Between love, medicine and poison: A review of Datura stramonium (Toloache) in Mexican Ethnobotany

 Corresponding author: Alejandro Torres-Montúfar Copyright © 2024 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0. Between love, medicine and poison: A review of Datura stramonium (Toloache) in Mexican Ethnobotany Alejandro Torres-Montúfar 1, * and Sharon Vargas Martínez 2 1 FESC Herbarium. Department of Biological Sciences, FESC-UNAM, Faculty of Higher Studies CuautitlanNational Autonomous University of Mexico, km 2.5 Cuautitlan Teoloyucan, San Sebastian Xhala, Cuautitlan Izcalli, Mexico. 2 Agricultural Engineering. FESC-UNAM, Faculty of Higher Studies CuautitlanNational Autonomous University of Mexico, km 2.5 Cuautitlan Teoloyucan, San Sebastian Xhala, Cuautitlan Izcalli, Mexico. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024, 32(02), 272-277 Publication history: Received on 18 July 2025; revised on 26 August 2025; accepted on 28 August 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2025.32.2.0339 Abstract This review compiles and synthesizes ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and toxicological information on Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae), commonly known in Mexico as “Toloache.” Based on an extensive bibliographic survey, a total of 43 distinct medicinal and ritual uses were recorded, with leaves being the most frequently employed plant part (25 uses), followed by seeds, roots, and flowers. The highest number of uses correspond to the respiratory system (10 records), including treatments for asthma, cough, whooping cough, and influenza. The musculoskeletal system ranks second (eight uses), with applications for rheumatism, joint pain, neuralgia, and neuritis, while the integumentary system occupies third place (seven uses), addressing burns, ulcers, acne, erysipelas, superficial tumors, and wounds. Beyond these biomedical categories, D. stramonium holds important cultural value in Mexico, particularly in traditional medicine and rituals for culturally defined illnesses such as love-sickness and fright, as well as other ailments. The plant’s pharmacological properties are largely attributed to its potent tropane alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and scopolamine, which confer bronchodilator, antispasmodic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, these compounds also make the species highly toxic, with a very narrow therapeutic window, requiring caution in its use and emphasizing the need for controlled pharmacological research to validate traditional practices. Keywords: Toloache; Ethnobotany; Tropane alkaloids; Traditional medicine 1. Introduction The Solanaceae is a diverse group comprising more than 2,700 species in approximately 98 genera, distributed worldwide but especially abundant in tropical and subtropical regions [1]. This family is notable for its economic and medicinal importance, encompassing food crops such as tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), and peppers (Capsicum spp.), as well as several species rich in bioactive compounds [2]. Within this family, the genus Datura L. holds ethnobotanical and pharmacological relevance. Native primarily to the Americas, especially Mexico, Datura species are recognized for their potent tropane alkaloids and their long-standing role in traditional medicine, ritual use, and as ornamental plants [3]. The genus Datura comprises of herbaceous plants and shrubs widely recognized for their large, showy, trumpet-shaped flowers. Species of the genus are generally characterized by simple, alternate leaves, often with an undulating or lobed margin, and erect or nodding flowers that are actinomorphic, typically with a tubular corolla that flares into five lobes. The fruit is a spiny capsule that is dehiscence irregularly to release numerous seeds. The species Datura stramonium L., commonly known as Toloache, is one of the most widespread species of the genus. It is an annual herb reaching up to GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024, 32(02), 272-277 273 1.5 m in height, with coarsely toothed leaves that emit a strong odour when crushed. The flowers are large, white to violet, funnel-shaped, and can reach up to 10 cm in length, opening mostly in the evening or early morning. Its fruit is a globose, spiny capsule that splits into four valves at maturity, containing numerous kidney-shaped seeds (Figure 1) [4, 5]. Figure 1 Toloache (Datura stramonium). A. Plant. B. Flower. C. Mature fruit These plants commonly colonize open and unstable habitats, often in areas disturbed by human activity, such as roadsides, construction zones, and livestock enclosures [4]. While the distribution of Central and South American species is well documented [5, 6], the genus reaches its greatest diversity in Mexico, particularly in