SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE ECOTOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ASBESTOS FIBERS IN URBAN RUNOFF ON FRESHWATER AND MARINE AQUATIC BIOTA

Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [215] SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE ECOTOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ASBESTOS FIBERS IN URBAN RUNOFF ON FRESHWATER AND MARINE AQUATIC BIOTA Gemelyn S. Hermosura¹ Leiy Kirlsten J. Barretto¹ Divina Maris Mande¹ Dessa Mae C. Lancion¹ Gecelene Estorico¹’² Civil and Allied Department; Environmental Science and Chemical Technology Department ¹Technological University of the Philippines—Taguig, Taguig, Metro Manila 1630 Philippines ²De La Salle University – Dasmariñas, DBB-B, 4115 West Ave, Dasmariñas, ABSTRACT The growing concern over asbestos fiber contamination in aquatic ecosystems highlights a significant research gap in understanding its ecological effects. This study systematically reviewed peer-reviewed publications from 2015 to 2025 to evaluate the ecotoxicological impacts of asbestos fibers derived from urban runoff on freshwater and marine biota. Following the PRISMA systematic review framework, relevant studies were identified from databases including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing both field and laboratory experiments that investigated various species such as algae, macrophytes, clams, and fish. Reported asbestos concentrations ranged from 0.1 to 5.0 million fibers per liter (MFL) in urban runoff and up to 2 × 10⁹ fibers per gram in contaminated sediments, with exposure durations extending from 7 days to more than one year. Results revealed that chrysotile and amphibole asbestos fibers persist in sediments, bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, and induce oxidative stress, histopathological lesions, growth inhibition, and behavioral impairment across multiple trophic levels. Fish species such as Oryzias latipes and Salmo salar exhibited gill inflammation and liver damage, while primary producers like Lemna gibba showed reduced chlorophyll and biomass. These findings demonstrate a clear risk of trophic transfer and long-term ecological disruption, underscoring the urgent need for standardized testing, bioindicator species, and continuous environmental monitoring. Keywords: Asbestos Fibers, Aquatic Ecosystems, Urban Runoff, Ecotoxicology, Bioaccumulation, Freshwater Biota, Marine Biota, Oxidative Stress, Trophic Transfer, Environmental Monitoring, Sediment Contamination INTRODUCTION Asbestos is a group of naturally occurring fibrous silicate minerals widely used for their durability, tensile strength, and resistance to heat and corrosion. For decades, asbestos was incorporated into various construction materials such as cement, insulation, roofing, and piping (Li et al., 2023). However, these same properties make asbestos fibers persistent environmental pollutants once released. Weathering, industrial discharges, and the degradation of asbestos-containing materials contribute to the continuous emission of fibers into the environment. While the human health risks associated with asbestos inhalation are well established, its ecological impacts—particularly in aquatic systems—remain less understood. Urban runoff has emerged as a major pathway through which asbestos fibers are transported from terrestrial sources into rivers, lakes, and marine environments (Peña-Castro et al., 2023). Once asbestos fibers enter aquatic ecosystems, they exhibit strong resistance to chemical and biological degradation, allowing them to persist for long periods. These fibers can adsorb onto sediments, organic matter, and suspended particles, or remain in the water column where they are available for uptake by aquatic organisms. Studies indicate that asbestos fibers can interact with biota at multiple trophic levels, from algae and macrophytes to invertebrates and fish. For example, Capella et al. (2021) found significant bioaccumulation in benthic Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [216] organisms near asbestos-cement waste sites, while Trivedi et al. (2019) observed oxidative stress and inhibited growth in duckweed (Lemna gibba) exposed to chrysotile fibers. These findings suggest that asbestos can act both as a physical irritant and a biochemical stressor, impairing key physiological functions such as respiration, photosynthesis, and reproduction in aquatic species. The ecotoxicological mechanisms underlying asbestos toxicity involve both direct and indirect