Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students

377 USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Sauray SARDER & Ety RANI For citation: SARDER, S. & RANI, E. (2025). Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students. Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler ve Eğitim Dergisi – USBED 7(13), 377–396. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17019180, https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/usbed Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students Sauray SARDER Lec.; Khulna University, Social Science School, Sociology Discipline, Khulna-9208, Khulna, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0009-0001-8617-3118 Ety RANI 1 Lec.; Khulna University, Social Science School, Sociology Discipline, Khulna-9208, Khulna, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected]u.ac.bd ORCID: 0000-0002-4106-2377 Article Type: Research Article Submission Date: 14.07.2025 14/07/2025 Revision Dates: 17/07/2025 (Editor c.), 03/08/2025 (Major r.), 25/08/2025 (Minor r.) Acceptance Date: 01/09/2025 Ethical Statement ✓ The authors declare that their work is not subject to ethics committee approval. ✓ This article has an Ethics Committee Approval Certificate from Khulna University on 19.08.2024, with a date and KUECC-2024-05-36 Document No. Researchers' contribution to the study 1. Author's contribution: Wrote the article, collected data, and analyzed/reported results (70%). 2. Author's contribution: Supervise and write the article, proofreading the reported results (30%). Conflict of interest The authors declare no possible conflict of interest in this study. Similarity This study was scanned using the iThenticate program. The final similarity rate is 7%. 1 Corresponding author 378 Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students Abstract This study explores familial and social-level inequalities in educational attainment at the tertiary level. The study employed a qualitative approach with a sample size of 14 by following in-depth interviews (IDIs) and key informant interviews (KIIs). Purposive sampling was used in this research. Primary data were collected from February to April 2024 using an IDI semi-structured interview guide and a KII checklist. Thematic analysis was applied to analyze the qualitative data. The results revealed that most participants' parental socio-economic status was unsatisfactory. The findings of this present study disclosed that both male and female students faced different inequalities regarding educational attainment. However, female participants faced different familial and sociallevel inequalities compared to males. This study disclosed some familial-level inequalities, such as disparities in expectations, educational assistance distribution, emotional support, and family involvement in schooling. Additionally, they faced some social-level inequalities like socio-economic status, race, sex, societal perceptions, and community stereotypes. The findings have implications for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders. Providing financial aid and scholarships to students from disadvantaged backgrounds and increasing awareness of the importance of girls' education can help minimize these inequalities. Keywords: Education; Social inequality; Familial inequality. EXTENDED ABSTRACT Introduction: Education directly transmits a society's knowledge foundation, norms, and values. In Bangladesh, there is inequality in elementary education across various dimensions, including division, geography, gender, sex, and socio-economic status. In the past 20 years, Bangladesh has made impressive strides in expanding access to education. Even though educational fairness is a primary goal of the government, there are still significant gaps in educational achievement (Samer et al., 2008). Due to the nation's rapid development, Bangladesh desperately needs quality education. Sadly, for the past few years, the budget for the education sector has remained unchanged at roughly 2% of the GDP (Khatun, 2022). Parental education and occupation are the most relevant circumstances in the great majority of the countries considered. An essential underlying relationship exists between the availability of non-financial and financial resources and opportunity equality in higher Education (Palmisano et al., 2022). Jæger & Holm (2007) showed that parental economic, cultural, and social capital are the key predictors of educational attainment. Additionally, these three capitals considerably influence children's choice of secondary Education in Denmark. They also showed that cultural and social capital are the primary determinants of educational success. When the three categories of capital are considered, researchers can explain a significant portion of the effect of social class on educational attainment. Livelihood possibilities and educational attainment are strongly correlated; these growing educational inconsistencies will likely exacerbate existing disparities (Al-Samarrai, 2009). Leathwood and Archer (2004) demonstrated that social class disparities exist locally, nationally, internationally, and even globally. It is known that there are connections between poverty, educational attainment, and access to educational resources. Van de Werfhorst (2019) examined socio-economic disparities in educational performance among cohorts born between 1925 and 1989 in 21 European nations and showed that student performance differences exist. Hadjar 379 USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Sauray SARDER & Ety RANI and Buchmann (2016) have shown that gender inequalities in educational attainment are of central concern in both public and scientific