Ethnobotanical knowledge and use of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruits in Côte D'Ivoire: Socio-cultural drivers, consensus and local perceptions

 Corresponding author: Stéphane Yao KOFFI Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Ethnobotanical knowledge and use of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruits in Côte D’Ivoire: Socio-cultural drivers, consensus and local perceptions Lucard Koffi GABO 1, Stéphane Yao KOFFI 1, 3, *, André Dago GNAHÉ 1, Jean-Claude Kouakou TANOH 2 and Raoul Kouamé Koffi BRAHIMA 1 1 Laboratory of Agrovalorization, Department of Biochemistry – Microbiology, UFR Agroforestry, Jean Lorougnon Guédé University, BP 150 Daloa, Côte d'Ivoire. 2 Laboratory of Environmental Sciences and Technologies (LSTE), Department of Earth Sciences, Jean Lorougnon Guédé University, Daloa, BP 150 Daloa, Côte d'Ivoire. 3 Center for Study, Research, Consulting and Assistance in Toxicology and Applied Hygiene (CERTOX), 01 BP 4352 Abidjan 01, Côte d’Ivoire. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 Publication history: Received on 23 August 2025; revised on 01 October 2025; accepted on 03 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscarr.2025.25.1.0297 Abstract Non-timber forest products play a crucial role in food security, traditional medicine, and cultural practices across subSaharan Africa. Coelocaryon oxycarpum, an underutilized wild fruit species endemic to Côte d’Ivoire, remains poorly studied despite its nutritional, medicinal, and cosmetic potential. This study aimed to assess the level of knowledge, patterns of use, and socio-cultural factors influencing the valorization of C. oxycarpum in two contrasting agroecological regions: Gontougo (North-East) and Lôh-Djiboua (South-West). A total of 800 households (400 per region) were surveyed between April and August 2023 using structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed through knowledge level (KL), use rate (UR), and informant consensus factor (ICF), with chi-square tests applied to assess associations between demographic variables and knowledge or use. Results revealed that 51.5% of respondents were familiar with the fruit, but only 21.7% reported using it. Knowledge was higher in Gontougo (53.8%) compared with Lôh-Djiboua (49.2%), while usage followed a similar trend (26.8% vs. 16.6%). Knowledge and use were significantly associated with ethnicity, education, and gender. Indigenous groups (Koulango, Dida, Degha, Abron) accounted for over 80% of knowledge holders, while women were the main users (16.2%). The highest ICF values were recorded for food uses (0.91) and cosmetic applications (1.0), underscoring the species’ multifunctional potential. This study demonstrates that C. oxycarpum is culturally significant yet underexploited. Its valorization through biochemical characterization, nutritional assessment, and domestication efforts is critical to ensure sustainable conservation and enhance its contribution to local food and health systems. Keywords: Coelocaryon Oxycarpum; Indigenous Knowledge; Food Security; Ethnobotany; Côte d’Ivoire 1. Introduction In many regions of sub-Saharan Africa, non-timber forest products are central to food security, traditional medicine, and cultural practices [1,2]. Among these, wild edible fruit plants occupy a particularly important place in rural diets and local pharmacopoeias [3]. Yet, many of these species remain poorly known, underutilized, or threatened with GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 16 extinction due to the lack of scientific, economic, and political valorization [4]. This situation poses risks to both food security and the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in West Africa, particularly in Côte d’Ivoire [5,6]. One example is Coelocaryon oxycarpum, a wild tree species of the Myristicaceae family whose fruits are traditionally consumed by diverse communities in Côte d’Ivoire [7,8]. Beyond its nutritional role, the fruit is valued as a flavor enhancer [9,10], as well as for therapeutic uses such as anticoagulant and wound-healing properties [11]. Its richness in phenolic and azelaic acids also suggests promising cosmetic applications [12,13]. These attributes highlight the plant’s potential economic and functional importance. Despite this, C. oxycarpum remains under-studied and undervalued. To date, few systematic studies have quantified local knowledge levels or documented patterns of use. Its status as an underutilized and threatened phytogenetic resource raises concerns about its conservation and the intergenerational transmission of associated knowledge [7]. Scientific documentation of regional and social variations in knowledge and use of C. oxycarpum is also scarce, despite its endemism in Côte d’Ivoire. This gap underscores the importance of assessing how socio-cultural factors shape its use and how such dynamics may guide conservation strategies. This study therefore aims to evaluate the level of knowledge and usage practices of C. oxycarpum fruits in two contrasting agroecological regions of Côte d’Ivoire: Gontougo (North-East) and Lôh-Djiboua (South-West). Specifically, it seeks to identify the socio-cultural factors influencing its use, document its local applications, and contribute to its valorization, sustainable conservation, and the preservation of indigenous knowledge. We hypothesize that knowledge and use of C. oxycarpum vary significantly between regions and social groups, reflecting differences in cultural practices and ecological contexts. Testing this hypothesis is essential for highlighting the plant’s role in local livelihoods and for informing strategies to integrate neglected species into sustainable food and health systems. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area The study was conducted in thirteen [13] localities located in two contrasting agroecological regions of Côte d’Ivoire : Gontougo (North-East) and Lôh-Djiboua (South-West). Gontougo is situated at 8°02′ N and 2°47′ W, while Lôh-Djiboua lies at 5°50′ N and 5°22′ W (Figure 1). Lôh-Djiboua is characterized by an AW climate according to Köppen–Geiger classification, with a mean annual temperature of 26.1 °C and an average rainfall of 1069.4 mm. In contrast, Gontougo falls within the South-Sudanian climatic zone, which represents a transition between the Sudanian tropical climate and the humid tropical Baouléen type. Seasonal patterns in this region are irregular, alternating between two to four rainy/dry cycles per year [14]. Agricultural production is a major economic activity in both regions. Lôh-Djiboua is dominated by rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), cocoa (Theobroma cacao), and banana (Musa spp.), whereas Gontougo is characterized by cashew (Anacardium occidentale), cocoa, and yam (Dioscorea spp.). GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 17 Figure 1 Location map of the study areas 2.2. Plant Material The research focused on the fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum (Figure 2), selected for its socio-cultural and utilitarian significance in the study regions. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 18 Figure 2 Fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum 2.3. Survey Material Data were collected using a structured questionnaire composed of • Open-ended questions (free responses), • Closed-ended questions (binary yes/no), • Semi-open questions (multiple predefined options). The questionnaire covered socio-demographic information (ethnicity, social status, etc.), knowledge of C. oxycarpum, modes of use (raw, processed), and purposes of use (food, medicinal, cosmetic). 2.4. Sampling and Data Collection Fieldwork was carried out between April 4 and August 26, 2023, covering the main phenological and post-harvest phases of C. oxycarpum fruit • Fruit maturity (February–April), • Harvesting (mid-May–early June), • Drying, storage, and marketing (mid-April until stocks were depleted). Surveys were conducted in local markets at departmental capitals among vendors of wild edible plants, as well as in households from sub-prefectures, and villages within both regions. Localities were randomly selected. A total 800 households were surveyed (400 per region), representing an estimated 2400 individuals (average household size of three). Only one questionnaire was completed per household to avoid response duplication. Interviews lasted approximately 25 minutes and were conducted in French by a PhD student in agroforestry, with assistance from interpreters when local languages other than Baoulé were spoken. 2.5. Analytical Parameters 2.5.1. Knowledge Level (KL) Knowledge Level (KL) was calculated as the proportion of individuals familiar with C. oxycarpum relative to the total number of people surveyed, following the formula adapted from [15]. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 19 Where N = number of respondents knowing the fruit, Nₜ = total respondents 2.5.2. Use Rate (UR) The usage rate was defined as the proportion of individuals who had ever used C. oxycarpum fruits relative to the total surveyed according to the formula used by Mbalula [16] Were U = number of users, Nₜ = total respondents. 2.5.3. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) For the present study, we adapted the formula proposed by Bayeli et al. [17], used to assess consensus on the uses of C. oxycarpum (food, medicinal, cosmetic) and on its vernacular naming across ethnic groups: Were Nₐ = number of informants citing a given use or vernacular name, Nₜ = total informants in the category Note: Values range from 0 (no agreement) to 1 (full agreement), with higher values indicating stronger consensus. 2.6. Statistical Analysis Survey data were processed using Sphinx Plus² V5 software and further analyzed with Microsoft Excel. Chi-square (χ²) tests of independence were performed to examine associations between categorical variables (gender, education level, ethnicity) and binary variables (KL, UR). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. 3. Results 3.1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the study population Table 1 summarizes the sociodemographic profile of the 800 respondents surveyed in the Gontougo and Lôh-Djiboua regions. Both men and women of varying marital status, age groups, ethnic backgrounds, and education levels were represented. Women were slightly more represented, ranging from 48.25% to 54.75%, compared with men (45.25– 51.75%). The age group most represented was 18–60 years (45–47.5%, or 370 individuals), followed by those over 60 years (235 individuals). The majority of respondents in Gontougo were indigenous groups (64.5%), mainly Abron, Koulango, and Degha. Educational levels were generally low: only 1.3% had attended university, 3.2% were literate through Quranic or adult literacy classes, 18.1% had secondary education, while the majority were illiterate (59.1%). 