Revitalizing Urban Morphology Through Transportation: Sustainable And Resilient Utilization Of Ankara's Streams

ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES: URBAN RESILIENCE Editors Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ October 15, 2025 Copyright © 2025 by İKSAD publishing house All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. Institution of Economic Development and Social Researches (The Licence Number of Publicator: 2014/31220) TÜRKİYE TR: +90 342 606 06 75 USA: +1 631 685 0 853 E mail: [email protected] www.iksadyayinevi.com It is responsibility of the author to abide by the publishing ethics rules. Iksad Publications – 2025© Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience ISBN: 978-625-378-337-2 Cover Design: Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ October 15, 2025 Ankara / Türkiye Size = 16x24 cm PREFACE Dear Professors and Colleagues, We are pleased bring to life that Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience, which was published as an e-book by IKSAD Publishing House with the editors Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU and Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ. This book project, entitled “Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience,” aims to address sustainability-oriented approaches to urban resilience from theoretical, methodological, and practical perspectives. The volume seeks to establish a multi-layered platform of discussion, ranging from the scale of individual buildings to the entirety of the urban fabric. Within this framework, it welcomes contributions from scholars and researchers working in architecture, urban design, landscape architecture, urban and regional planning, environmental engineering, and related disciplines. With the valuable contributions of our chapter authors working in the professional disciplines of landscape architecture, architecture, city and regional planning, urban design and sustainability, we have completed Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience book study has been completed with 24 book chapters. We would like to thank you, our esteemed authors, for their contributions to the preparation of the book. We would also like to thank the editorial board and IKSAD Publishing House. We wish to continue this process we have started in the coming years. In addition, we would like to express our sincere appreciation to Prof. Dr. Atila GÜL, the book coordinator of IKSAD Publishing House, for his guidance and support throughout the publication process. We hope that our book ‘Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience’ will be helpful to the readers. Best regards. 15.10.2025 EDITORS Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ EDITORS Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ AUTHORS The authors were listed in alphabetical order Alper ÇABUK Ayça GÜLTEN Ayşe ÖZYETGİN ALTUN Ayşe Özge ŞİMŞEK SOYSAL Ayşegül TANRIVERDİ KAYA Demet EROL Deniz DEMİRARSLAN Ebru Vesile ÖCALIR Eda ŞENTÜRK Elif Kübra ÖZTÜRK Emine BAYDAN Esra KESKİN Feran AŞUR Feyza Sena ŞENOCAK Filiz KARAKUŞ Furkan AKDEMİR Gencay ÇUBUK Gülşah BİLGE ÖZTÜRK Halil DUYMUŞ Hamza ALTAŞ Hande AKARCA İnci OLGUN Kemal Mert ÇUBUKÇU Kumru ÇILGIN Mehmet Akif IRMAK Mehmet Emin DAŞ Mehtap ÖZENEN KAVLAK Merve ALICI AKA Mesut GÜZEL Muhammed Akif AÇIKGÖZ Muhammed Emir GÖRAL Murat YEŞİL Olcay Türkan YURDUGÜZEL Özge DÜZGÜN EREKİNCİ Pervin YEŞİL Rabia Nurefsan ACIKGOZ Sedef ŞENDOĞDU Seher Simay KUŞOĞLU Serim DİNÇ Sevilay YILDIZ Sinem SEYHAN Şevval ERGİNDOĞAN Şuheda ALTUNOK Temuçin Göktürk SEYHAN Tuba Nur OLĞUN Tuna BATUHAN Ufuk Teoman AKSOY Yusuf Eminoğlu REVIEWER LIST The authors were listed in alphabetical order Aslıhan TIRNAKÇI Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University Atila GÜL Süleyman Demirel University Ayşe Kalaycı ÖNAÇ İzmir Katip Çelebi University Bige ŞİMŞEK İLHAN İstanbul Medipol University Burcu YILMAZEL Eskişehir Technical University Eda KOÇAK Siirt University Ekrem BAHADIR Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University Elif KUTAY KARAÇOR İstanbul Technical University Hakan ARSLAN Ondokuz Mayıs University Hilal TURGUT Karadeniz Technical University Meliha AKLIBAŞINDA Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University Murat AKTEN Süleyman Demirel University Nihan Sümeyye GÜNDOĞDU Atlas University Okan Murat DEDE Amasya University Ömer Lütfü ÇORBACI Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University Selcen Nur Erikci Çelik Beykoz University Sibel AKTEN Isparta Unıversıty Of Applıed Scıences Sinem ÖZDEDE Pamukkale University Şeyma ŞENGÜR Ordu University Turgut KALAY Kütahya Dumlupınar University Tendü Hilal GÖKTUĞ Aydın Adnan Menderes University 667 1. Introduction Humanity often exploits the environment to improve its own conditions, leading to the alteration and transformation of natural ecosystems. In recent years, the consequences of this impact have become increasingly destructive. The harmful effects of human actions on nature are referred to as anthropogenic pollution, which typically