The Heart of Green Cities: The Role of Meadow and Pasture Plants in Landscape Areas in Sustainability and the Fight Against the Climate Crisis

ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES: URBAN RESILIENCE Editors Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ October 15, 2025 Copyright © 2025 by İKSAD publishing house All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. Institution of Economic Development and Social Researches (The Licence Number of Publicator: 2014/31220) TÜRKİYE TR: +90 342 606 06 75 USA: +1 631 685 0 853 E mail: [email protected] www.iksadyayinevi.com It is responsibility of the author to abide by the publishing ethics rules. Iksad Publications – 2025© Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience ISBN: 978-625-378-337-2 Cover Design: Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ October 15, 2025 Ankara / Türkiye Size = 16x24 cm PREFACE Dear Professors and Colleagues, We are pleased bring to life that Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience, which was published as an e-book by IKSAD Publishing House with the editors Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU and Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ. This book project, entitled “Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience,” aims to address sustainability-oriented approaches to urban resilience from theoretical, methodological, and practical perspectives. The volume seeks to establish a multi-layered platform of discussion, ranging from the scale of individual buildings to the entirety of the urban fabric. Within this framework, it welcomes contributions from scholars and researchers working in architecture, urban design, landscape architecture, urban and regional planning, environmental engineering, and related disciplines. With the valuable contributions of our chapter authors working in the professional disciplines of landscape architecture, architecture, city and regional planning, urban design and sustainability, we have completed Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience book study has been completed with 24 book chapters. We would like to thank you, our esteemed authors, for their contributions to the preparation of the book. We would also like to thank the editorial board and IKSAD Publishing House. We wish to continue this process we have started in the coming years. In addition, we would like to express our sincere appreciation to Prof. Dr. Atila GÜL, the book coordinator of IKSAD Publishing House, for his guidance and support throughout the publication process. We hope that our book ‘Architectural Sciences and Sustainable Approaches: Urban Resilience’ will be helpful to the readers. Best regards. 15.10.2025 EDITORS Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ EDITORS Prof. Dr. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ AUTHORS The authors were listed in alphabetical order Alper ÇABUK Ayça GÜLTEN Ayşe ÖZYETGİN ALTUN Ayşe Özge ŞİMŞEK SOYSAL Ayşegül TANRIVERDİ KAYA Demet EROL Deniz DEMİRARSLAN Ebru Vesile ÖCALIR Eda ŞENTÜRK Elif Kübra ÖZTÜRK Emine BAYDAN Esra KESKİN Feran AŞUR Feyza Sena ŞENOCAK Filiz KARAKUŞ Furkan AKDEMİR Gencay ÇUBUK Gülşah BİLGE ÖZTÜRK Halil DUYMUŞ Hamza ALTAŞ Hande AKARCA İnci OLGUN Kemal Mert ÇUBUKÇU Kumru ÇILGIN Mehmet Akif IRMAK Mehmet Emin DAŞ Mehtap ÖZENEN KAVLAK Merve ALICI AKA Mesut GÜZEL Muhammed Akif AÇIKGÖZ Muhammed Emir GÖRAL Murat YEŞİL Olcay Türkan YURDUGÜZEL Özge DÜZGÜN EREKİNCİ Pervin YEŞİL Rabia Nurefsan ACIKGOZ Sedef ŞENDOĞDU Seher Simay KUŞOĞLU Serim DİNÇ Sevilay YILDIZ Sinem SEYHAN Şevval ERGİNDOĞAN Şuheda ALTUNOK Temuçin Göktürk SEYHAN Tuba Nur OLĞUN Tuna BATUHAN Ufuk Teoman AKSOY Yusuf Eminoğlu REVIEWER LIST The authors were listed in alphabetical order Aslıhan TIRNAKÇI Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University Atila GÜL Süleyman Demirel University Ayşe Kalaycı ÖNAÇ İzmir Katip Çelebi University Bige ŞİMŞEK İLHAN İstanbul Medipol University Burcu YILMAZEL Eskişehir Technical University Eda KOÇAK Siirt University Ekrem BAHADIR Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University Elif KUTAY KARAÇOR İstanbul Technical University Hakan ARSLAN Ondokuz Mayıs University Hilal TURGUT Karadeniz Technical University Meliha AKLIBAŞINDA Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University Murat AKTEN Süleyman Demirel University Nihan Sümeyye GÜNDOĞDU Atlas University Okan Murat DEDE Amasya University Ömer Lütfü ÇORBACI Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University Selcen Nur Erikci Çelik Beykoz University Sibel AKTEN Isparta Unıversıty Of Applıed Scıences Sinem ÖZDEDE Pamukkale University Şeyma ŞENGÜR Ordu University Turgut KALAY Kütahya Dumlupınar University Tendü Hilal GÖKTUĞ Aydın Adnan Menderes University 698 1. Introduction Increasing urbanisation and the climate crisis have brought new approaches to urban planning. Green infrastructure (GI) and nature-based solutions (NBS) are critical to making cities more liveable and environmentally and socially resilient. The concept of green infrastructure has become increasingly important in today's world, where urbanisation is on the rise, climate change is occurring, and biodiversity is declining, in terms of sustainability, increased ecological resilience, and public health. It is a concept based on the integration of nature-based solutions into urban systems, improving air quality, regulating microclimates and providing various benefits to ecosystems (Parlak & Atik, 2020). According to distinguished research literature, GI applications can simultaneously provide a range of ecosystem services, including flood control, microclimate regulation, air quality improvement, carbon emission reduction, biodiversity support, and social well-being. In a meta-analysis of 850 studies, the most frequently addressed ecosystem services were microclimate regulation (36%) and aesthetic values (23%) and the relationship between urban greenness and human health was revealed (Veerkamp et al. 2021). The use of meadow and pasture plants in urban landscapes brings not only environmental benefits but also social dimensions such as social interaction and cultural belonging (Zhang & Qian, 2024). 