Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management in the Okavango Delta: Challenges and Opportunities

© The Author(s) 2025. Published by AMO Publisher. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management in the Okavango Delta: Challenges and Opportunities Precious S. Sebego  College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China; UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China Aina Ndinelago Shikongo College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China; UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China Article History: Received: 30.09.2025 Revised: 23.10.2025 Accepted: 27.10.2025 Published: 29.10.2025 Abstract Climate change poses a serious threat to the Okavango Delta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, disrupting the hydrological system that is crucial to its biodiversity and the livelihoods of the indigenous population. This paper examines the opportunities and difficulties of putting climate change adaptation plans into practice for the Delta's sustainable water management. It highlights important logistical, technological, and financial obstacles, such as expensive capital expenditures, a lack of data, and intricate transboundary governance. This paper also identifies important potential, such boosting ecosystem-based adaptation, harnessing ecotourism revenue, and enhancing transboundary collaboration through OKACOM. This research offers a fundamental foundation for improving the Okavango Delta's resilience by assessing existing approaches and suggesting future paths, such as inclusive governance models and improved hydrological modeling. To ensure Delta's ecological and socioeconomic future, the results highlight the need for integrated, multi-stakeholder strategies that support Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and 13 (Climate Action). Keywords: Okavango Delta, Climate change, Adaptation, Sustainability, Water Management. Suggested citation: Sebego, P.S., & Shikongo, A.N. (2025). Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management in the Okavango Delta: Challenges and Opportunities. European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, 3(6), 93-104. https://doi.org/10.59324/ejtas.2025.3(6).08 Introduction Okavango Delta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Ramsar Wetland, is a global biodiversity hotspot (Cassidy et al., 2011). This largest freshwater wetland in southern Africa supports exceptional biodiversity, including approximately 90 fish species across 15 families and 496 algal species across 173 genera (Marazzi, 2014). Its seasonal flooding sustains diverse habitats floodplains, channels, and islands supporting over 160 mammal species, 530 bird species, and numerous aquatic organisms. It is critical for species like elephants, hippos, and the endangered African wild dog, serving as a breeding ground and migration hub (Accounting, 2017; Gondwe et al., 2021; Tsheboeng et al., 2017). The Okavango Delta is mostly located in the Ngamiland District in northwest Botswana (Hamandawana, 2007). During periods of significant flooding, the Okavango River, which rises in the highlands of Angola, forms an interior delta that stretches into a huge, fan-shaped wetland in the Kalahari www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 94 Desert, encompassing over 15,000 km² (Gondo et al., 2023). The delta receives 9–11 km³ of water annually, primarily from the Okavango River, sustaining ecosystems and local livelihoods in an arid region. Seasonal floods (March–August) support agriculture, fishing, and tourism, while the delta’s natural filtration maintains water quality (Mogobe et al., 2020) Threats from upstream water use and climate change challenge its hydrological stability, necessitating adaptive management (Gondo et al., 2023). However, this critical ecosystem encounters mounting environmental threats from anthropogenic pressures, invasive species, climate change, and upstream development plans, necessitating urgent implementation of conservation management strategies to prevent ecosystem degradation (Darkoh & Mbaiwa, 2014; Marazzi, 2014). Figure 1. Map of the Cubango-Okavango River System Showing Rivers (red) and the Okavango Delta Wetlands (green) Source: Kelleher et al., 2023 Climate Change Impacts on the Okavango Delta Climate change has a variety of effects on the Okavango Delta, endangering its unique biodiversity, delicate hydrological balance, and the lives of the tribes that rely on it. Since the Delta itself is a semi-arid region that depends nearly exclusively on this external water source, these effects are mostly caused by changes in the climate of its catchment area in the Angolan highlands. Hydrological and Physical Impacts The Okavango Delta faces significant hydrological and physical impacts from climate change. Multiple studies using global climate models and hydrological modeling suites project substantial changes in the delta's hydroecological conditions (River, 2008; Wolski & Murray-Hudson, 2008). Climate