the Balsas River Basin, which is considered its center of diversity, and most species are adapted to arid or semi-arid conditions [5]. All Datura species contain tropane alkaloids nitrogen containing bicyclic compounds derived from secondary metabolism. These alkaloids, including hyoscyamine and scopolamine (hyoscine), are also found in other Solanaceae genera such as Brugmansia Pers., Atropa L., Mandragora L., and Physalis L. [7]. Despite its cultural and pharmacological significance, in Mexico there is currently no comprehensive study compiling the traditional uses of Datura stramonium. Therefore, the objective of this work is to provide a bibliographic review to address this gap and serve as a reference for future ethnobotanical and pharmacological research. 2. Material and methods The review was conducted through a comprehensive search of major scientific databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, Medline, and ScienceDirect. Additional sources consulted comprised English and non-English reference books, theses, and peer-reviewed research articles addressing the useful properties of Datura stramonium. In total, over 50 publications related to Mexican ethnobotany were examined to gather accurate and relevant information on the various aspects of this species. 3. Results and Discussion A total of 43 uses were registered for Toloache in Mexico (Table 1). The leaves are the most frequently used plant part, in 25 of the 43 recorded uses. Other plant parts are used less often, with seeds appearing in nine uses, roots in three uses, flowers in two uses (Table 1). Three ailments stand out for having the highest number of uses: rheumatism, asthma, and headache. Each of these ailments is associated with three distinct uses involving different plant parts or preparation methods. The respiratory system has the highest number of uses, with a total of ten records. This category includes ailments such as asthma, cough, whooping cough, and flu, each with different preparation methods and plant parts used. It is followed by the musculoskeletal system, with eight uses, covering rheumatism, joint pain, neuralgia, neuritis, and uric acid. The GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024, 32(02), 272-277 274 integumentary system (skin) ranks third, with seven uses related to burns, ulcers, acne, erysipelas, superficial tumors, and wounds. Table 1 Traditional medicinal uses of Toloache (Datura stramonium) in Mexico Ailment Plant part Use Citation Physiological system Acne Leaves Decoction and topical application [8] Integumentary system Divination Leaves ND [8] Nervous system Analgesic ND ND [9] Nervous system Asthma Leaves Cigarette [10] Respiratory system Asthma Leaves, Roots Cigarettes, Decoction [11] Respiratory system Asthma Roots Decoction [10] Respiratory system Burns Leaves Topical application [12] Integumentary system Conjure removal Leaves ND [13] Nervous system Cough ND ND [11] Respiratory system Cough Leaves Infusion [8] Respiratory system Depression/ Lovesickness Flowers Decoction [8] Nervous system Dental pain Leaves Poultice [11] Immune/infectious diseases Dental pain Seeds Poultice [11] Immune/infectious diseases Erysipelas Leaves Topical application [11] Integumentary system Fever (flu) ND ND [11] Respiratory system Headache Flowers Decoction [11] Nervous system Headache Leaves Topical application [11] Nervous system Headache Seeds Tincture [10] Nervous system Haemorrhoids ND ND [11] Digestive/parasitic system Haemorrhoids Leaves Decoction [8] Digestive/parasitic system Helminthiasis ND ND [11] Digestive/parasitic system Helminthiasis Leaves Decoction [8] Digestive/parasitic system Inflammation Leaves Topical application [8] Integumentary system Inflammation of uterus Leaves Topical application [11] Reproductive system Wounds Leaves Decoction, bath [8, 12] Integumentary system Joint pain Leaves, Seeds Decoction and bathing with that water or direct application [11] Musculoskeletal system Labour pain Seeds Poultice [10, 11] Reproductive system GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024, 32(02), 272-277 275 Menstrual problems Leaves ND [12] Reproductive system Mumps Leaves Decoction and poultice [11] Immune/infectious diseases Neuralgia Seeds Tincture [10] Musculoskeletal system Neuritis ND ND [11] Musculoskeletal system Parasites Leaves ND [8] Digestive/parasitic system Psychotropic Seeds Direct ingestion [8] Nervous system Rheumatism Leaves Poultice [8] Musculoskeletal system Rheumatism Roots Poultice [8] Musculoskeletal system Rheumatism Seeds Tincture [10] Musculoskeletal system Scare (fright) Leaves ND [11] Nervous system Superficial tumours Leaves ND [12] Integumentary system Tranquiliser ND ND [11] Nervous system Ulcers ND ND [11] Integumentary system Uric acid ND ND [11] Musculoskeletal system Whooping cough Leaves Decoction and