2. Material and Method The present study addresses The Role Of Grass And Pasture Plants In Urban Landscape, The Relationship Between Grassland/Pasture Plants and Green Infrastructure and Applications in Türkiye andCarbon Balance and 699 Greenhouse Gases as outlined in the following headings. The recommendations are presented in the conclusion section in light of the examples examined. 3. Findings and Discussion 3.1. The Role Of Grass And Pasture Plants In Urban Landscape 3.1.1 Biodiversity And Habitat Isolation It has been reported that the reduction in maintenance of traditionally maintained lawns increases the number, richness and diversity of plants and arthropods and that these passively created urban grasslands may have a positive effect on biodiversity (Venn and Kotze, 2014; Watson et al., 2020). Lawns have been the dominant form of urban grasslands since the 20th century and have become a social norm associated with ease of installation, maintenance, recreational and aesthetic benefits (Hoyle et al. 2017). As an alternative approach to creating environmentally friendly and urban meadow areas, they have proposed replacing or modifying the largescale management of short, single-species, homogeneous grass areas with flower meadow areas (Southon et al., 2017; Lane et al., 2019; Norton et al., 2019; Bretzel et al., 2020; Marshall et al., 2023). Grasslands, particularly perennial herbaceous species, serve as habitat and food sources for pollinators and global insect populations. Structural diversity at the cellular level includes the flowers of leguminous forage plants and wild flowering species. This structure plays an important role in the conservation of biodiversity within cities. 3.1.2 Aesthetic And Social Perception Meadow slopes provide aesthetic richness with their irregular shapes and different flower colours and sizes. These areas are preferred more in 700 ‘campus-like’ neighbourhood landscapes with an emphasis on naturalness. A study found that ‘‘respondents thought meadows provided greater aesthetic, educational and mental wellbeing services than lawns... overwhelmingly in favour of meadow planting in place of lawn’’ (Marshall et al. 2023). Additionally, the preference for meadow areas increases landscape value, social satisfaction, and access to green spaces. This provides city dwellers with a more attractive and natural environment. In various studies, participants in China have reported that meadows are the most attractive option among the choices (Jiang & Yuan, 2017). 3.1.3 Easy Maintenance And Energy Saving Meadow ecology has been reported to reduce costs and greenhouse gas emissions due to lower mowing, irrigation, and fertilisation requirements compared to traditional lawns, directly affecting energy consumption and carbon footprint (Paudel & States 2023; Trémeau et al. 2024; Anouymous, 2025). Ignatieva et al. 2015 and Allchin (2023) have stated that dense lawns can be a source of greenhouse gases and that the use of mechanical equipment in their maintenance increases carbon emissions. 3.1.4 Resilience For Urban Ecologies Grasslands used within cities provide a more resilient vegetation cover against drought, temperature changes, and urban stress conditions. A study has shown that grasslands are more drought-resistant (Trémeau et al. 2024). 701 3.2 The Relationship Between Grassland/Pasture Plants and Green Infrastructure and Applications in Türkiye 3.2.1 Why Are Grassland and Pasture Plants an Element of Green Infrastructure? As mentioned earlier, green infrastructure produces climatic, environmental, and social benefits by integrating ecological systems into urban life in a planned manner. Here, grassland and pasture plants encompass critical elements such as connectivity, multifunctionality, microclimate improvement, rainwater retention, biodiversity support, and social participation (Demiroğlu et al. 2019; Parlak & Atik, 2020). Grasslands help create blue-green infrastructure integrity by retaining moisture and reducing surface runoff. 3.2.2 Türkiye Examples: Legislation, Practices and Challenges Analyzes conducted in Türkiye reveal that the biggest obstacle to the full integration of the Green Infrastructure approach into the spatial planning process is legislative inadequacies. A study dated 2019 emphasizes that "the applicability of green infrastructure systems in Türkiye is inadequate both at the legislative and administrative levels" (Demiroğlu et al. 2019). Current regulations are not designed to ensure the continuity of ecological structures. In Turkey, meadow and pasture plants promise potential as a sub-component of green infrastructure. However, this potential can be turned into real gain if it is realized by strengthening the legal framework, integrating scientific methods into local planning processes and increasing the participation of society in the process. In addition, tools based on analysis based on geographic information systems are important for monitoring and evaluating these areas. 