change scenarios indicate considerable alterations in mean river flow, with impacts associated with 2°C global warming being particularly pronounced (Hughes et al., 2011). These changes will affect both the extent and distribution of major ecotopes within the delta, www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 95 with different vegetation assemblages experiencing varying degrees of impact (Wolski & Murray-Hudson, 2008). The delta's seasonal flooding regime, which is vital to its biodiversity and ecosystem services, is in danger due to lower flood volumes and changed inundation patterns caused by reduced and irregular rainfall (Gondwe et al., 2021; Thito et al., 2015). Erratic rainfall and upstream drought disrupt the timing and extent of flooding, affecting vegetation and wildlife habitats (Milzow et al., 2010). Projections indicate increased rainfall variability, with some years experiencing significant reductions in inflow, impacting wetlands and vegetation (Gondwe et al., 2021). The Delta relies on seasonal flooding from rainfall in Angola’s highlands unfortunately climate models project a 5-15% decrease in annual rainfall in southern Africa by 2050, reducing the critical flood pulse (Westra et al., 2012). Ecological and Biodiversity Impacts Climate change poses serious ecological and biological risks to the Okavango Delta. Future circumstances could be significantly drier or wetter than historical records, according to climate modeling research, with significant shifts in the distribution and extent of key ecotopes anticipated (Wolski & Murray-Hudson, 2008). Climate change impacts include altered precipitation and flooding patterns (King et al., 2016). Rising temperatures, projected to increase by 1.5-3°C by 2050, enhance evapotranspiration, reducing water availability in wetlands, especially during dry seasons (Moses & Hambira, 2018). These hydrological changes will differentially affect various habitat types, impacting wildlife grazing areas, migration patterns of large herbivores, and fish populations, with cascading effects throughout the food web (Wolski & Murray-Hudson, 2008). Flooded area could shrink by 20-50%, shortening inundation periods from 6-8 months to 3-5 months, altering sediment deposition and channel migration (Maeno et al., 2018). Reduced water availability threatens the Delta’s ecosystems, including permanent swamps, seasonal floodplains, and drylands. Species like elephants, hippos, and crocodiles face habitat shrinkage during prolonged dry periods (Keitumetse et al., 2023). As a major carbon store (sequestering ~1.2 million tons CO2/year), peatlands may release stored carbon if drying persists, amplifying global warming feedbacks (Fletcher et al., 2019). The delta experiences increasing environmental pressures from multiple stakeholders with divergent land use interests, combined with natural factors including climate variability and tectonic activities (Darkoh & Mbaiwa, 2014). These combined pressures threaten the ecosystem's sustainability and require flexible management approaches. Socio-Economic and Human Impacts Climate change is having a major socioeconomic and human impact on the Okavango Delta, influencing both local communities and business sectors. One of the Delta's main sources of income, tourism, is extremely susceptible to climate change. Hambira et al. (2013) found that Maun, a gateway to the Delta, has tourism enterprises that are ill-prepared for the effects of climate change, such as decreased flooding, which impairs wildlife watching and scenic attractions. Tourists’ perceptions of climate change risks also influence their willingness to visit, as noted by Dube et al. (2018). Declining fish catches (projected 20-35% drop) and forage for livestock threaten food security for 20% of basin residents tourism revenues could fall 1525% due to wildlife viewing losses (Motsumi et al., 2012). Tourism-dependent communities have already observed climatic changes including increased temperatures, decreased rainfall, and more frequent extreme events, leading to desiccation, declining wildlife populations, reduced fish stocks, and decreased vegetation cover (Hambira et al., 2024). These changes threaten community livelihoods that depend on natural resources. Despite the dynamic nature of flooding and precipitation patterns, some livelihood systems demonstrate limited adaptive capacity to respond to biophysical variability (King et al., 2016). This paper outlines practical, evidence-based adaptation strategies for sustainable water management in the Delta, addressing ecological, social, and governance challenges while aligning with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). It highlights gaps and www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 96 opportunities for improving resilience in the Okavango Delta Importance of Sustainable Water Management Water scarcity is made worse by climate change, which also modifies precipitation patterns and makes extreme events like floods and droughts more frequent. The Okavango