discourses today. Gender inequalities in education are differences between genders in various aspects, and at different stages of the educational career. McDaniel and Buchmann (2015) have addressed that women completed far less schooling than men in the past. However, women now outpace men in education globally because of academic, social, structural, and economic factors. It is not only about school performance but also about the interplay of family background effects, labor market structures, and changing gender norms. Girls continually outperform boys in school, earning higher grades in all subjects, taking more challenging courses, displaying fewer behavioral problems, and holding stronger educational expectations. Furthermore, they have assessed the potential consequences of the female advantage in educational attainment and the challenges of conducting cross-national educational research. In these circumstances, it is essential to know Bangladesh's familial and social level inequalities. For this reason, this study poses the following research question: What types of familial and social-level inequalities did the participants encounter in tertiary-level education? Investigating familial and social level inequalities, this study can contribute to achieving the SDG 4, SDG 5, and SDG 10 goals by 2030. Method The study was conducted using a qualitative and exploratory research design. Following in-depth interviews (IDI) and key informant interviews (KII) methods, data were collected using an interview guide for IDI and a checklist for KII. The participants were the ongoing students of Khulna University who were in the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th Year of their studies. In this study, the IDI participants consisted of 12 students. The KII were the teachers of Khulna University who were experts in education-related research. Participants were purposively selected, and the total sample size was 14. The fieldwork was done from February to April 2024. The researchers thematically analyzed the data using Braun & Clarke's (2006) thematic analysis model. Findings and Discussion The results demonstrate how systemic obstacles, familial dynamics, parental socio-economic status, and cultural norms influence students' educational prospects and results closely. The findings revealed that most participants' parental socio-economic status was unsatisfactory. Parental socio-economic status has a significant impact on every student's life. By analyzing the data, researchers have identified two themes: 1. Familial-level inequalities, and 2. Social-level inequalities. The first theme comprises four categories regarding the gender inequalities in educational attainment. There are a) inequalities in family engagement with education, b) inequalities in the allocation of educational support, c) emotional encouragement, and d) the family's expectations. The second theme consists of three categories. These are: a) disparities based on social dimensions like socio-economic status, race, and sex; b) societal perceptions; and c) community stereotypes. The present study disclosed that female participants faced different familial and social-level inequalities compared to males. Cultural norms and expectations frequently prioritized domestic duties for females, and in rural or conservative areas, worries about safety and mobility further restricted female access to educational institutions. Conclusion and recommendation Since the parental socio-economic condition of a significant portion of the participants was poor, students faced familial and social-level inequalities. Based on the data, recommendations are identified for mitigating this situation: The government should implement policies to provide financial aid, scholarships, and subsidies for 380 Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall students from low-income families. Additionally, it is essential to raise awareness campaigns and community outreach programs to challenge regressive gender norms and promote the importance of educating girls. Furthermore, the concerned authority can arrange gender-sensitivity training and curricula in schools to foster an environment of equality and respect. 1. INTRODUCTION Education is the primary means for transmitting a society's knowledge, norms, and values. In Bangladesh, however, systemic inequalities have impeded the universal attainment of education, with disparities persisting across regional, socio-economic, and gender lines. Over the past two decades, the country has made notable progress in improving access to education. Weaknesses in the education sector governance, particularly biases in budget allocation and failures in targeted programs, which provide support to the poor and underprivileged female students, contribute significantly to these inequalities. However, significant gaps in educational equality and outcomes remain, despite institutional commitments to fairness (Al-Samarrai, 2009). Research indicates that educational disparity functions via two synergistic dynamics in this region. On the one hand, socio-economic background accentuates the disparities experienced. On the other hand, gender is another critical determinant of educational inequality. Disparities in educational access, retention, and learning outcomes disproportionately affect girls from rural and low-income households.. The far-reaching changes in female Education in Bangladesh have significantly affected the perceived value of education for girls compared to that for boys (Blunch & Das, 2015). Due to the nation's rapid development, Bangladesh desperately needs quality education. Sadly, most firms in the nation have a shortage of qualified human resources