702 3.2.3 Urban Meadows and Pollinator Communities Meadow and pasture plants, which are densely found in the city, provide important food and hosts for many pollinator species such as bees, butterflies and flies, thanks to the rich resources they provide with their flowers. In their study published in 2025, Ulrich & Sargent reported that urban park restorations created a large diversity of pollinator species in a short time and that species richness remained sustainable in the long term after the regulation. This points to a permanent increase in biodiversity without limits. Different studies have reported that wild flower slopes created within the city contribute to the diversity of pollinator species seen in natural meadows at a very similar level, and even though the number of wild bees and butterflies is lower, the species diversity is at a similar level (Guariento et al. 2023; Heiniger et al. 2023). 3.2.4 Plant Functional Traits and Ecological Selection Floristic characteristics of plants, such as flower color, size, and UV reflectance, determine their potential to attract pollinators. In a study conducted in dry meadow communities in Berlin, significant relationships were detected between the level of urbanization and the strength of floral UV reflections and flower size diversity. While flower size diversity decreases in the city center, species with strong UV reflection appear in a more differentiated form (Cabon et al. 2022). Plant-microbial symbioses and fluorification may be effective in increasing pollinator attraction. For example, plants supported by bacteria or mycorrhizal fungi can produce more flowers and increase pollinator visitation accordingly. In the example of Utrecht, microbial supported plant plantings on green roofs are recommended to be used for this purpose (Stewart et al. 2024). 703 3.3 Carbon Balance and Greenhouse Gases 3.3.1 Urban Meadows and Carbon Sequestration Meadow and pasture plants used in cities contain species that have the potential to store more carbon in the soil compared to ground cover species. When legumes are used in agricultural systems, they are capable of symbiotically binding 100-380 kg of N per hectare per year, which is a more environmentally friendly and sustainable application (Acar et al. 2018). A new term has come to the fore recently; "Carbon farming" projects developed within the scope of sustainable soil management in agricultural and urban areas are called applications to increase carbon storage of pasture/meadow systems. These projects aim to improve soil and long-term carbon sequestration. However, it is emphasized that these projects require comprehensive monitoring and management systems, as well as difficulties such as ensuring their permanence and receiving technical consultancy support (Singh et al.2024). 3.4 Socio-Cultural Dimensions and Social Ties 3.4.1 Aesthetic Perception, Identity and Social Engagement The visual diversity created by meadow and pasture plants, in a survey study, stated that meadows are more aesthetic, educational and mental health beneficial than grasses, and that biodiversity has a positive contribution to perceived quality and belonging (Southon et al. 2017; Marshall et al. 2022).Urban meadows; They are suitable environments for recreation, nature-based education and social scientific projects. For example, participatory projects of municipalities and non-governmental organizations, such as “bee hotels” or pollinator observations, help increase ownership of the local environment while accompanying citizens' 704 interaction with natural cycles. Studies in Turkey on the importance of effective use of open green spaces, especially after the pandemic, show that society has changed its perspective on these areas positively (Anonymous, 2021;Türker & Gül, 2022). The global climate crisis, biodiversity loss and urbanization pressure make it important to redefine the relationship between nature and humans. Some studies show that grassland and pasture plants have the potential for multifunctional use in green infrastructure. 3. Conclusion and Suggestions The global climate crisis, loss of biological diversity and urbanisation pressure make it important to redefine the relationship between nature and humans. Some studies show that grassland and pasture plants have the potential for multifunctional use within green infrastructure. Grassland/pasture species incorporated into urban landscapes contribute to various areas, including the strengthening of green infrastructure networks, supporting pollinator populations, reducing carbon emissions, ensuring the continuity of ecosystem services, and enhancing social wellbeing. In Turkey, while the integration of meadow and pasture areas into landscape projects has not yet reached the desired level, these areas are considered a potential nature-based solution. Grassland areas based on natural species composition offer lower maintenance costs, higher levels of biological diversity and greater contributions to soil-water balance compared to lawn areas. Additionally, studies have shown that meadow areas provide habitats for pollinators such as bees and butterflies, thereby supporting agricultural production and ecological networks in cities. From a socio-cultural perspective, green spaces enhance individuals' 705 psychological well-being, social bonds and environmental awareness levels. The inclusion of meadow and pasture plants in these systems increases urban dwellers' contact with nature and strengthens cultural landscape identity. The effective and conscious use of meadow and pasture plants in urban landscape planning will provide multi-dimensional contributions to both environmental sustainability and human well-being. Therefore, local governments and landscape planners in Turkey must consider these plant that ecological, economic, and socio-cultural aesthetic. 706 Acknowledgements and Information Note The article complies with national and international research and publication ethics. Ethics Committee approval was not required for the study. Author Contribution and Conflict of Interest Declaration Information All authors contributed equally to the article 707 References Acar, Z., Can, M., Aşçı, Ö. 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