arises from processes like industrialization and urbanization. This problem reflects an imbalanced and unsustainable approach to the human-nature relationship. Factors such as population growth, increased mechanization, and expanding urban areas contribute to the overuse of natural resources, environmental degradation, water and air pollution, loss of vegetation, and the extinction of various animal species (Sümer et al., 2020). Cities are human-made spaces shaped through the transformation of natural environments into built areas. The creation of urban functions arises from the need to meet human demands. This gives rise to a conceptual paradox: while urban development reflects human progress, it simultaneously relies on the consumption of natural resources, which creates significant challenges. To address this contradiction, solutions should prioritize scenarios that minimize environmental harm (Harris & Ullman, 1945). The city and its surrounding areas, where people reside, possess a distinct biodiversity structure. Human life unfolds within an ecosystem where biodiversity is both sustained and diminished over time. Within this system—where energy and nutrients cycle—humans alter their surroundings through the use of natural resources. However, these environmental interventions are not always beneficial. Today, one of the pressing issues is habitat destruction, a consequence of harmful human 668 impacts. Urbanization often leads to environmental degradation such as soil, water, and air pollution, deforestation, the urban heat island effect, and the loss of wetlands. Nevertheless, it is recognized that sustainable practices can help mitigate these effects and offer ecological benefits. (Çakmak, 2008). The city emerges through the integration of various spaces shaped by a certain narrative or design. In contemporary times, political shifts and socio-economic dynamics influencing these spaces also transform the urban structure. In this sense, the urban form can be seen as a human habitat that reflects the culture and values of its inhabitants (Özkök & Yenen, 2022). One study highlights the crucial role that urban road networks play in analyzing and interpreting the structure of a given city (Ünlü Yücesoy & Özüduru, 2018). In urban studies, considerable attention has been given to examining the anthropogenic impacts shaping the urban environment. The concept of the "Urbanocene" has been introduced to describe the contemporary era in which over half of the global population resides in cities. This term underscores humanity’s central role in the transformation of rural and agricultural landscapes into urbanized areas. While highlighting the significance of adopting sustainable urbanism practices in managing this transformation, the literature also draws attention to the associated environmental consequences, including the degradation of natural ecosystems (Chatterjee et al., 2022). Anthropogenic impacts have become increasingly evident in the more recent stages of the historical process, with global challenges—such as the climate crisis—occupying a central place in contemporary discourse. In response to these challenges, the preservation of the natural environment and the sustainable transfer of 669 resources to future generations emerge as critical issues requiring resolution. Scholarly perspectives emphasize that planning plays a fundamental role in addressing these concerns. Specifically, nature-based or ecologically informed planning approaches are seen as essential for creating spatial configurations that maintain a sustainable balance between the built and natural environments (Erbaş & Salt, 2020). The city functions as a complex and dynamic organism, and identifying its evolving needs in the face of contemporary challenges presents a considerable analytical difficulty. Since the 1950s, urban morphology has served as a key framework for interpreting the structure and development of modern cities. As a methodological tool, urban morphology plays a vital role in examining patterns of urban growth and in elucidating the interactions between human activity and the natural environment (Maretto et al., 2023). According to Konuk et al. (2017), urban morphology examines the evolving form of the city over time, focusing on its transformation, spatial integration, and physical characteristics with particular attention to scale integrity. In a broader sense, urban morphology is also defined as the study of form within the disciplines of planning and urban design, offering insights into how spatial patterns and built environments develop and interact (Giritlioğlu & Gürleyen, 2018). Urban morphology, which examines the spatial consistency of urban form across multiple scales, is increasingly recognized as a critical field for promoting sustainable urban development (Chen, 2021). It cannot be studied in isolation from environmental factors such as physiography, topography, climate, hydrology, vegetation, and fauna, nor can it be 670 claimed that it does not influence these elements. These natural components