processes. Fibers may physically damage tissues through abrasion or blockage, while their surface reactivity induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that lead to oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and DNA damage (Trivedi et al., 2017). Fish species such as Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) demonstrated histopathological lesions in gills and liver, inflammation, and compromised respiration after exposure (Belanger et al., 2015; Forsman et al., 2025). Similarly, filter feeders like clams accumulated asbestos within their soft tissues, leading to reduced feeding activity and increased mortality (Schneider et al., 2017). These effects indicate that asbestos contamination has both acute and chronic consequences for aquatic organisms, potentially affecting population dynamics and ecosystem stability. Environmental persistence further amplifies the risks of asbestos contamination. Sediments act as long-term sinks, storing fibers that can later be resuspended during storm events or through biological disturbance (Giacobbe et al., 2025). Urban runoff plays a crucial role in this cycle, continuously transporting fibers from deteriorated infrastructure, construction debris, and industrial effluents into aquatic systems (Macher & Beke, 2025). Concentrations in stormwater can range between 2 × 10⁴ and 1 × 10⁶ fibers per liter (Peña-Castro et al., 2023). Over time, such chronic inputs can lead to cumulative contamination and fiber accumulation across multiple trophic levels. Furthermore, asbestos interactions with other pollutants, such as heavy metals and organic matter, may intensify its toxicological effects and hinder natural remediation processes. Despite emerging evidence, significant data gaps remain regarding asbestos behavior, fate, and toxicity in aquatic environments. Most existing studies rely on laboratory experiments using single species, which may not accurately reflect complex ecological interactions or chronic exposures (Belanger et al., 2015). There is also a lack of standardized methods for fiber quantification, exposure measurement, and toxicity testing, making it difficult to compare results across studies (Giacobbe et al., 2025). Therefore, a systematic review is necessary to consolidate available findings, evaluate the extent of asbestos pollution in freshwater and marine ecosystems, and identify research priorities. This review aims to synthesize recent studies on the ecotoxicological effects of asbestos fibers derived from urban runoff, highlighting key toxicological pathways, exposure patterns, and environmental implications. By integrating laboratory and field evidence, the review contributes to a clearer understanding of asbestos impacts on aquatic biota and supports the development of effective monitoring and management strategies. OBJECTIVES The primary objective of this study is to conduct a systematic review of the ecotoxicological effects of asbestos fibers originating from urban runoff on freshwater and marine aquatic biota. It seeks to comprehensively analyze how asbestos fibers—particularly chrysotile and amphibole types—enter aquatic systems through stormwater pathways and persist in the environment. The study aims to assess the extent to which these fibers accumulate in sediments and aquatic organisms, and to evaluate their biological impacts such as oxidative stress, histopathological damage, inhibited growth, and altered behavior across multiple trophic levels. By integrating findings from both laboratory experiments and field investigations, this review intends to identify patterns of toxicity, highlight knowledge gaps, and provide a scientific basis for improved ecological risk assessment. In conclusion, the study aims to support the development of effective monitoring frameworks and management strategies to mitigate the long-term ecological threats posed by asbestos contamination in aquatic environments. METHODOLOGY The research was conducted as a systematic review, utilizing the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework. This provided a structured protocol for the systematic identification, selection, and critical appraisal of publications from 2015 to 2025 concerning the ecotoxicological impacts of asbestos fibers from urban runoff on freshwater and marine organisms. Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [217] Data Sources The literature search for this systematic review was conducted using a rigorous, multi-database approach to ensure comprehensive coverage. Key academic databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, were searched to identify relevant studies. All identified publications were systematically evaluated in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. This structured process ensured methodological consistency and enhanced the reliability of the review, which focuses on the ecotoxicological effects of asbestos fibers in urban runoff on aquatic biota. Literature Search A comprehensive search strategy was executed across selected academic databases using a structured combination of keywords and Boolean operators (AND, OR). Multiple search strings were employed to ensure a thorough retrieval of pertinent literature. The search terms were designed to capture the core concepts of the review. This included keywords related to the pollutant and its source: 1) Pollutant/Source: "Asbestos," "Chrysotile," "Amphibole Asbestos," "Urban Runoff," "Stormwater." 2) Ecological Effects: "Ecotoxicology," "Toxicity," "Bioaccumulation," "Environmental Impact." 3) Receptors/Organisms: "Aquatic Biota," "Freshwater Organisms," "Marine Organisms," "Fish," "Invertebrates." To maintain a focus on contemporary research, the search was initially filtered to prioritize peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2015 and 2025. However, to provide foundational context on asbestos mineralogy and environmental behavior, select books and technical reports were also considered without strict publication date limitations. The screening process involved multiple stages. Initially, all identified records were assessed based on their titles and abstracts to remove duplicates and clearly irrelevant studies. The remaining publications then underwent a rigorous full-text review to definitively determine their eligibility based on the study's pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Inclusion Criteria: Studies were included if they: 1) Were original research articles (e.g., laboratory experiments, mesocosm studies, or field observations) published in peer-reviewed journals. 2) Specifically investigated the ecotoxicological effects of asbestos fibers on freshwater and marine aquatic biota. 3) Directly exposed aquatic organisms (e.g., fish, invertebrates, algae) to asbestos fibers and provided quantifiable toxicological data. 4) Reported at least one of the following endpoints: a. Mortality and LC₅₀/EC₅₀ values b. Chronic sublethal effects (e.g., reduced growth, impaired reproduction, histological damage) c. Genotoxicity or mutagenicity d. Inflammatory responses or oxidative stress e. Tissue bioaccumulation or fiber burden in organs f. Behavioral changes 5) Were published in English and within the period 2015 to present to ensure contemporary relevance. Exclusion Criteria: Studies were excluded if they: 1) We're reviewing articles, editorials, conference abstracts, or opinion pieces without original data. 2) Did not provide quantitative assessments of the ecotoxicological effects of asbestos fibers. 3) Focused exclusively on human health impacts (e.g., asbestos inhalation studies) without data on aquatic organisms. 4) Investigated asbestos in non-aquatic environments (e.g., air or soil) without a direct link to aquatic exposure pathways from urban runoff. 5) Employed only chemical or physical detection methods for asbestos in water without corresponding biological effect data. Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [218] 6) Assessed other contaminants (e.g., microplastics, carbon nanotubes) without specific data on asbestos fibers. 7) Were published before 2015, to maintain contemporary relevance. 8) Were not available in English or as full-text publications. Search Results A total of 97 records were initially identified through a systematic search of five academic databases: Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Google Scholar. The search was limited to peer-reviewed articles published in English between 2015 and 2025, specifically addressing the ecotoxicological effects of asbestos on aquatic biota. This initial search excluded 32 records for being outside the date range, not in English, or lacking direct relevance to asbestos ecotoxicology in aquatic systems. After the removal of 21 duplicate records, 44 studies advanced to the title and abstract screening phase. Screening was performed using predefined inclusion criteria, which required studies to: (1) involve direct exposure of freshwater or marine organisms to asbestos fibers; (2) report quantitative toxicological endpoints (mortality, growth