PEACE AND ORDER AS PERCEIVED BY BYSTANDERS IN DAVAO CITY

Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [296] PEACE AND ORDER AS PERCEIVED BY BYSTANDERS IN DAVAO CITY Gaudencio Abellanosa Professor, College of Development Management, University of Southeastern Philippines, Philippines Chona B. Desierto Daniel J. Mediante Evangeline F. Reponte Rea May V. Villota Graduate Students, College of Development Management Graduate Program, University of Southeastern Philippines, Mintal Campus, Davao City ABSTRACT This study develops a construct of peace and order among bystanders in Davao City. The researcher designed a 30-item Likert questionnaire administered to 150 bystanders to capture views on governance, everyday mobility safety, prosocial opportunities, guardianship, and neighbor cooperation. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to uncover the latent dimensions; sampling adequacy and factorability were assessed, and a scree plot guided factor retention. Five factors were identified: fair and responsive governance, mobility and route safety, prosocial ecology and opportunity, guardianship and contact quality, and collective community efficacy. These dimensions indicate that perceptions of peace and order strengthen when authorities act fairly and communicate clearly, routes are safe and well-lit, youth and livelihood activities are visible, encounters with officers are respectful, and neighbors watch out for one another and report problems. The resulting framework integrates institutional performance with community dynamics, offering practical guidance for barangay–PNP coordination, participatory programs, and place-based safety improvements. Keywords: Peace and Order, Bystanders Perception, Davao City, Exploratory Factor Analysis INTRODUCTION Perceptions of peace and order shape how people move, cooperate with authorities, and participate in community life. Globally, SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) emphasizes that citizen trust and everyday safety are essential foundations for inclusive development. (United Nations, 2024). Contemporary studies show that procedural justice that is fair, respectful, well-explained actions builds legitimacy and increases actual cooperation (Kuen, 2024, Pérez-Vincent & Puebla, 2024). Collective efficacy, mutual trust and willingness to intervene benefits when public services are responsive and trusted (Yesberg, Costi, Chan, & Bradford., 2024). Place-based factors from crime prevention through environmental design and routine activity perspectives; lighting, visibility, maintenance, and routine guardianship reduce the likelihood of crimes (Hoeber, Kullberg, Oprel ,Schoorl, Minnen, &Antypa, 2024; Lersch & Hart, 2023). In the Philippine context, peace and order are co-produced by barangays, police, and community volunteers (e.g., tanod), consistent with the Local Government Code of 1991 devolved functions on public order and community participation (Ortega & Acero, 2024). Davao City, a highly urbanized center in Mindanao, is a pertinent setting to examine how bystanders define as ordinary residents who frequently observe public spaces, interpret governance, mobility safety, prosocial opportunities, guardianship, and neighborly cooperation in daily life. This study addresses a local evidence gap by analyzing bystanders’ perceptions to inform practical, areaspecific strategies for safer everyday environments. OBJECTIVES This study examines bystanders’ perceptions of peace and order in Davao City and develops an empirically grounded framework to guide policy and practice. Specifically, it sought answers to the following: Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [297] 1. To determine the dimensions that shape the perception of bystanders regarding the peace and order in Davao City. 2. To identify what framework can be established based on the findings of the study. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Peace and Order in Davao City Recent reports and local studies consistently describe Davao City as a relatively safe and orderly urban center, with crime indicators generally declining and peace-and-order campaigns prominently highlighted in official narratives and media coverage. The 2024 Numbeo Safety Index, for example, ranked Davao City as the third safest city in Southeast Asia with a safety score of 72.5, based on user-reported crime levels, police efficiency, and perceived safety (Numbeo, 2024; Palicte, 2025). Regional police data likewise show that “eight focus crimes” in Davao Region fell from 770 incidents in 2024 to 659 in the first half of 2025, a 14.4% reduction attributed to intensified security operations (Palicte, 2025; Francisquete, 2025). In addition, a Mindanao-wide survey by the Mindanao Development Authority reported a 92% public trust rating in the police and high safety scores for the Davao Region, reinforcing the image of a locality where peace-and-order institutions are widely trusted (Tamayo, 2023). At the same time, literature on safety perceptions emphasizes that formal indicators such as crime