Delta's seasonal flooding regime, which is essential to the region's ecology and indigenous livelihoods, is in danger due to rising temperatures and fluctuating rainfall from Angola's highlands (Gondwe et al., 2021). Adaptive techniques to preserve water quality and availability are guaranteed by sustainable water management. Local towns rely on the delta for tourism, fishing, and agriculture. Water flow cutbacks brought on by climate change may jeopardize these commercial endeavors. Long-term resource security and fair access are guaranteed by sustainable management, which includes conservation efforts and water distribution regulations (Mogobe et al., 2020). Tsheboeng et al. (2017) given that wetlands around the world are under threat from climate change, the Okavango Delta serves as an example of the necessity for sustainable water management on a global scale. Techniques such as ecosystem-based adaptation and integrated water resource management (IWRM) can be expanded to other areas dealing with comparable issues. Current Adaptation Strategies for Water Management in the Okavango Delta The Okavango Delta's water management adaptation plans currently involve a complex and vital fusion of regional, national, and global initiatives. They seek to address the dual dangers of growing human activity (both inside the Delta and in its catchment areas) and climate change (which alters patterns of rainfall and evaporation). Table 1 outlines the current adaptation strategies, the rationale and the proposed implementation steps for strengthening the climate adaptation strategies. Table 1. Adaptation Strategies for Water Management in the Okavango Delta Strategy Description Rationale Implementation Steps Source Transboundary water governance Strengthens regional cooperation via OKACOM to create a basin-wide water management plan balancing ecological and human needs. Upstream activities in Angola (e.g., dams) could reduce Delta inflows by 17% in dry months, necessitating coordinated policies. -Establish transboundary water-use agreements. Monitor upstream land-use changes. -Develop payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes (Shinn, 2016) Hydrological Modeling and Monitoring Uses advanced models (e.g., Pitman) and satellite data (e.g., TRMM) for flood and water availability forecasting, supported by local sensors. Divergent climate predictions (66–76% wetter, but drying possible) require accurate data for adaptive management. -Partner with ORI to refine models. Deploy low-cost sensors for community monitoring. -Integrate local knowledge into forecasts. (Andersson et al., 2006) Community-Led Adaptation and Livelihoods Empowers communities to adjust farming practices using traditional knowledge and diversify income via eco-tourism or fisheries. Rigid livelihood systems limit adaptability; diversification reduces reliance on waterintensive activities. -Conduct workshops to blend indigenous and scientific knowledge. Expand CBNRM programs for alternative livelihoods (King et al., 2016) EcosystemBased Adaptation (EbA) Protects and restores floodplains and riparian zones; promotes upstream reforestation to stabilize water flows. Keystone species and habitats maintain water channels, but climatedriven flood changes threaten these processes. -Implement controlled burning/grazing to manage vegetation. -Support anti-poaching for species like hippos. (Parmesan et al., 2022) www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 97 ClimateResilient Infrastructure Introduced small scale water storage and efficient irrigation (e.g., drip); avoids large dams disrupting flood pulses. Small abstractions (1– 2% of inflow) are sustainable; large dams risk severe flow reductions. -Pilot rainwater harvesting systems. - Promote drip irrigation and water filtration technologies. (Nhemachena et al., 2020) Education and Awareness Campaigns Launch programs to raise climate change awareness among communities, policymakers, and stakeholders. Limited awareness hinders adaptation; education empowers youth and women as change agents. -Integrate climate education into schools. -Conduct workshops in villages like Etsha 6 and 13 (Lwasa, 2015) Challenges and Limitations for Sustainable Water Management in the Okavango Delta The Delta's distinct hydrological regime is closely related to both its ecosystem and the way of life of the local populace. Forecasts of climate change for the area point to higher temperatures, more variable rainfall, and an increase in the frequency of severe droughts and floods. The ecological equilibrium and socioeconomic stability of the Delta are at risk due to these changes. Therefore, it is crucial to implement adaptation measures for sustainable water management, nevertheless, there are numerous obstacles in the way. Financial Barriers Financial barriers are often the most immediate and significant obstacle to implementing largescale, long-term adaptation projects. These barriers include as follows High Initial Capital Investment: Implementing large-scale solar-powered