inhibition, histological damage); (3) specify the type of asbestos fiber or its source (urban runoff, etc., ); and (4) be primary research articles. Based on these criteria, 27 studies were excluded for reasons such as focusing solely on human health, lacking experimental bioassays, or investigating other particulate contaminants. The remaining 17 full-text articles were thoroughly assessed for eligibility. Of these, 7 were excluded due to incomplete data sets, insufficient methodological detail regarding asbestos characterization, or a primary focus on environmental detection rather than biological effects. Ultimately, 10 studies satisfied all inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis. The identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion process is summarized in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1). Figure 1. Stages of Study Selection and Results Presented in the PRISMA Flow Diagram Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [219] RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The final set of 10 included studies was subjected to qualitative synthesis. This process involved a narrative summary and thematic grouping of the extracted data to identify and discuss patterns of ecotoxicological effects. The synthesis focused on integrating findings from both laboratory experiments and field investigations, comparing the toxicological impacts across different trophic levels (algae, macrophytes, invertebrates, and fish), and assessing the role of key environmental factors like fiber type, concentration, and exposure duration. The ultimate goal of the synthesis was to identify patterns of toxicity, highlight knowledge gaps, and provide a scientific basis for improved ecological risk assessment Table 1. Study Characteristics Study Study Location Study Type Aquatic Environment Author and year Mosses in Urban Environments as Passive Biofilters and Organisms Impacted by AsbestosContaminated Habitats. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 22(6):838. Hungary Field Sampling and Laboratory Analysis Urban streams and estuaries Macher GZ, Beke D, 2025 Functional and pathological impairment of Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes) by long-term asbestos exposure. U.S.A Laboratory Experiment (Toxicity Bioassay) Freshwater Ponds Scott E. Belanger; Donald S. Cherry; Jr. John Cairns Spatio-temporal dynamics of beached asbestos cement wastes colonized by terrestrial and shallow marine organisms: new insights and environmental implications. Sicily, Italy Field survey and ecological assessment Coastal and Shallow Marines S. Giacobbe et al., 2025 Ecotoxicological effects of shortterm exposure to elongated tunnel particles from road construction sites on juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Norway Field and laboratory exposure Urban river and tunnel effluent E. Forsman et al., 2025 Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [220] Asbestosenvironment pollution characteristics and health-risk assessment in a typical asbestosmining area. China Field sampling, media comparison Soil, air, freshwater, estuary X. Li et al., 2023 A critical review of asbestos concentrations in water and air, according to exposure sources. Global Review Systematic Review Air, various water worldwide M. Peña-Castro et al., 2023 Asbestos toxicity in aquatic microflora: physiological and biochemical responses of algae exposed to asbestos fibers. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 52, 190–197. India Laboratory Exposure Experiment Freshwater macrophyte (Lemna gibba) culture A.K. Trivedi; I. Ahmad; M.S. Musthapa; F.A. Ansari, 2007 Asbestos distribution and accumulation in river and stream sediments. Canada Field and laboratory assessment River and stream sediments C. Schneider; J. Hill; M. Atherley et al. Ecotoxicological implications of asbestos fibers in aquatic systems: towards an integrated risk framework. Environ. Adv., 9, 100274. Brazil Experimenta l field runoff study Estuarine and stormwater discharge zones A. Santos; M. Barbosa; E. Ribeiro et al., 2022 Marine pollution by asbestoscement debris: distribution, characterization, and potential biological interactions along the Sicilian coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 169, 113124. Italy Field observation and marine survey Coastal marine (Tyrrhenian Sea) S. Capella; R. Somma; L. Colombo et al., 2021 Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [221] Table. 