collectively shape the spatial form of settlements and contribute significantly to the morphological structure of cities (Giritlioğlu & Gürleyen, 2018). The formation of a city is fundamentally a synthesis of human cultural outputs within the context of the natural environment. The natural landscape shapes the city's form, density, and appearance through its interaction with the artificial components of the built environment. Through this interplay, distinct morphological textures emerge, and the city is ultimately formed through their integration (Konuk et al., 2017). Transportation is one of the key elements in the morphological development of cities. The human pursuit of access to opportunities generates a need for mobility, which in turn necessitates the transformation of portions of the natural environment to accommodate transportation infrastructure. With advancements in transportation technologies, the urban footprint has expanded due to increased travel distances within shorter timeframes. This phenomenon is frequently cited as a major driver of urban growth. However, recent research suggests that transportationrelated opportunities have become more influential than traditional physical determinants such as topography in shaping urban form (Kam & Ulusay Alpay, 2023). Historically, transportation and settlement patterns have mutually influenced one another and have played pivotal roles in urban development. Scholarly investigations have increasingly focused on the interrelationship between urban form and transportation, with findings indicating that urban form serves as a mediating factor in sustainability- 671 related outcomes. These include greenhouse gas emissions, species segregation, energy consumption, quality of life, and urban expansion (Zhang et al., 2023). The road network, a fundamental component of the city, emerges as a product of cultural interpretation shaped by the physical environment and serves to organize urban space (Aysan Buldurur, 2022). The intrinsic interconnection between transportation infrastructure and urban form within this spatial organization calls for renewed analytical frameworks grounded in sustainability and urban resilience (Esposito et al., 2023). Existing research highlights that roads are not merely infrastructural elements within urban morphology but also exert significant economic, social, and environmental impacts on both the natural environment and urban populations. Accordingly, when road network development is carefully regulated and balanced, it can yield substantial benefits. Conversely, unplanned or economically driven unchecked expansion often generates challenges that must be addressed through sustainable and resilient urban planning strategies. In contemporary discourse, the anthropogenic impact on the environment necessitates solutions framed within the paradigms of sustainability— often referred to as the green agenda—and urban resilience, or the blue agenda. Recent studies emphasize the emergence of a “turquoise agenda,” which synthesizes these two approaches, advocating for the elimination of negative effects in new settlement developments through the creation of sustainable and resilient urban spaces (Aydın, 2023). Modern technological advancements have facilitated the transformation of natural environments into built spaces designed to serve human needs. 672 This morphological expansion of cities, however, results in the depletion of finite natural resources. Such resource consumption is viewed negatively, posing threats to future sustainability and challenging presentday urban resilience (Akdemir & Duman Yüksel, 2022). With a significant proportion of the global population now residing in urban areas, issues such as the redevelopment of vacant, underutilized brownfields into new real estate projects, the formation of urban heat islands, air and noise pollution, and flooding have become pressing concerns linked to rapid urbanization (Zhu et al., 2022; Birik & Tezer, 2018). The literature highlights the critical importance of reintroducing green and natural spaces into urban contexts to counteract or mitigate these negative impacts. In this respect, nature-based solutions have gained prominence as effective strategies for enhancing both sustainability and urban resilience. From the perspective of urban morphology, environmental factors— including geological, physiographic, hydrological, and microclimatic characteristics—play a decisive role in shaping planning and design approaches. These physical qualities of the environment directly influence urban development patterns and guide the direction of spatial growth. Water is one of the environmental issues that are emphasized sensitively in planning activities. The hydrological cycle refers to the circulation of water on the ground and in the air, emphasizing that water is a great functional wealth for the city, a source of life in terms of sustainability, and an element that integrates and develops the city (Hamamcıoğlu, 2025). Over the years, human activities affect stream flows and the river