irrigation pumping systems, building water storage infrastructure (small dams, sand dams), and creating cutting-edge early warning systems are examples of sustainable water management techniques that call for enormous upfront funding that is regularly out of reach for local and federal governments (Gondo & Kolawole, 2019; Stoler et al., 2020) Limited and Unreliable Funding Streams : Compa red to Least Developed Countries, Botswana is less eligible for international grants and concessional loans for climate adaptation because it is an upper-middle-income nation. This results in a financial gap where there is a strong need but little access to climate-specific funding (Accounting, 2017; Crawford, 2016) Reliance on donor-funded projects also leads to fragmentation and lack of sustainability once project cycles end. Opportunity Costs and Competing Priorities: Health, education, and economic diversification (from diamond mining, for example) must be balanced with climate adaptation in national budgets. These industries frequently get more attention in the near term than long-term environmental initiatives (Kgathi et al., 2006) Technical Barriers Technical obstacles include deficiencies in water management technology transfer, modeling accuracy, and data availability. The intricate hydrology of the Okavango Delta, which is marked by groundwater interactions and seasonal flooding, makes it difficult to forecast the effects of climate change and create effective adaptation strategies, including ecosystem-based solutions or drought-resistant infrastructure. Data and Modeling Limitations: Freshwater biodiversity is at risk from severe droughts brought on by climate change, but effective adaptation planning is hampered by a lack of knowledge about biological dynamics and insufficient monitoring throughout river systems (Kovach et al., 2019). Strong, long-term data on surface water flow, groundwater levels, evaporation, and rainfall are necessary for efficient water management. The vastness and remoteness of the Okavango Delta make data collection costly and logistically difficult. Significant uncertainties exist in the assessment and forecasting of water resources due to a severe lack of dense, real-time monitoring networks. www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 98 Technical Capacity Gaps: There is a shortage of local expertise in advanced fields like hydroinformatics, climate modeling, and engineering solutions for wetland ecosystems. This leads to a dependence on international consultants, which is costly and hinders the development of local, long-term capacity (Mara, 2003). CommunityBased Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) initiatives have provided socioeconomic benefits such as employment and income generation, but their success is hindered by a lack of entrepreneurship, managerial skills, and understanding of CBNRM concepts among local participants, as well as poor benefit sharing and enclave tourism (Mbaiwa, 2004) Logistical and Governance Barriers Coordination of implementation, fragmentation of governance, and problems with infrastructure access are examples of logistical hurdles. While distant terrain and weak local institutions impede the implementation of adaption techniques, the Okavango River Basin's transboundary nature (covering Angola, Namibia, and Botswana) makes coordinated action more difficult. Governance and Coordination Challenges: Conflicts between global aspirations and local realities, such as conflicting regulations and a lack of subnational ability, hinder the Delta's progress when sustainable water goals are implemented locally (Herrera, 2019). Despite community-based natural resource management programs, rural communities face obstacles since modern bureaucratic structures have weakened the traditional institutions that once controlled resource access (Mogende & Kolawole, 2016) Transboundary Water Governance Complexity: At the transboundary level, the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) must successfully coordinate political, social, and scientific processes to balance the development needs of three riparian states while preserving pristine ecosystems. (Heyns, 2007). Upstream developments in Angola (e.g., water abstraction for agriculture) could have significant downstream impacts on the Delta's inflow, a issue that is difficult to manage bilaterally. Weak Institutional Coordination at the National Level: The management of water, land, and resources is a shared responsibility among several government agencies (Water Affairs, Agriculture, Environment, Wildlife, and Tourism) and local district administrations in Botswana. Conflicting policies, redundant work, and inadequate application of integrated water resource management (IWRM) concepts might result from this (Kgathi et al., 2006) Opportunities for Sustainable Water Management in the Okavango Delta The Okavango Delta's transboundary nature, dependence on far-off rainfall, and complex ecology—the very characteristics that make it susceptible to climate