rates, rankings, and satisfaction surveys do not fully capture how security is experienced in everyday life. The MinDA survey itself defines safety as the “public’s confidence that no harm comes their way at any given time and any place,” pointing out that feelings of safety are anchored in personal experience, not just official data (Tamayo, 2023). Residents and bystanders may therefore interpret peace and order through more immediate cues: how safe they feel along their daily routes, how fairly and respectfully they are treated by authorities, and how neighbors and local programs support or fail to support informal control and mutual care. Fair and Responsive Governance Literature on fair and responsive governance underscores that people’s willingness to use formal systems is strongly shaped by expected treatment and perceived procedural justice. Goodman-Williams, Volz, & Fishwick (2023) demonstrate that survivors of harm often avoid formal reporting because they anticipate secondary victimization, stigma, or institutional inaction, even when mechanisms and services exist. Their findings highlight that practices which validate individuals’ experiences, protect confidentiality, and clearly explain options can lower these barriers and increase reporting, indicating that perceptions of fairness are rooted as much in how institutions respond as in the outcomes they deliver (Goodman-Williams et al., 2023). Nie and Wang (2023) extend this concern with process quality in their study of environmental governance, showing that citizen satisfaction is highest when government agencies provide timely, action-oriented responses that include concrete remedial measures and clear explanations. In contrast, perfunctory replies or mere referrals undermine confidence and contribute to perceptions of indifference or avoidance (Nie & Wang, 2023). Taken together, these studies support the theme of fair and responsive governance in this research: bystanders are more likely to perceive peace and order positively when authorities handle complaints and concerns in ways that are protective, transparent, and visibly followed through, not merely symbolic or procedural. Mobility and Route Safety Research on mobility and route safety emphasizes that peace and order are experienced in the ordinary act of moving through the city. Delos Reyes, Gamboa, and Rivera (2020) argue that national urban policies must strengthen the capacity of local governments to provide safe, inclusive, and well-managed environments, emphasizing that road design, pedestrian access, lighting, and public transport systems directly shape people’s perceptions of everyday safety. When these physical and institutional arrangements are weak, residents may continue to feel unsafe and constrained, even in areas with relatively low recorded crime (Delos Reyes et al.., 2020). At the local scale, Pancho and Bercilla (2025) show that consistent barangay-level actions such as regular patrol visibility and effective complaint resolution are central in reinforcing trust and peace-and-order perceptions along streets and pathways, because residents read these recurring signs as proof that authorities are actively watching over their spaces. This logic resonates with performance frameworks such as the Seal of Good Local Governance for Barangay (SGLGB), which, through instruments like Executive Order No. 21, Series of 2020, sets benchmarks in accessibility, safety, and citizen participation for barangays. In this study, the theme mobility Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [298] and route safety captures bystanders’ evaluations of peace and order through the safety of their daily routes and the visible reliability of barangay and city responses in those spaces (Pancho & Bercilla, 2025). Prosocial Ecology and Opportunity The literature on prosocial ecology and opportunity focuses on how governance can foster everyday settings where positive activities and interactions are visible and supported. Khanal, Gupta, and Bhattarai (2022) argue that good local governance is anchored in transparency, accountability, and citizen participation, and that these pillars directly influence how people judge peace and order. When communities have access to information, opportunities to participate, and mechanisms to hold officials accountable, they are more likely to regard their surroundings as shared spaces that they have a stake in protecting, enabling youth programs, livelihood projects, and civic activities to take root in public areas (Khanal et al., 2022). Similarly, Castillo and Gabriel (2020) emphasize that transparency and accountability mechanisms in local government units such as public disclosures, citizen charters, and participatory feedback channels reinforce public trust and peace-and-order outcomes when citizens are empowered to monitor and engage with local initiatives. Their work suggests that when people can see and question how decisions are made and implemented, they become more confident that security efforts serve the broader community rather than narrow interests (Castillo & Gabriel, 2020). In this study, the theme of prosocial ecology and opportunity reflects how barangay-level programs in Davao City, especially those making youth and livelihood activities visible in communal spaces contribute to bystanders’ sense of safety, inclusion, and social cohesion. Guardianship and Contact Quality Guardianship and contact quality encompass both the presence of peace-and-order actors and the nature of their interactions with residents. Osman, Denson, Javier, and Llanto (2024) affirm the central role of the police in maintaining peace and order, but they highlight that effectiveness depends on how officers relate to the communities they serve. When policing is experienced as distant, harsh, or biased, residents may comply out of fear but withhold trust and cooperation; when it is experienced as respectful, communicative, and procedurally fair, citizens are more likely to view officers as legitimate guardians whose presence enhances everyday security (Osman et al., 2024). Aguilar, Manal, Rojo, and Gono (2024) complement this perspective by emphasizing practical community visibility efforts such as regular patrols, presence at local events, and approachable demeanor in public spaces as key drivers of positive public trust. Their findings suggest that visible and approachable officers not only deter wrongdoing but also reassure residents that assistance is near and accessible, particularly in high-traffic or vulnerable areas (Aguilar et al., 2024). The theme guardianship and contact quality in this study therefore examines how bystanders in Davao City interpret the visibility, behavior, and responsiveness of police and barangay officials as signals of peace and order or, conversely, as sources of unease. Collective Community Efficacy The literature on collective community efficacy stresses that peace and order are co-produced by institutions and communities rather than delivered from the top down. Mantiri and Siwi (2020) demonstrate that local communities can be highly effective in maintaining peace and security when they are actively involved in decision-making processes, rather than treated merely as recipients of policy. When residents are consulted, their perspectives are included, and they see their contributions reflected in concrete initiatives, they develop a stronger sense of ownership over local safety and become more willing to intervene in problems, report issues, and support neighbors (Mantiri & Siwi, 2020). Mantiri and Siwi (2020) also emphasize that maintaining peace and order is a shared responsibility among government, police, barangay officials, and community members; sustained security depends on collaboration and participation at multiple levels. This framing underpins the theme collective community efficacy in the present study, which focuses on bystanders’ perceptions of whether neighbors watch out for one another, engage in community discussions, and participate in security-related initiatives. High perceived efficacy suggests a social environment where peace and order are not solely dependent on formal guardianship but are reinforced through every day, organized community action. METHODOLOGY This study employed Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) using principal components extraction with varimax rotation with survey data from 150 bystanders in Davao City to identify the latent dimensions of perceived peace and order. A researcher-designed 30-item instrument, utilizing a 5-point Likert scale, captured views on governance, everyday safety, community activity, guardianship, and collective efficacy. Responses were coded, Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [299] tallied, and analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics. Before factor extraction, sampling adequacy was assessed with the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure, and the suitability of the correlation matrix was confirmed with Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The Scree plot/Scree test guided factor retention by visualizing eigenvalues across components (Shrestha, Noora, 2021). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section presents the factor analysis findings from the 30-item peace and order perception survey. Using statistical techniques such as the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity. This section displays the analysis and interpretation of data. KMO and Bartlett's Test Table 1 presents the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity to assess the dataset’s suitability for factor analysis. Following Kaiser's guidelines, the KMO value is 0.890, indicating “meritorious” sampling adequacy and excellent common variance among items. Bartlett’s test yielded an approximation Chi-Square = 3032.089, with df = 435 and Sig. = .000 (i.e., p < .001), rejecting the null hypothesis that the correlation matrix is an identity matrix. These results indicate that the correlations among variables are sufficiently significant and patterned, making factor analysis an appropriate method for uncovering the underlying constructs in the data. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.890 Barlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 3032.089 Df 435 Sig. 0.000 Table 1. KMO and Bartlett’s Test Scree Plot Figure 01 shows the scree plot of the analysis. The scree plot displays the eigenvalues of the 30 survey components, highlighting the point at which the explained variance reaches a plateau. There is a very sharp drop from Component 1 (≈12.5) to Components 2–3 (≈2.4 and ≈1.7), followed by a progressive leveling curve. The line begins to flatten into a shallow tail after about Component 5, forming an apparent “elbow” at Component 5. This pattern indicates that the first five components capture the substantial common variance, whereas subsequent components contribute only marginally. Accordingly, prioritizing parsimony and interpretability, we retained five principal components using a fixed-factor extraction (k = 5) guided by the scree test rather than the strict eigenvalue criterion of greater than one. Figure 1. Scree Plot Rotated Component Matrix Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [300] Analysis of Variance Percentage Table 2 shows the analysis of the variance percentage. The table illustrates the analysis of the five components extracted through principal component analysis with varimax rotation, which is consistent with the scree test's decision to retain five factors. As shown in the Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings, the first component accounted for 41.66% of the variance (eigenvalue = 12.50), followed by 7.90% (2.37), 5.40% (1.62), 4.46% (1.34), and 3.84% (1.15) for Components 2–5, respectively. Cumulatively, the five extracted factors explained 63.26% of total variance, indicating that the retained solution captures a substantial share of common variance. After varimax rotation, variance was redistributed to enhance simple structure and interpretability. The rotated percentages of variance were 23.09%, 12.35%, 9.88%, 9.11%, and 8.83% for Factors 1–5 (rotated SS loadings = 6.93, 3.71, 2.96, 2.73, 2.65), with a cumulative variance of 63.26%. This pattern shows a more balanced contribution across the five factors, minimizing dominance by the first factor and supporting a more apparent meaning of the factors. Given that respondents were bystanders in Davao City, these five rotated factors represent the dominant latent dimensions in how bystanders perceive peace-and-order conditions and governance in the city—capturing nearly two-thirds of the shared variance in their responses. Coupled with strong data adequacy (KMO = .890) and significant sphericity (Bartlett χ² = 3032.089, df = 435, p < .001), the solution is both statistically sound and substantively meaningful for this population. Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % 1 12.50 12.50 41.66 41.66 6.93 23.09 23.09 2 2.37 2.37 7.90 49.56 3.71 12.35 35.44 3 1.62 1.62 5.40 54.96 2.96 9.88 45.32 4 1.34 1.34 4.46 59.42 2.73 9.11 54.43 5 1.15 1.15 3.84 63.26 2.65 8.83 63.26 Table 2. Total Variance Explained Rotated Component Matrix Fair and Responsive Governance. Table 3 reflects procedural justice and day-to-day responsiveness of local authorities as perceived by bystanders. The strongest indicators were “Authorities enforce rules without discrimination” (λ = 0.758) and “Authorities treat people with respect regardless of background”, which obtained the highest loading in this factor (λ = 0.712). These are closely followed by voice and transparency items, “People like me are listened to in barangay decisions on peace and order” (λ = 0.706), “I often see or hear clear updates from officials about peace-and-order actions and results” (λ = 0.701), and “Cases are handled fairly regardless of who is involved” (λ = 0.700). Operational communication and coordination are also salient: “The barangay provides clear safety advisories” (λ = 0.679) and “The barangay and police conduct joint activities to address local problems” (λ = 0.678). Access and follow-through loadings remain substantial. “It is easy to reach the barangay (hotline, page, or office in person)” (λ = 0.626), “Authorities act on complaints and follow through” (λ = 0.600), and “Authorities explain their actions or decisions during incidents” (λ = 0.591). Responsiveness to calls for help is similarly represented: “Police or barangay tanod respond quickly” (λ = 0.591) while reporting safety is captured by “People can report issues without fear of retaliation” (λ = 0.516). The content emphasizes equal treatment, respectful engagement, accessible channels, and visible action, indicating that perceptions of peace and order are anchored in both fair processes and timely, explained responses by local authorities. Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [301] Factor Attributes Loading, λ Fair and Responsive Governance Item 27 - Authorities enforce rules without discrimination. 0.758 Item 26 - Authorities treat people with respect regardless of background. 0.712 Item 20 - People like me are listened to in barangay decisions on peace and order. 