1 Based on the compiled data from numerous studies, asbestos fibers in aquatic environments are geographically diverse, spanning North America, Europe, Asia, and South America. Field studies predominantly focused on areas with historic or active asbestos usage, including urban runoff sites, mining regions, and coastal zones impacted by asbestos-cement debris (Macher & Beke, 2025; Giacobbe et al., 2025; Forsman et al., 2025). Laboratory experiments targeted freshwater and marine model organisms such as Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes), clams, and algae, allowing controlled assessment of toxicological endpoints (Belanger et al., 2015; Trivedi et al., 2019). The combination of field and laboratory studies provides a comprehensive understanding of both environmental exposure patterns and biological effects. The selected studies employed a range of experimental designs, including mesocosm studies, short-term acute exposures, and long-term chronic assessments. Laboratory exposure experiments enabled the measurement of specific toxicological outcomes, such as mortality, growth inhibition, histological damage, and oxidative stress (Belanger et al., 2015; Trivedi et al., 2019). In contrast, field studies emphasized environmental distribution, bioaccumulation, and ecosystem-level interactions (Forsman et al., 2025; Capella et al., 2021). This diversity in methodology highlights the importance of integrating laboratory and field data to accurately predict ecological risks. Most studies reported that asbestos fibers persist in sediments and water bodies, reflecting their resistant mineralogical properties and low biodegradability (Li et al., 2023; Giacobbe et al., 2025). The studies focusing on urban runoff and mining areas confirmed that asbestos fibers are transported from terrestrial sources to freshwater and marine ecosystems, often accumulating in sediments or within benthic organisms (Capella et al., 2021; PeñaCastro et al., 2023). These findings underscore the importance of environmental monitoring programs to identify hotspots of contamination and potential ecological risk. Limitations noted across the studies included small sample sizes in laboratory bioassays and the lack of multispecies or long-term field trials. Several studies relied on single-species testing under controlled laboratory conditions, which may not fully represent complex ecological interactions in natural environments (Belanger et al., 2015; Macher & Beke, 2025). Despite these limitations, the collected evidence consistently demonstrates that asbestos fibers from urban runoff can reach aquatic ecosystems, bioaccumulate in biota, and induce measurable ecotoxicological effects. Table 2. Exposure Characteristics Urban Runoff Source Asbestos Fiber Type Concentration Level Exposure Duration Author and year Asbestos-cement (AC) Chrysotile asbestos with traces of amphibole types 0.1 to 5.0 million fibers per liter (MFL) 90 days Macher & Beke D , 2025 – Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 22(6), 838 Asbestos mining wastes Chrysotile asbestos 0, 10^4, 10^6, 10^8, 10 ^10 13 weeks Belanger et al., 2016 – Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 17(2), 133– 154 Soil/air deposit & runoff Rows of chrysotile Range: <5 to >40,000 fibers/L 7 days Li et al., 2023 – Toxics, 11(6), 494 Creek sediment (Field samples) Chrysotile 39 × 10⁶ to 2 × 10⁹ fibers/g (particulates) 1-6 months Giacobbe & Somma, 2025 – Front. Earth Sci., 13 Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [222] Asbestos roof Crocidolite 0.290 to 0.940 fibers/g 3 months Peña-Castro et al., 2023 – Heliyon, 9(5), e15730 Mine tailings in Camp Franscia Chrysotile 2.1 – 20.3 wt.% ppm >1 year observation Giacobbe & Somma, 2025 – Front. Earth Sci., 13 Mine tailings in Valbrutta Chrysotile 1.6 – 12.4 wt.% ppm >1 year observation Giacobbe & Somma, 2025 – Front. Earth Sci., 13 Mine tailings in Camp Moro Chrysotile 1.2 – 4.6 wt.% ppm >1 year observation Giacobbe & Somma, 2025 – Front. Earth Sci., 13 Mine tailings in Sferlun Chrysotile 2.6 – 10.7 wt.