change—also provide special potential. Stakeholders can turn these issues into the cornerstones of resilient and sustainable water management by embracing creative approaches to governance, technology, and finance. Ecotourism and Revenue Generation The Delta's pristine wetlands and wildlife attract over 100,000 tourists annually, offering a pathway to fund sustainable water initiatives through eco-tourism revenues (Motsholapheko et al., 2012). Investments in low-impact tourism infrastructure, such guided wetland tours and solar-powered lodges, can raise money for antipoaching and wetland restoration initiatives as well as community-led water conservation. This concept can lessen dependency on extractive industries like overfishing and generate jobs. Communities can finance adaptive measures like rainwater collecting systems by using tourism revenue to fund water management, promoting long-term financial sustainability (Matlhola, 2016). Additionally, the same earnings might be used to fund community-based businesses that rely less on extractive methods and more on sustainably gathered goods (such as devil's claw, reeds, and indigenous fruits). This lessens the strain on water and wildlife while diversifying local economy (Mkono, 2019). This could help overcome funding gaps. www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 99 Transboundary Collaboration and Policy Integration The Okavango Delta represents a critical transboundary water management challenge requiring collaborative governance across multiple sovereign states in southern Africa. Green et al. (2012) stress that in order to increase resilience against resource fluctuation, adaptive governance systems, and cooperation between political actors, local stakeholders, and physical scientists are necessary for effective transboundary water management. The main institutional framework supporting coordinated and sustainable management of the basin's water and land resources is the Okavango River Basin Commission (OKACOM) (Figueiredo et al., 2016). Shared monitoring, data sharing, and adaptive tactics—like integrated water resources management (IWRM) plans that consider upstream abstractions and downstream flows are made possible by collaborative frameworks. This collaboration can increase the effects of international funds like the Green Climate Fund and lessen tensions. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation and Biodiversity Conservation Through appropriate water management techniques, the Okavango Delta, a pristine subtropical wetland of international significance, exhibits considerable biodiversity leverage. More than 5,000 plant and 400 bird species may be found in the Delta's mosaic of habitats, which presents chances for nature-based solutions like artificial wetlands for flood control and water purification (Carmen et al., 2018). In line with SDGs 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and 14 (Life Below Water), reforestation and the removal of invasive species can restore damaged areas, naturally replenishing aquifers and providing a buffer against droughts. Through coordinated transboundary management through the Okavango River Basin Commission (OKACOM), which encourages sustainable water and land resource management, the delta's high biodiversity and wildlife abundance are preserved (Figueiredo et al., 2016). Technological Innovation and Community Empowerment The Delta is perfect for using satellite technology because of its distant location. There are opportunities to track changes in water extent, vegetation health, and flood dynamics in near-real-time using openly accessible satellite data and advanced algorithms. This can enhance forecasting and make up for the absence of ground-based instruments. Fryirs et al. (2018) demonstrate how technological tools for landscape visualization at multiple spatial scales provide critical baseline information for water resources management, proposing nested hierarchical frameworks as interactive communication tools for non-specialists in Delta management plans. In the Okavango Delta, community-based natural resource management, or CBNRM, has demonstrated both potential and difficulties for community empowerment and sustainable water management. Figueiredo et al. (2016) highlights the importance of integrated management approaches, noting that the Okavango Delta Management Plan implementation phase requires coordination between community-based natural resource management and commercial tourism sectors, with transboundary cooperation through OKACOM promoting sustainable water and land resources management. Policy and Regulatory Framework The Okavango Delta presents difficult water management issues that call for coordinated policies to strike a balance between environmental preservation and human needs. Because institutional regulations are not properly harmonized, land-use conflicts between established and new parties are getting worse (Darkoh & Mbaiwa, 2009). Effective management requires harmonized legislative frameworks to ensure water