despite the country's young population. The education industry in our country needs enough resources to overcome the obstacles. Sadly, for the past few years, the budget for the education sector has remained unchanged at roughly 2% of the GDP (Khatun, 2022). Educational competencies and achievements are strongly determined by access and life chances in several spheres (Zapfe & Gross, 2021). Based on parental characteristics such as family income, race, and ethnic background, educational access and attainment differ (Maldonado, 2022). An essential underlying relationship exists between the availability of non-financial and financial resources and opportunity for equality in higher Education (Palmisano et al., 2022). A variety of disparities in educational opportunities exist in all pertinent life stages of a student. In the global context, enrollment gaps in education have shrunk, but they still exist, and efforts to improve equality in educational degree attainment have advanced slowly (Agrawal, 2014). From the early 20th century, disparities in educational opportunities between students from 381 USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Sauray SARDER & Ety RANI different social and economic strata have remained more pronounced in underdeveloped countries (Shavit & Blossfeld, 1993). Additionally, digital exposure, parental occupation, wealth quintile, and household size significantly influence educational attainment (Garg et al., 2022). Social status significantly shapes students' academic careers, while social class strongly influences their educational attainment (Crane, 1969; Jæger & Holm, 2007). Various characteristics influence educational preferences, and different personal, social, and environmental factors were associated with educational inequality (Ball et al., 2007). Though various research has been carried out in Bangladesh’s national context, qualitative studies on familial and social inequalities in tertiarylevel educational attainment regarding gender perspective, especially in the Khulna region, are rare. In this study, due to time and budget constraints, only one university was selected as the study area. Therefore, it is not easy to generalize the findings to the broader population. Despite these limitations, this study can contribute to formulating national policies to reduce familial and social inequalities in tertiary-level education. The study aligns with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) by addressing barriers to equitable learning opportunities. It also addresses SDG 4 by analyzing how familial and social disparities prevent quality education, SDG 5 by exploring gendered dimensions of inequality, and SDG 10 by disclosing how systemic social and economic disparities sustain unequal outcomes. By 2030, this research will inform evidence-based actions for inclusive education, gender equality, and reduced inequalities (Guterres, 2020). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Previous studies showed that parental social condition significantly influences academic success. Students from financially unstable families fail to achieve favorable educational outcomes (Soharwardi et al., 2020). Pensiero & Schoon (2019) indicated that social class, social status, education, and income each independently influence educational attainment, often displaying distinct patterns of stability or change over time. Furthermore, evidence shows that the transition to upper secondary education is critical for understanding the persistence and expansion of inequalities in educational progression and attainment. Leathwood and Archer(2004) demonstrated that social class disparities affect education locally, nationally, internationally, and globally. It is known that there are connections between poverty, educational attainment, and access to educational resources. Van de Werfhorst (2019) examined socio-economic disparities in educational performance for cohorts born between 1925 and 1989 in 21 European nations and showed differences in educational performance among the students. 382 Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Hadjar and Buchmann (2016) have shown that gender inequalities in educational attainment are of central concern in both public and scientific discourses today. Gender inequalities in education are differences in a broad aspect of education, including access, participation, achievement, subject choice, learning environment, and progression to secondary or higher levels. McDaniel and Buchmann (2015) have shown that women outpace men in education due to strong motivation, higher school engagement, and endless academic effort. They also highlight that social changes and expanding opportunities for women contribute to this trend globally. However, cross-national research faces challenges due to varying cultural, economic, and policy contexts affecting gender based educational outcomes. 