0.706 Item 17 - I often see or hear clear updates from officials about peace-andorder actions and results. 0.701 Item 7 - Cases are handled fairly regardless of who is involved. 0.700 Item 16 - The barangay provides clear safety advisories. 0.679 Item 18 - The barangay and police conduct joint activities to address local problems. 0.678 Item 19 - It is easy to reach the barangay (via hotline, webpage, or office in person). 0.626 Item 8 - I often see or hear that authorities act on complaints and follow through on them. 0.600 Item 9 - Authorities explain their actions or decisions during incidents. 0.591 Item 6 - When people call for help, police or barangay tanod respond quickly. 0.591 Item 29 - People can report issues without fear of retaliation. 0.516 Table 3: Rotated Component Matrix with Grouped Attributes of Fair and Responsive Governance Our findings reveal that bystanders in Davao City perceived fair and responsive governance as grounded in impartiality, respect, inclusion, communication, accessibility, and prompt action. They view local authorities positively when rules and regulations are enforced without discrimination, cases are handled fairly, and citizens are treated with dignity regardless of background. Inclusive decision-making and transparent communication, like being informed of safety advisories, strengthen people’s sense of participation and trust. Likewise, the ease of reporting concerns, the visibility of police or barangay response, and the assurance of action without fear of retaliation enhance perceptions of accountability and openness. Altogether, this portrays a governance system that listens, explains, and acts with fairness and empathy, where peace and order are sustained not merely through authority, but through genuine partnership between citizens and their local government. This result is consistent with the findings of Goodman-Williams et al. (2023) study, noting that survivors often avoid formal reporting due to anticipated harm and social consequences. Practices that validate voices, protect confidentiality, and ensure follow-through can therefore increase reporting and perceived fairness. Beyond reporting safety, empirical work in environmental governance demonstrates that timely, action-oriented responsiveness by government agencies is positively associated with citizen satisfaction, reinforcing the link between visible follow-through and trust in local authorities (Nie & Wang 2023). Mobility and Route Safety. Table 4 captures bystanders’ sense of safety while moving around their community. The strongest indicator is “I feel safe walking in my area at night” which obtained the highest loading in this factor (λ = 0.776), followed by “I feel comfortable using all the routes I need in my area” (λ = 0.745) and “I feel safe in the places I usually pass during the day” (λ = 0.714). These items highlight the importance of time-of-day and route-level security as core to perceived peace and order, with nighttime walking safety serving as a key anchor to the construct. At the same time, comfort across usual routes and daytime spaces reinforces a general climate of safety that supports everyday mobility. Factor Attributes Loading, λ Mobility and Route Safety Item 2 - I feel safe walking in my area at night. 0.776 Item 3 - I feel comfortable using all the routes I need in my area. 0.745 Item 1 - I feel safe in the places I usually pass during the day. 0.714 Table 4: Rotated Component Matrix with Grouped Attributes of Mobility and Route Safety Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [302] The findings highlight how bystanders in Davao City experience peace and order through everyday mobility. Feeling safe walking at night, navigating familiar daytime routes, and using essential paths reflects more than infrastructure; it signals trust in local governance and a sense of community protection. Barangays that maintain well-lit streets, visible patrols, and responsive feedback systems help foster this trust, enabling residents to move confidently and securely. These lived experiences affirm that peace and order, as perceived by ordinary citizens, are shaped by both spatial accessibility and the relational presence of local institutions, particularly those guided by DILG Davao City. Delos Reyes et al. (2020) explain that national urban policies should strengthen the capacity of local governments to provide a favorable environment. Pancho & Bercilla (2025) further argue that consistent barangay-level actions, such as patrol visibility and complaint resolution, enhance public trust and reinforce perceptions of peace and order. These findings align with the Seal of Good Local Governance for Barangay (SGLGB), promoted by DILG Davao City and institutionalized through Executive Order No. 21, Series of 2020, which sets performance benchmarks in accessibility, safety, and citizen participation. Prosocial Ecology and Opportunity. Table 5 outlines the factor analysis results, identifying a supportive prosocial environment and access to opportunities as key dimensions shaping perceptions of peace