sustainability while supporting local livelihoods and the tourism sector, which contributes 5% to Botswana's GDP (Mosepele et al., 2018) as well as addressing demographic and socio-economic factors in decision-making, while updating outdated water legislation to prioritize local-level governance in rural areas (Gondo & Kolawole, 2019). www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 100 Gondo and Kolawole (2019) highlight the need for improved local-level water governance in rural Botswana by pointing out that socioeconomic and demographic factors have a major impact on family water management decisions and that antiquated Water Acts impede efficient governance. Despite the establishment of community-based natural resource management programs in 1989, modern governance systems have moved away from traditional institutions and toward bureaucratic frameworks that insufficiently involve local populations in decision-making processes (Mogende & Kolawole, 2016). Future Research Directions A fundamental insight is provided by research on climate change adaptation solutions for sustainable water management in the Okavango delta: challenges and opportunities. Future studies should prioritize interactive, multidisciplinary methods. This will facilitate evidence-based, scalable treatments within frameworks such as SAP from OKACOM. Advanced Climate-Hydrological Modeling and Scenario Analysis creating basin-wide, high-resolution models that combine climate forecasts with the Delta's distinct pulse-flood hydrology in order to model adaptation possibilities such as changed groundwater recharge rates and flood timings. The effectiveness of nature-based solutions, such as the effect of upstream reforestation on downstream water yields, might be evaluated using these models. Governance, Policy, and Transboundary Conflict Resolution By integrating models to simulate the cumulative impact of various potential upstream development scenarios in Angola and Namibia (e.g., large-scale irrigation, hydropower) on downstream hydrology and ecology in the Delta under different climate futures, you can examine adaptive governance models, including the scalability of OKACOM's SAP and conflict risks from upstream developments (e.g., Angolan dams). Conclusion The Okavango Delta is at a critical juncture. Its distinct social-ecological system faces an existential threat from the effects of climate change, which are exhibited through hydrological variability, ecological changes, and socioeconomic vulnerabilities. This analysis emphasizes that there are numerous obstacles in the way of sustainable water management, such as substantial financial limitations, a lack of technical ability, and difficult governance issues, especially at the transboundary level. These difficulties also present chances for transformation. The ability to leverage the Delta's natural resources, the financial potential of ecotourism that is sustainable, the strength of cooperative governance through OKACOM, and the effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation measures will determine how resilient Delta is in the future. Developing strong, context-specific adaptation methods can be facilitated by combining Indigenous knowledge systems with cutting-edge technological tools like hydrological modeling and satellite surveillance. Ultimately, there isn't just one answer. An integrated, multi-stakeholder strategy that goes beyond isolated actions is necessary to ensure the Okavango Delta has a viable future. Increasing institutional coordination across borders and sectors, empowering local people as key players in the governance process, and mainstreaming climate adaptation into national and local development plans are all necessary to achieve this. Stakeholders can create a resilient Okavango Delta that maintains its unmatched biodiversity and supports the livelihoods of its inhabitants by strategically utilizing opportunities for creative finance, nature-based solutions, and knowledge co-production. The lessons gained from striking a balance between adaptation opportunities and challenges in this iconic wetland can be a useful model for river basins that are at risk globally, emphasizing the pressing need for swift action that is informed by science, cooperation, and equity. www.ejtas.com European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (ISSN 2786-7447) 2025 | Volume 3 | Number 6 101 Acknowledgement I would like to express my gratitude to my classmates for their invaluable help with proofreading and editing this manuscript. Additionally, I am grateful to Tongji University for its academic support. Conflict of Interests No conflict of interest. References Accounting, W. W. (2017). Botswana Country Report 2016. Botswana documents. DOI не найден. Andersson, L., Wilk, J., Todd, M. C., Hughes, D. A., Earle, A., Kniveton, D., Layberry, R., & Savenije, H. H. G. (2006). Impact of climate change and development scenarios on flow patterns in the Okavango River. 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