hierarchy system, which is an important hydrological element, and negatively 673 change the level of benefit obtained from water. Although there are efforts to improve the ecosystem with restoration, rehabilitation and reclamation works according to the need, it is possible to say that water problems continue today due to construction pressure. Interventions such as blocking the roads at the point of construction pressure and covering the streams with roads in order to increase the supply in parallel with the density of construction and travel demand negatively affect the city in social, economic and environmental terms. While the increase in the city's population requires the provision of services, this requirement should not increase environmental destruction. Environmental pollution in automobile-dependent cities, alongside the loss of natural areas due to expanded parking facilities and the increased impervious surfaces from road network growth, adversely impacts the water cycle. Consequently, the adoption of green transportation systems and sustainable solutions that encourage pedestrian and bicycle use becomes imperative (Aysan Buldurur, 2022). The rising density of impervious surfaces impedes water infiltration and participation in the hydrological cycle. To address this, the implementation of water management systems designed with geomorphological principles—aligned with natural water flows, vegetated, compatible with existing infrastructure, and responsive to local environmental conditions— is increasingly recognized as essential (Mobaraki & Oktay Vehbi, 2022). Gehl (1987) articulates a hierarchy in spatial planning consisting of life, space, and structure, implying that urban spaces should prioritize the protection of natural resources and biodiversity, the facilitation of recreational activities, support for economic development, community 674 gathering, and enhancement of public health. A strategic response to construction-related challenges, emphasizing the water element, involves the restoration and daylighting of buried or culverted streams through nature-based solutions. In the context of sustainability and urban resilience, many countries are now actively reopening streams as part of ecological resilience strategies to mitigate climate crisis impacts associated with excessive urbanization. This approach not only leverages the hydrological potential of urban waterways but also generates new public spaces, fostering a multifaceted relationship between communities and the natural environment. Table 1 provides examples illustrating these notable initiatives. Table 1. Sample Practices in the Daylighting of Streams Location Project Information Results Cheonggyecheon Creek, Seoul, South Korea (Global Street Design Guide, 2016). 5.9 km corridor, 50 meters wide, 345.2 million USD cost, project completion time 3 years and 6 months Pedestrian activity increased by 76%, Urban heat island effect 4.5%, Reduction in air pollution by 10.3%, increase in bus (15.1%) and metro (3.3%) use, Paso Robles, California, USA (Global Street Design Guide, 2016). A 24 meter wide corridor the size of 5 building islands, cost of 2.5 million dollars, project completion time 3 years and 11 months Vehicle speed reduction (30%), Reduction in vehicle traffic (20%), Increase in the amount of planted trees and the amount of filtered water, Reduction in traffic accidents, 675 Rio Park, Madrid, Spain (Franchini, 2011; Lopez - de Abajo et al., 2020). A 10-kilometer section of the M30 highway, at a cost of 4,100 million euros, is under construction between 2003 and 2018, 429 hectares of new green space, 33,623 trees of 47 different species, 470,844 bushes of 38 different species, Potential to remove 35,000 tons of air pollutants, Utrecht Canal, Utrecht, Netherlands (Dutch,2016; Dutch,2020; Metropolis,2020) 2 kilometers and 30 meters wide corridor, at a cost of 16.6 million euros, Prevention of traffic congestion, Creating a touristic and recreational area, As demonstrated by various case studies, the restoration and daylighting of streams contribute significantly to sustainability and urban resilience across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. The global distribution of these projects highlights the widespread applicability of nature-based approaches at multiple scales, particularly as responses to common challenges faced worldwide. Moreover, the relatively short implementation timelines of these initiatives represent a crucial advantage, enabling timely interventions to address pressing environmental issues. In the case of Ankara, official reports acknowledge the impacts of global crises and identify the reopening of streams as a viable solution. For example, the Sakarya Basin Flood Management Plan indicates that unplanned urban development—including construction within and closure of stream beds—has increased flood risk and caused damage to surrounding vegetation (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry General Directorate of Water Management, 2018). Similarly, Ankara’s Local Climate Change