bath [11] Respiratory system The Datura stramonium, commonly known in Mexico as “Toloache,” is deeply embedded in both traditional medicine and cultural ritual practice. In Mexico, the Toloache holds a dual identity: it is a medicinal and ritual plant central to community practices, and simultaneously a dangerous weed from an agronomic and toxicological standpoint. Ethnobotanical surveys reveal its use for a broad spectrum of ailments, ranging from respiratory disorders such as asthma, cough, whooping cough, and influenza to musculoskeletal conditions like rheumatism, neuralgia, neuritis, joint pain, and uric acid accumulation [3]. These uses are consistent with descriptions found in post-Conquest ethnomedical codices and have persisted despite formal warnings regarding toxicity [14]. Datura stramonium is classified as a highly toxic plant due to the unpredictable concentration and ratio of tropane alkaloids in its tissues [14]. Symptoms of poisoning include dry mouth, blurred vision from mydriasis, tachycardia, hyperthermia, urinary retention, confusion, hallucinations, and seizures, with severe cases progressing to coma or death (Soni et al., 2012). Toxicity is compounded by environmental factors such as soil composition, water availability, and phenological stage, which affect alkaloid biosynthesis [15]. 3.1. Therapeutic uses The therapeutic and psychoactive effects of D. stramonium are largely attributed to tropane alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and scopolamine (hyoscine), both of which act as potent antagonists of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors [9]. This anticholinergic action accounts for the bronchodilatory, antispasmodic, and sedative effects sought in respiratory and pain treatments. Phytochemical profiling demonstrates that alkaloid content varies markedly among plant organs and developmental stages. Miraldi et al. [15] reported leaf concentrations of 0.2–0.45% total alkaloids and seed concentrations around 0.2%, with hyoscyamine predominating and partially racemizing to atropine during extraction or metabolism. Such variability explains why leaves are preferred for inhalation-based remedies and why seeds are regarded as more potent for psychoactive or analgesic purposes. Recent research has expanded the pharmacological scope beyond tropanes. Damergi et al. [16] identified withanolide steroidal lactones in flower extracts, including daturametelin B and 12α-hydroxydaturametelin B, which demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity (IC₅₀ 6.8–14.5 μg/mL in nitric oxide inhibition assays with RAW 264.7 GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024, 32(02), 272-277 276 macrophages), alongside antibacterial and antioxidant potential. These compounds may provide additional biochemical support for the topical treatment of inflammatory and infectious skin conditions recorded in ethnobotanical data. 3.2. Cultural Syndromes: Love poisons and Scare/Fright Beyond biomedical categories, D. stramonium plays a role in addressing culturally specific syndromes in Mexico. Mal de amores (“love-sickness”) refers to an emotional and somatic state associated with unrequited love or romantic loss, while “susto” (fright) is interpreted as soul loss following a traumatic event. In traditional healing systems, both conditions are treated through rituals in which Datura may be ingested, smoked, or used in baths to induce altered states of consciousness, facilitating what healers describe as spiritual rebalancing (Figure 2) [3, 13]. Figure 2 A-B. Places selling medicinal plants at the Sonora Market, Mexico City. C-D. Toloache products available in the market: candle, extracts, and soap, for esoteric uses From a pharmacological perspective, the central nervous system effects of tropane alkaloids, sedation, delirium, hallucinations, and amnesia, could create subjective experiences interpreted as cathartic or transformative within the cultural framework. These experiences, while meaningful in ritual contexts, arise from neurotoxic effects that can rapidly escalate to life-threatening intoxication if dosage is uncontrolled [9]. The narrow therapeutic window of Datura means that the margin between a psychoactive or medicinal dose and a lethal dose can be minimal. This pharmacological reality calls for caution, particularly given that most traditional preparations are unstandardized. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024, 32(02), 272-277 277 4. Conclusion The ethnomedicinal versatility of Datura stramonium in Mexico reflects both its rich pharmacological profile and its deep cultural embedding. Alkaloid-based actions explain many of the reported therapeutic effects, while non-alkaloid metabolites expand the potential pharmacological relevance of this species. 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