1 (3) GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 20 Table 1 Sociodemographic profile of the surveyed population in Gontougo and Lôh-Djiboua regions Respondent Profile Category Gontougo (n = 400) Lôh-Djiboua (n = 400) Total (n = 800) Sex of respondent Female 219 (54.75%) 193 (48.25%) 412 (51.5%) Male 181 (45.25%) 207 (51.75%) 388 (48.5%) Ethnic group Indigenous (Abron, Koulango, Degha) 258 (64.5%) – 258 (32.2%) Indigenous (Dida) – 192 (48.0%) 192 (24.0%) Allochthonous (Baoulé, Agni, Lobi, Sénoufo, Nafana) 132 (33.0%) 153 (38.3%) 285 (35.7%) Allogenous (Mossi) 10 (2.5%) 55 (13.7%) 65 (8.1%) Age group <18 years 95 (23.8%) 100 (25.0%) 195 (24.0%) 18–60 years 190 (47.5%) 180 (45.0%) 370 (46.3%) >60 years 115 (28.7%) 120 (30.0%) 235 (29.4%) Education level No formal schooling 369 (78.0%) 104 (22.0%) 473 (59.1%) Quranic / Literate 20 (5.0%) 6 (1.5%) 26 (3.2%) Primary 96 (65.8%) 50 (34.2%) 146 (18.3%) Secondary 64 (16.0%) 81 (20.3%) 145 (18.1%) Higher education 3 (0.75%) 7 (1.75%) 10 (1.3%) Marital status Married / Cohabiting 214 (53.5%) 293 (73.3%) 507 (63.4%) Single / Divorced 186 (46.5%) 107 (26.8%) 293 (36.6%) n = sample size of respondents 3.2. Knowledge and use of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit 3.2.1. Overall knowledge and use Although the fruit was widely known, its domestic use remained limited (Table 2). Of the 412 respondents (51.5%) who knew the fruit, only 174 (21.75%) reported using it. Knowledge was higher in Gontougo (53.8%) than in Lôh-Djiboua (49.2%). However, use rates were low in both regions, with 26.8% in Gontougo compared to 16.6% in Lôh-Djiboua. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 21 Table 2 Knowledge and use of C. oxycarpum fruit in the study regions Parameter Gontougo Lôh-Djiboua Average Resp. Per. (%) Resp. Per. (%) Resp. Per. (%) KL (Knowledge Level) 215 53.80 197 49.20 412 51.5 UR (Use Rate) 107 26.8 67 16.6 174 21.75 Note: Respondents (Resp.) = number of individuals surveyed; Per. = Percentage 3.2.2. Distribution of knowledge of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit across ethnic groups Figure 3 shows that indigenous groups were the primary custodians of knowledge about C. oxycarpum. The Koulango (22%), Dida (16.9%), Abron (1.6%), and Degha (1.3%) accounted for more than 81% of respondents with knowledge of the fruit. In contrast, allochthonous and non-indigenous groups demonstrated very limited familiarity. Figure 3 Proportion of respondents reporting knowledge of C. oxycarpum fruit across ethnic groups 3.2.3. Distribution of use of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit across ethnic groups As shown in Figure 4, use was concentrated among Koulango (12.8%) and Dida (6.2%), with minor contributions from Baoulé, Degha, Abron, and Nafana groups, whose use rates did not exceed 1.1%. Figure 4 Frequency of respondents reporting the use of C. oxycarpum across ethnic groups GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 22 3.3. Sociodemographic factors influencing knowledge and use 3.3.1. Influence of educational level on knowledge of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit Knowledge levels varied significantly with literacy (χ² = 15.83; p < 0.05). Illiterate respondents represented the highest proportion of those familiar with the fruit (27.5%), whereas university-educated respondents accounted for only 0.6% (Figure 5). Figure 5 Knowledge of the C. oxycarpum fruit according to literacy level 3.3.2. Influence of gender on knowledge of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit Both men and women reported knowledge of C. oxycarpum (Figure 6), but knowledge was significantly associated with gender. Women were more likely to be familiar with the fruit (30.5%). Figure 6 Knowledge of the C. oxycarpum fruit by gender 3.3.3. Influence of educational level on the use of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit Use was strongly associated with education level (Figure 7). Illiterate respondents reported the highest usage rate (12%), while no use was recorded among university-educated respondents. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(01), 015-028 23 Figure 7 Use of the C. oxycarpum fruit according to educational level 3.3.4. Influence of gender on the use of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit Use also varied significantly by gender (χ² = 29.92; p < 0.05). Women were the main users of C. oxycarpum fruit (16.2%) compared with men (5.5%) (Figure 8). Figure 8 Use of the C. oxycarpum fruit by gender 3.4. Informant consensus 3.4.1. Local taxonomy of Coelocaryon oxycarpum The fruit is known by different vernacular names depending on the ethnic group (Table 3). The name Blima (used by Koulango, Degha, and Abron) had the highest consensus (ICF = 0.60). Other names, such as Dagla, Soclopélia, Globier, and Odougbognahoré, showed much lower agreement (ICF ≤ 0.22).