Plan highlights challenges such as air and noise pollution, urban heat island effects, and inadequately designed stream rehabilitation 676 efforts, emphasizing the need to integrate streams within resilient urban infrastructure strategies (Ankara Metropolitan Municipality, 2019). The Ankara Green City Action Plan further notes a decline in urban biodiversity and advocates for the restoration of underground and natural habitat corridors (Ankara Metropolitan Municipality, 2023). These official documents reflect Ankara’s alignment with global trends concerning the consequences of climate change and rapid urbanization. Specific assessments related to Ankara’s streams are summarized in Table 2. Table 2. Evaluations on the Daylighting of Ankara Streams Name of the Study Comments and Workspace Tunçer, M. (2019). Ankara's Vanishing Natural and Cultural Values. Turkish Journal of Landscape Research, 2(2), 108-138. For 90 years, Ankara has lost its streams and creeks, which have very important landscape value. (Yılmaz, M., & Ercoşkun, Ö. Y. 2020). Streams under transportation systems in Ankara: bentderesi example. IBAD Journal of Social Sciences, (7), 1-18. States that damage to infrastructure due to floods is not random. (İdali Özden, Ö. 2022). Revealing the Disappearing Ankara Streams as Landscape Infrastructure. Turkey Urban Morphology Network, 1217-1251. Emphasizes that in the city center, approximately 56 km of water trace has disappeared in an area of 100 square kilometers. 683 Figure 5. Evaluation of Underground Streams and Determination of the Study Area In the assessment, the current condition of the stream was evaluated according to each main analytical cluster and its respective subcomponents. Conditions deemed suitable were marked in green, while unsuitable conditions were marked in red within a summary table. The stream segment exhibiting the most favorable results across these criteria was identified as the most appropriate candidate for daylighting. In this study, the segment coded "HÇ2," corresponding to the Bentderesi corridor of the Hatip Stream, was determined to be the most suitable for opening to the surface. 3. Findings and Discussion After identifying the appropriate segment for daylighting, two scenarios were examined: the current situation and a proposed scenario involving the removal of the road above the segment. The impact of this intervention was then evaluated through the lenses of road network morphology and transportation planning. 684 The morphological assessments, as depicted in the figures, indicate that removing the road and exposing the stream results in notable changes to key elements of the road network within the study area (Figure 6). Figure 6. Evaluation of Scenarios in terms of Road Network Morphology The proposal to remove the road and daylight the creek—while repurposing the corridor exclusively for sustainable mobility modes such as cycling and pedestrian travel—is further examined within the transportation model. According to this assessment, travel demand patterns and environmental impacts shift significantly following the closure of the road to vehicular traffic and its adaptation for sustainable mobility. Representative examples of these changes are illustrated in Figure 7. 685 Figure 7. Evaluation of Scenarios in terms of Transportation Planning The comprehensive assessment comparisons illustrated in the example maps are presented in detail in the following table (Table 4). Table 4. Scenario Comparasion Table Morphological Intervention Evaluation Results Comparison Criteria Current Situation (Trend) Recommendation Status Noise (db) 64 0 NO(X) (g/km) 53 0 SO(2) (g/km) 11 0 CO (kg/km) 0 0 686 HC (g/km) 22 0 Loaded Traffic Speed (km/h) 47 0 Isochrone Area (ha) 120 100 Shortest Distance 2,12 3,74 Mode Choice Private Vehicles 29%, Public Transportation 66%, Pedestrian 4%, Bicycle 2% Pedestrian 67%, Bicycle 33 Integration Network Max. Value: 1148 Network Max. Value: 1101 Connectivity Network Max. Value: 333 Network Max. Value: 272 Betweenness Network Max. Value:0.067 Network Max. Value:0.045 Proximity Network Max. Value 54 Network Max. Value:45 4. Conclusion and Suggestions While specialized morphological interventions—commonly referred to as stream restoration—are implemented under diverse conditions worldwide, they share several fundamental characteristics. These include anticipated project benefits, identification of beneficiaries, implementation steps, key stakeholders involved, strategies for stakeholder engagement, project cost estimation, approaches to secure pre-investment financing, identification of potential revenue streams, risk assessment, and evaluation of growth opportunities. Collectively, these components constitute what is known as a business model for nature-based solutions, as defined by authoritative bodies such as the Copenhagen Climate Center (UNEP-CCC, 2024). The business model proposed by the Copenhagen Climate Center serves as a representative framework for stream daylighting projects. This model defines the core objective as the restoration