface strata that confirmed prolonged saturation, and grey mottling. The physical properties indicated that the floodplain soils of Anambra and Imo States are characterized by heterogeneity in texture and structural properties. Fine-textured sites such as Abacheke and Amafor are predisposed to higher moisture retention and reduced aeration, while coarser or balanced sites like Atani and Akili-Ozizor may have better drainage but are prone to compaction. Compliance with ethical standards Soil sampling was conducted in accordance with ASTM D1452-09. Samples were collected with minimal disturbance to the environment, and proper handling and storage procedures were followed to prevent contamination. Informed consent was obtained from communities/participants, and their confidentiality maintained throughout the study Disclosure of conflict of interest There are no conflicts of interest. References [1] Doocy S, Daniels A, Murray S, Kirsch T.D. The human impact of floods: a historical review of events, causes, and consequences. PLoS Currents Disasters. 2013; [2] Okon E.M, Falana B.M, Solaja S.O, Yakubu S.O, Alabi O.O, Okikiola B.T, Awe T.E. Systematic review of climate change impact research in Nigeria: implication for sustainable development. Heliyon. 2021;7(9):e07941. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07941. [3] Francioli D, Cid G, Kanukollu S, Ulrich A, Hajirezaei M.R, Kolb S. Flooding causes dramatic compositional shifts and depletion of putative beneficial bacteria on the spring wheat microbiota. Front Microbiol. 2021;[PubMed]. [4] Kögel-Knabner, I., Amelung, W. Dynamics of redox processes in wetland soils. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 2021: 2, 400–415. [5] Das A.K. The impact of flooding on soil microbial communities and their functions: a review. Soil Systems. 2025. [6] Grossman R.B, Reinsch T.G. Bulk density and linear extensibility. In: Dane J.H, Topp G.C, editors. Methods of soil analysis. Part 4 – Physical methods. Madison (WI): Soil Science Society of America; 2002. p. 201–28. [7] Duan X, Xu W, Ren Y, Zhang N, Zhou X, Ye X. Effects of extreme flooding on soil characteristics, soil enzyme activity, and microbial structure in Shengjin Lake. Water. 2025;17(12):1789. doi:10.3390/w17121789 [8] Kaur G, et al. Impacts and management strategies for crop production in waterlogged soils: a review. Agronomy Journal. 2020. [9] Boulding JR. Description and sampling of contaminated soils: a field guide. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers; 2017 [10] Munsell Color Company, Munsell Soil Color Charts. Munsell Color Co. Inc. Baltimore; 1992. [11] Day PR. Particle fractionation and particle size analysis. In: Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1, (eds. Black CA, Evans DD, White JL, Ensminger LE, Clark FE),. ASA Madison, Wisconsin. 1965;545-566. [12] Grossman R.B, Reinsch T.G. Bulk density and linear extensibility. In: Dane J.H, Topp G.C, editors. Methods of soil analysis. Part 4 – Physical methods. Madison (WI): Soil Science Society of America; 2002. p. 201–28.. [13] Brady, N. C., and Weil, R. R. The nature and properties of soils (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.2002. [14] Obi, M. E. Soil Physics: A Compendium of Lectures. Nsukka, Nigeria: Atlas Publishers. 2000. pp. 45–46. [15] Ogbodo EN, Okoye PC, Nnaji GU. Morphological and physico-chemical properties of floodplain soils in Anambra State, Southeastern Nigeria. Niger J Soil Sci. 2015;25(1):45-56. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(01), 299-306 306 [16] Ofomata GEK. Soil and land resources of Southeastern Nigeria: morphology and classification of floodplain soils. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press; 2001. [17] Nwite JC, Edeh IG, Uzoho BU. Physicochemical properties of floodplain soils in relation to agricultural potentials in southeastern Nigeria. Agro-Sci. 2020;19(2):1-9. doi:10.4314/as.v19i2.1. [18] Onweremadu EU, Ndukwu BN, Nwachukwu OI. Morphology and classification of floodplain soils in southeastern Nigeria. J Soil Sci Environ Manag. 2007;1(2):24-30. [19] Ukaegbu CI, Nnabude PC, Oti NN. Morphological and physico-chemical properties of Imo River alluvial plain soils. Niger J Soil Environ Res. 2021;19(2):67-78. [20] Audu SI, Yakubu M, Mohammed A. Flooding and soil quality dynamics in the Nigerian Guinea Savanna. Environ Chall. 2021;4:100153. doi:10.1016/j.envc.2021.100153. [21] Ayoade OB, Abegunrin TP. Soil particle distribution and structural stability of floodplain soils in southwestern Nigeria. Appl Soil Ecol. 2022;171:104309. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2022.104309. [22] Adeyolanu OD, Ojo OA, Fasina AS. Soil texture and hydrological properties of floodplain soils in southern Nigeria. Catena. 2023;225:106878. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2023.106878. [23] Obalum SE, Chibuike GU. Soil structural quality under flooding regimes: implications for crop production in humid tropics. Land Degrad Dev. 2022;33(14):2355-2367. doi:10.1002/ldr.4325. [24] Ezekiel CN, Iwegbue CMA, Emurotu JE. Flooding and its impact on soil properties and agricultural productivity in Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess. 2021;193:777. doi:10.1007/s10661-021-09573-9. [25] Lal R. Soil health and climate change: soil structure as a key regulator. Soil Tillage Res. 2020;204:104719. doi:10.1016/j.still.2020.104719 [26] Singh A, Gupta P, Mishra V. Soil porosity and water dynamics in floodplain ecosystems: a case of the tropical belt. J Hydrol. 2022;610:127928. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127928. [27] Okon PB, Edem ID, Udo IA. Soil water retention and agricultural sustainability in flood-prone areas of Nigeria. Sci Afr. 2023;20:e01534. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2023.e01534. [28] Anyaoha CO, Nwite JC, Onyekwere IN. Variability of soil properties in Nigerian floodplains under different land uses. Heliyon. 2021;7(10):e08245. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08245.