and order. The statement “I often see youth engaged in sports, arts, or skills activities after school” leads this group, which obtained the highest loading in this factor (λ = 0.774). This is followed by “There are safe places and activities for young people after school or work” (λ = 0.758). The third item, “I notice that available jobs or livelihood help reduce local trouble” (λ = 0.623), highlights the role of economic openings. Another item, “Volunteers (e.g., watch groups, youth) are active”, (λ = 0.588), emphasizes collective participation. Finally, “Streets and public spaces are clean and well-maintained” (λ = 0.563), underscoring how visible maintenance supports everyday order. Factor Attributes Loading, λ Prosocial Ecology and Opportunity Item 24 - I often see youth in sports, arts, or skills activities after school. 0.774 Item 21 - There are safe places and activities for young people after school or work. 0.758 Item 25 - I notice that available jobs or livelihood help reduce local trouble. 0.623 Item 14 - Volunteers (e.g., watch groups, youth) are active. 0.588 Item 22 - Streets and public spaces are clean and wellmaintained. 0.563 Table 5: Rotated Component Matrix with Grouped Attributes of Prosocial Ecology and Opportunity According to our study, bystanders in Davao City perceive peace and order through visible signs of community vitality. Youth participation in after-school programs, active volunteer groups, and clean public spaces contributes to a sense of safety and shared responsibility. These indicators reflect a prosocial ecology where peace and order are not merely enforced but co-produced through inclusive activities and everyday interactions. Barangays that invest in youth development, public space maintenance, and livelihood support foster environments where residents feel secure, connected, and empowered, affirming the role of local governance in shaping perceptions of order. Similar findings are reported by Khana et al. (2022), who emphasize that good local governance is rooted in transparency, accountability, and citizen participation, factors that directly influence perceptions of peace and order. Complementing this, Castillo and Gabriel (2020) argue that transparency and accountability mechanisms in local government units enhance public trust and reinforce peace and order outcomes, especially when citizens are empowered to participate in governance processes. These findings provide a conceptual foundation for understanding how Davao City’s barangay-level programs contribute to bystanders’ sense of safety and social cohesion. Guardianship and Contact Quality. Table 6 presents the rotated component matrix for Guardianship and Contact Quality, identifying situational safeguards and the tone of police–citizen encounters as a core dimension shaping bystanders’ perceptions of peace and order. Leading this factor is “Visible patrols or checkpoints along Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [303] my usual routes make me feel safer”, which shows the highest loading (λ = 0.663). This is followed by “Street lighting works well on the roads and paths I use” (λ = 0.608), underscoring the role of reliable illumination as a routine guardian in public space. Lastly, “Officers are approachable and respectful during encounters” (λ = 0.569), highlighting that courteous, respectful contact complements visible guardianship. Taken together, these items indicate that perceptions of safety are reinforced when guardianship is present (through patrols and lighting) and positively experienced (through respectful encounters). Factor Attributes Loading, λ Guardianship and Contact Quality Item 4 - Visible patrols or checkpoints along my usual routes make me feel safer. 0.663 Item 5 - Street lighting works well on the roads and paths I use. 0.608 Item 10 - Officers are approachable and respectful during encounters. 0.569 Table 6: Rotated Component Matrix with grouped attributes of Guardianship and Contact Quality The results indicated that the factors of Guardianship and Contact Quality, as perceived by bystanders in Davao City, are strongly linked to a heavy police presence through regular patrols and checkpoints, which in turn correlates with reduced criminal activity and an enhanced sense of security. Bystanders report that visible police patrols contribute significantly to their feelings of safety. Additionally, improved street lighting has been shown to reduce crime incidents. Well-maintained street lighting instills confidence in individuals to go out and navigate public spaces at any hour without fear of encountering dangerous situations. Bystanders who perceive police officers as fair and courteous demonstrate a greater willingness to cooperate during incidents and regard law enforcement as legitimate protectors of peace and order in the community, thereby fostering public trust. Furthermore, the behavior of law enforcement has a positive influence on public attitudes. Overall, police visibility, good public infrastructure such as street lighting, and law enforcement behavior positively impact the