of continuous urban 687 hydrological elements—such as streams—returning them to their natural hydrological state within the urban fabric. The primary benefits anticipated from such projects include temperature regulation to acceptable levels, enhanced water quality, biodiversity improvement, creation of spaces for leisure and tourism, and increased real estate values. Beneficiaries encompass local residents, business owners, and municipal authorities tasked with enhancing quality of life. Implementation activities involve assessing the current hydrological and ecological status, pollutant identification, re-establishing natural stream courses, managing channel and landslide risks, channel installation, landscaping, installing monitoring equipment, and maintaining project integrity. The main actors responsible for project execution typically include municipal and district authorities, environmental protection units, and local governments. Essential stakeholders comprise local communities, civil society organizations, associations, and development agencies. Stakeholder engagement is facilitated through organizational activities, consultancy, and stream-cleaning recreational events. Project inputs consist of technical studies—such as valuation and feasibility analyses— acquisition of construction permits, preparation of green infrastructure plans, and facility construction. Financing sources often originate from local government funds and anticipated increases in property values, supplemented by sponsorships and private investments. Revenue streams are expected to arise from reduced water management costs, ecotourism, recreational opportunities, and benefits associated with improved water and biodiversity conditions. 688 Although the business model outlines a strategic framework for stream restoration, it also necessitates a thorough identification of risks and growth potential. Risks include adverse effects of extreme weather events, environmental pollution during construction, ongoing maintenance costs, land acquisition challenges—especially where property rights are established—and possible local opposition. Conversely, recreational benefits from blue-green urban design can enhance urban aesthetics and provide economic stimulus at the city scale. Educational institutions engaged in biodiversity research may further expand the project's impact (UNEP-CCC, 2024). This study examines the impact of a strategic intervention addressing anthropogenic effects within the research area, drawing on analogous projects implemented internationally. The analysis indicates that the proposed intervention has the potential to yield positive outcomes across the evaluated criteria. While the selected stream corridor serves as the focal case study, it is not unique; other stream corridors could similarly be daylighted. However, due to the scope limitations of this research, only one stream was subjected to detailed analytical evaluation. The approach presented here establishes a comprehensive framework for future investigations, enabling researchers and urban authorities to tailor contextspecific strategies by adjusting the weighting of evaluation criteria through multi-criteria decision-making methodologies. This study has also some limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, the study relied on available remote sensing data and existing maps, which may not capture fine-scale environmental or infrastructural details due to limitations in resolution and currency. The transportation and 689 morphological models incorporated certain simplifying assumptions that may not fully represent the complex dynamics of urban mobility and infrastructure interactions. Moreover, while the research focused on physical and environmental factors, it did not deeply integrate socioeconomic considerations such as community acceptance, land ownership issues, or economic feasibility. The absence of direct stakeholder engagement further limits insights into potential social impacts and practical implementation challenges. Finally, the analysis was primarily static, relying on cross-sectional data, which restricts the ability to assess temporal changes or future scenarios such as ongoing urban development or climate change effects. 690 Acknowledgements and Information Note Thanks to Ankara Metropolitan Municipality General Directorate of EGO for its Contribution This article, Produced from doctoral thesis that was studied in Gazi University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences in the Department of City and Regional Planning. Ethics Committee approval was not required for the study. Author Contribution and Conflict of Interest Declaration Information All authors contributed equally to the article. There is not a conflict of interest. 691 References Abajo, L. L. D., Pérez-Fortes, A. P., Alberti, M. G., Gálvez, J. C., & Ripa, T. (2020). Sustainability analysis of the m-30 madrid tunnels and madrid río after 14 years of service life. Applied Sciences, 10(20), 7368. 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