3. METHOD The study was conducted by applying a qualitative research approach. The nature of this study was exploratory. In-depth interviews (IDI) and key informant interviews (KII) were used in this study. An interview guide for IDI and a checklist for KII were used to collect data. The study's guiding philosophical viewpoint is social constructivism. The study's research area was the Khulna University campus in Khulna district, Bangladesh. This study's respondents were purposively selected, and the total sample size was 14. A total of 12 participants for IDI and 2 participants for KII were interviewed. The fieldwork was done after preparing a semi-structured interview guide within the suggested duration. For the IDI, data were collected from students at Khulna University, and for the KII, data were collected from teachers at Khulna University who were experts in education-related research. Ethical clearance has been taken from the Research and Innovation Centre (RIC) of Khulna University. The reference number is KUECC2024-05-36. Each interview lasted approximately 30-40 minutes, and consent was obtained before the interview. After conducting 12 IDIs, data saturation was achieved. When data saturation is reached, the researcher has sufficiently investigated the topic under study and can stop gathering data without running the danger of missing important information. This idea is crucial for establishing sample size and boosting the legitimacy and validity of qualitative research (Fusch & Ness, 2015; Johnson et al., 2020). The researchers thematically analyzed the data using Braun and Clarke's (2006) thematic analysis model. 383 USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Sauray SARDER & Ety RANI 4. FINDINGS Researchers have collected data about the participants' socio-demographic profiles, which is crucial for conducting research. Table 1 shows the demographic profiles of 12 students of Khulna University from various disciplines who participated in in-depth interviews. Respondents ranged from 19 to 24 years old and were enrolled in different academic years. Both male and female students were included, allowing the study to compare gendered experiences and viewpoints, especially on topics such as education, social norms, or family dynamics. Every participant carried their own religious identity. Participants came from disciplines like sociology, economics, pharmacy, law, and statistics. Abrami et al. (2008) demonstrated that courses emphasizing liberal arts and social sciences foster greater gains in critical thinking skills compared to other disciplines. Moreover, a study by Bray (2006) found that majors focusing on social issues encourage more complex reasoning and interpretation of societal challenges. This academic variety can influence their critical thinking and interpretation of social issues. Based on Sirin's (2005) meta-analysis, family income and socio-economic status significantly affect students' educational outcomes by determining the availability of the quantity and quality of resources. Higher family income often means better access to educational materials, extracurricular opportunities, and favourable learning environments. This table also shows that the participants' family income varied from 8,000 to 25,000 BDT, indicating socio-economic diversity. 384 Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Table 1 Socio-demographic Profile of the Respondents IDI No. Age Sex Discipline Academ ic Year of Educatio n Marital Status Monthly household income Place of Birth Religious Identity IDI 1 22 Male Sociology Third Year Unmarried 12000 Satkhira Muslim IDI 2 22 Male Economics Third Year Unmarried 25000 Jessore Muslim IDI 3 22 Male Economics Third Year Unmarried 10000 Rangam ati Hindu IDI 4 24 female Pharmacy Fourth Year Married 15000 Khulna Muslim IDI 5 21 Male Pharmacy Second Year Unmarried 12000 Khulna Muslim IDI 6 21 female Sociology Second Year Unmarried 10000 Khulna Muslim IDI 7 22 Male Sociology Third Year Unmarried 8000 Sirajgon g Hindu IDI 8 23 Male Statistics Fourth Year Unmarried 10000 Khulna Muslim IDI 9 24 Male Statistics Fourth Year Unmarried 15000 Chittago ng Muslim IDI 10 22 female Law Third Year Unmarried 12000 Khulna Hindu IDI 11 19 female Law Second Year Unmarried 15000 Rangam ati Muslim IDI 12 22 Femal e Sociology Third Year Married 25000 Satkhira Muslim Source: Field data, 2024. Table 2. Demographic Information of the KII Respondents Participants Profession Designation Workplace KII 1 Education-related researcher & teacher Professor Khulna University KII 2 Education-related researcher & teacher Associate Professor Khulna University Source: Field data, 2024. Table 2 features two academic professionals from Khulna University: a professor and an associate professor with expertise in education-related research. Their roles in academic positions helped them to comment on broader perspectives among students, institutional challenges, and policy implications. Their experience and deep knowledge lend credibility and 385 USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Sauray SARDER & Ety RANI depth to the findings. While the IDI participants provide personal experiences, the KII respondents offer macro-level, reflective analysis or challenging individual narratives. Researchers have identified two themes by analyzing the data using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis model. It is a systematic approach designed to identify meaningful patterns within qualitative data. The theme development process involves six phases: familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final report. 1. Familiarization: Reading and rereading the dataset and transcribing it allowed the researchers to get to know it during the first phase of thematic analysis. As a first step in assigning initial codes, researchers wrote their preliminary ideas about the possible themes they saw in the data. 2. Coding – After familiarizing themselves with the data, researchers use coding to identify the ideas and topics in their data and refer to them quickly and easily. 3. Identifying theme – By following the coding system, the researchers identified two themes, namely 1. Familial-level inequalities; and 2. Social-level inequalities. 4. Reviewing themes: After defining them, the researchers revisit them to determine how well they align with the coded data extracts. 5. Defining and identifying themes: As researchers examine the themes more thoroughly, they give them names and provide a more precise definition. Since themes identify patterns in the data rather than just topics, they differ from codes. 