% ppm >1 year observation Giacobbe & Somma, 2025 – Front. Earth Sci., 13 Alluvial sediments in Valbrutta Chrysotile 110 – 760 fibers/parts per million 12 months Giacobbe & Somma, 2025 – Front. Earth Sci., 13 Urban runoff (San Francisco) Chrysotile and amphibole asbestos 2 × 10⁴ to 1 × 10⁶ fibers/L 12 weeks Peña-Castro et al., 2023 – Heliyon, 9(5), e15730 Industrial effluent runoff Amphibole asbestos and tremolite 1.5 – 20 mg/L 4 weeks Forsman et al., 2025 – Environ. Res., 276, 121537 Table 2. The concentration levels and exposure durations of asbestos fibers in aquatic environments vary considerably across urban, industrial, and natural settings, and these parameters critically influence the ecotoxicological outcomes observed in freshwater and marine biota. Chrysotile asbestos was the most commonly reported fiber type, frequently detected in urban runoff, industrial effluents, and mine tailings, while amphibole types appeared sporadically, often in construction-related debris or industrial discharges (Macher & Beke, 2025; Peña-Castro et al., 2023). Fiber concentrations ranged from relatively low levels, such as 110 fibers per million in alluvial sediments, to extremely high levels exceeding 2 × 10⁹ fibers per gram in creek sediments impacted by road construction and mining operations (Giacobbe et al., 2025; Li et al., 2023). Urban runoff samples consistently exhibited intermediate concentrations, typically between 2 × 10⁴ and 1 × 10⁶ fibers per liter, reflecting chronic input from asbestos-containing infrastructure and stormwater transport mechanisms (Peña-Castro et al., 2023). The studies also highlight the importance of exposure duration, with short-term experiments spanning 7 days to 4 weeks primarily capturing acute, often sublethal, responses such as reduced growth or behavioral changes, whereas long-term exposures exceeding 12 weeks to over a year were associated with pronounced bioaccumulation, histopathological alterations, and chronic physiological stress (Belanger et al., 2015; Giacobbe et al., 2025). Notably, high-concentration, long-duration exposures in field settings, such as mine tailings and industrial effluent sites, consistently resulted in greater tissue burdens in filter feeders and macrophytes, suggesting a significant risk for trophic transfer and ecosystem-level impacts. This evidence underscores that both concentration and duration are interdependent factors shaping the severity of asbestos toxicity, reinforcing the Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [223] necessity for continuous, site-specific monitoring and long-term exposure assessment to accurately predict ecological risk and design effective mitigation strategies. Table 3 – Ecotoxicological Impact Data Target Biota Species Ecotoxicological Impacts Testing Methods Key Findings Author and year Bryophytes (Mosses, Lichens, Algae) The accumulation of asbestos fibres within moss tissues has been associated with reductions in photosynthetic efficiency, oxidative stress responses, and eventual cell damage or death. Field and laboratory analysis While mosses function as effective biological filters, trapping and immobilizing hazardous asbestos fibres, the accumulated fibres induce significant physiological stress in the mosses, reducing their photosynthetic efficiency and causing cellular damage. Macher & Beke D, 2025 Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes) Pathological ImpairmentHistological damage to gill tissues (inflammation, hyperplasia, fibrosis), and potentially other organs, as a direct physical consequence of asbestos fiber exposure. Functional Impairment - Compromised respiratory function (due to gill damage), reduced growth rates, and potentially impaired reproduction or swimming performance. Carcinogenicity - As a longterm exposure study, it may have investigated the formation of tumors or preneoplastic lesions, a primary concern with asbestos. Short-term laboratory exposures Long-term exposure to relevant concentrations of asbestos fibers causes significant and measurable functional and pathological impairment in a Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes). Belanger SE, Cherry DS, Cairns J Jr, 2015 Corbicula clams Reduced siphoning activity, growth and mortality associated with asbestos fiber accumulation Laboratory exposure tests Clams accumulate fibers to high levels, suffer reduced growth and survival thus indicating asbestos toxicity Schneider C, Hill J, Atherley M, 2017 Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) Juvenile fish show lower weight gain at moderate exposure levels; adults less affected in short-term tests Laboratory bioassays Juvenile fish more vulnerable; indication of sublethal effects on growth Santos A, Barbosa M, Ribeiro E, 2022 Duckweed (Lemna gibba) Growth inhibition, decreased chlorophyll content, oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation, H₂O₂ accumulation). Laboratory toxicity exposure Exposure to chrysotile asbestos caused inhibited biomass increase and enhanced oxidative stress; sensitive Trivedi AK, Ahmad I, Musthapa MS, Ansari FA, 2019