perception of peace and order among bystanders. This affirms the study of Osman et al. (2024), which emphasizes the crucial role of the police in maintaining peace and order within the community. Similarly, in the study of Aguilar et al. (2024), they stressed that police gain positive trust from the public through practical community visibility efforts. Their presence, therefore, significantly improves safety and provides residents with a sense of security. Collective Community Efficacy. Table 7 presents the rotated component matrix, indicating a latent dimension of mutual guardianship and shared willingness to act. Leading this factor is “Neighbors look out for one another in public spaces” with the highest loading (λ = 0.669), signaling everyday informal surveillance. This is followed by “People are willing to get involved when trouble starts” (λ = 0.651), highlighting proactive, collective intervention. Lastly, “People here report problems when they see them” (λ = 0.531), reflecting normative reporting behaviors. Together, these items suggest that bystanders’ sense of peace and order is strengthened when communities watch out for one another, step in early, and relay concerns, embodying strong collective efficacy. Factor Attributes Loading, λ Collective Community Efficacy Item 11 - Neighbors look out for one another in public spaces. 0.699 Item 12 - People are willing to get involved when trouble starts. 0.651 Item 13 - People here report problems when they see them. 0.531 Table 7: Rotated Component Matrix with Grouped Attributes of Collective Community Efficacy Our study reveals that the perceived collective community efficacy of bystanders is high in areas where people are not just passive members of the community but are actively involved as catalysts for change, maintaining peace and order. This implies that people are actively aware of their environment and willing to monitor and get involved when needed as a shared social responsibility towards communal wellbeing. This is linked to the bayanihan concept of the Filipinos. A unique culture where helping one another is automatic, without expecting anything in return, to achieve a common goal. Peace and order are more likely to be maintained in communities Volume-09 Issue 11, November-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [304] where citizens actively monitor, act upon, and report incidents because they feel accountable for the environment in which they live. This implies that the study area's bystanders view peace and order as the result of constant communication, collaboration, and vigilance rather than just the absence of crime. The results of collective community efficacy align with those of Mantiri & Siwi (2020), who demonstrated the effectiveness of the local community in maintaining peace and security. The community must be involved in the decision-making process related to governance to engage them better and acknowledge their voices, allowing them to be active members of the community rather than merely recipients of change. Maintaining peace and order is a shared responsibility not just by the government, police, or barangay officials, but also to all, including the community members. Participatory development, specifically security initiatives, is encouraged. Framework Based on the Findings Figure 2 presents the framework developed from the study. The researchers found that five major determinants shape bystanders’ perceptions of peace and order in Davao City: (1) Fair and Responsive Governance, (2) Mobility and Route Safety, (3) Prosocial Ecology and Opportunity, (4) Guardianship and Contact Quality, and (5) Collective Community Efficacy. These interconnected factors encompass institutional arrangements and everyday social dynamics, providing a holistic perspective on how communities perceive safety Figure 2. Framework Developed Based on Findings The framework visually emphasizes that perceptions of peace and order arise from both internal/community factors (collective efficacy, prosocial activities, willingness to report, and respectful encounters) and external/structural factors (equitable governance, accessible channels, lighting, visible patrols, and safe routes). It highlights that each factor makes a meaningful contribution to perceived safety. It suggests that durable improvements require multi-sector collaboration, including barangay and police coordination, transparent communication and accountability, sustained youth and livelihood programs, and reliable place-based infrastructure (e.g., lighting, checkpoints, and explicit advisories). Together, these elements enable communities to act confidently and sustain everyday order. CONCLUSION The study indicates that bystanders’ perceptions of peace and order in Davao City are shaped by a combination of institutional efforts and community involvement, centered around five interconnected dimensions: (1) Fair and Responsive Governance, (2) Mobility and Route Safety, (3) Prosocial Ecology and Opportunities, (4) Guardianship and Quality of Contact, and (5) Collective Community Efficacy.