6. Writing up: At this point, researchers started working on the final report, which includes a thorough synopsis of the codes and themes, original data excerpts that highlight the conclusions, and any other information pertinent to the investigation Theme 1: Familial Level Inequalities This theme consists of four categories regarding the inequalities in educational attainment. There are a) inequalities in family engagement with education, b) inequalities in the allocation of educational support, c) emotional encouragement, and d) the family's expectations. 1.1: Inequalities in family engagement with education Family engagement in education refers to the active involvement of parents, guardians, and other family members in their child's learning and school activities. This engagement is crucial 392 Familial and social level inequalities in educational attainment: A qualitative study on Khulna University students USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall These results resemble other studies (Soharwardi et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2018). This shows how parental socio-economic status affects their children's academic achievement. This study showed that parental socio-economic status was a well-documented factor influencing educational outcomes. In Bangladesh, poverty and income inequality are prevalent, and families with lower socio-economic status may face significant challenges in providing their children with adequate educational resources, such as quality schooling, study materials, and tutoring. This lack of resources can hinder academic performance and educational attainment. Lahtinen et al. (2020) and Pensiero and Schoon (2019) found similar components: social class, social status, education, and income all have independent effects on educational attainment and can show different patterns of stability or variability over time. The findings of this study are consistent with those of other studies, notably Ahmad et al. (2005), which highlighted that students from lower socio-economic strata often face multiple challenges that hinder their academic performance, including limited access to educational resources, lower parental support due to financial constraints, and societal expectations. These students also face cultural barriers, such as reduced exposure to cultural capital like language skills and academic norms, which affect their educational preferences and opportunities. The present study discovered that another important problem in the Bangladeshi context is social level inequality, which includes gender-based inequality in schooling. Cultural norms and expectations frequently gave girls' home duties priority, and in rural or conservative areas, worries about safety and mobility further restricted their access to educational institutions. From a structural inequality perspective, disparities reflect how ingrained institutional systems such as school funding, urban-rural infrastructure gaps, and class-based social hierarchies ensure advantages for certain groups while limiting opportunities for others. Such inequalities are not merely incidental but are structurally embedded within policy, governance, and economic systems. The study revealed that another significant issue in the Bangladeshi context is social level inequality, which encompasses gender-based disparities in education. Cultural norms and expectations frequently prioritized home duties for women, and in rural or conservative areas, worries about safety and mobility further restricted their access to educational institutions. Applying feminist theory here helps to unpack how patriarchal structures and gender ideologies not only limit girls' educational access but also normalize these restrictions as "cultural norms." This aligns with gender theories that emphasize the intersection of gender with socio-economic class and patriarchal constraints as Pollert (1996) examined the concept of patriarchy through the lens of social class and patriarchy as the sole determinants of women’s subordination, as well as gave a clear theoretical explanation of how class and 393 USBED, 7(13), 2025, Sonbahar / Fall Sauray SARDER & Ety RANI patriarchy connected, which is helpful to understand how and why some groups, like women, are left out of education. Moreover, the research demonstrates how closely systemic obstacles, familial dynamics, parental socio-economic status, and cultural norms influence students' educational prospects and results. By placing these findings within structural inequality and feminist frameworks, the study moves beyond describing disparities to explaining how they are produced, sustained, and potentially denuded through targeted interventions and policy reforms. 6. CONCLUSION This study expands our knowledge of socio-economic disparities in educational attainment. Parental financial standing and emotional support are crucial in shaping students' educational opportunities. Additionally, marginalized communities, particularly female students, face significant barriers due to societal norms. This qualitative study provides insights into the complex interplay of socio-economic factors, cultural norms, and systemic barriers that contribute to inequalities in educational attainment among students at Khulna University in Bangladesh. These findings corroborate previous research on the detrimental effects of socioeconomic disparities, cultural norms, and institutional barriers on educational attainment. Addressing these multifaceted inequalities requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. 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