Evaluating autonomous perovskite solar drones for use in remote areas

*Corresponding author: Matias Maurer Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0. Evaluating autonomous perovskite solar drones for use in remote areas Matias Alegre Maurer 1, * and Alex Sirvent 2 1 British School of Barcelona, Carrer de la Ginesta, 26, 08860 Castelldefels, Barcelona. 2 Department of Engineering, Case Western University, 10900 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, United States, Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 Publication history: Received on 13 September 2024; revised on 19 October 2024; accepted on 22 October 2024 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gjeta.2025.22.2.0195 Abstract This paper investigates the integration of perovskite solar cells into lightweight drones, aiming to improve their flight duration and efficiency. The integration of advanced drone technologies with cutting-edge perovskite solar cells presents unique opportunities for exploration in remote environments such as jungles, high-altitude regions, and extraterrestrial terrains like Mars. This paper investigates the potential of combining advancements in drone design and materials, with the high-efficiency, lightweight perovskite solar cells being developed, such as the super thin design recently created at Kepler University. Through a detailed analysis, and a prototype 3D-printed solar drone, we research how advancements in the operational capabilities, energy efficiency, and durability of drones, combined with perovskite innovations enable sustained missions in challenging and energy-scarce environments. We focus on the efficiency, weight impact, and operational benefits of using perovskite cells for extending drone flight times in various environmental conditions. This paper concludes by outlining the future directions and research opportunities necessary to overcome current limitations and enable the widespread adoption of these advanced drones in remote explorations. Keywords: Drone; Perovskite; Solar; Remote; Autonomous 1. Introduction The use of drones in various applications has been rapidly growing. Enhancing their flight duration is crucial for their effectiveness. Perovskite solar cells, known for their high efficiency and lightweight properties, present a promising improvement. This study evaluates the feasibility and performance of integrating perovskite solar cells into lightweight drones. Drones are incredibly useful in remote or difficult environments, such as the wilderness, ocean, high altitude or even other planets. However, it is exactly in these locations where access to power can be the most challenging. With sunlight available in many of them it makes sense that a drone enhanced with solar cells on it could be more efficient with longer flight times and more flight distance. However, current solar drones are limited in their usefulness by the weight to efficiency ratio of the solar cells, making docking and battery recharging more logical than inflight recharging or recharging in the field. Examples of such drone usage include the Ingenuity drone on Mars that had solar cells attached to it and did 90 s flights sometimes once per day. At the other extreme there are fixed wing drones in high altitude environments such as the Zephyr that have achieved flights of over 2 months on just solar power with silicon cells. However, these work mainly at large scales of wingspans of up to 30 m, and are too inefficient for smaller wingspans. Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 146 Advancements in materials will make smaller drones able to do the same inflight solar charging in the future. For instance, halide perovskites and other perovskites are rapidly becoming more efficient, cheaper, thinner and more durable. They are already very flexible compared to silicon. They have also been found to not only survive the rigors of space but interestingly have higher efficiency after 10 months in space [1]. Finally, a team at Kepler university has created an almost 2D perovskite quad-copter drone with 1-inch long cells and 1/20 the width of a human hair, that demonstrates the ability of this material to be light enough to open many new uses in drones, particularly as it has power to weight output of 44 watts per gram of weight [2]. In this research, a common 3D printed drone is modified with perovskite solar cells and performance data is collected. Using calculations based off of it and advancements in drones and solar cells, we evaluate the future of perovskite drones. 1.1. Section 1: Drone usage in remote areas Drones have demonstrated their versatility in challenging environments such as jungles, oceans, high altitudes, and even beyond Earth on Mars. This section aims to focus on the recent improvements to drones for use in many different environments and missions. 1.1.1. Jungles: XPRIZE Rainforest In jungle settings, drones equipped with advanced sensors and artificial intelligence play crucial roles in environmental monitoring, wildlife tracking, and combating illegal logging. For instance, in this year’s XPRIZE Rainforest, five of the six finalist teams utilized drones as key parts of their solutions for measuring the biodiversity. These drones navigate dense vegetation with agility, transmitting real-time data that revolutionizes conservation efforts and ecological research, providing new insights into remote and inaccessible areas. Navigating the jungle creates challenges for drones, mainly due to the obstruction of GPS signals by foliage. Researchers at the University of Maryland have addressed this issue by developing drones equipped with LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology. LiDAR allows drones to create high-resolution 3D maps of the jungle canopy, enabling precise navigation even in complex terrain [3]. This technology has been key in wildlife tracking and environmental monitoring efforts, helping researchers with detailed insights into remote areas. Despite advancements in technology, drones in jungles still encounter challenges like sudden wind changes and unpredictable wildlife. These issues can impact flight stability and create risks to both the drone and the ecosystem. Upcoming research aims to enhance drone resilience and improve their autonomous operation in tough jungle conditions, and this will improve our understanding of biodiversity and supporting global conservation efforts. 1.1.2. Oceans: Hopper prototype In oceanic environments, drones have become indispensable tools for marine biologists. With capabilities such as underwater cameras and sensors, drones explore deep-sea habitats, map coral reefs, and monitor marine life without disturbing the ecosystems. Above the ocean, drones represent a leap forward for aerial remote sensing, enabling data collection, and integration at new scales of biological importance. According to David Johnson of Duke University, “Drone methods and data types provide four key opportunities for wildlife surveillance that are already advancing pinniped research and management: (1) repeat and on-demand surveillance, (2) high-resolution coverage at large extents, (3) morphometric photogrammetry, and (4) computer vision and deep learning applications”. Drone usage can reshape this type of research as they reach the full potential [4]. Dr. Johnson has pioneered research using ocean drones equipped with advanced acoustic and satellite tracking technologies. His team’s work focuses on understanding marine species’ migration patterns and behaviors, such as tracking sea turtles across vast oceanic distances. Ocean drones like his face significant challenges in remote marine environments, where recharging and communication can be particularly difficult. These drones play a crucial role for tracking animal movements, monitoring ocean health, and exploring deep-sea habitats even from the air. Their reliance on battery power without readily available recharging stations in remote areas restricts the duration and range of missions, requiring innovative solutions to extend operational capabilities. Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 147 Researchers are exploring energy-efficient designs and alternative power sources, such as integrating solar panels or developing energy harvesting systems from ocean currents. The design includes small commercial solar cells on the wings’ surface to allow the system to regenerate power while in flight and at rest. Applications will include both defense and civilian maritime uses since the Hopper drone can “hop” across the ocean for weeks at a time, for instance from San Diego to Hawaii, recharging via solar power [5]. 1.1.3. High Altitudes: Zephyr UAV At high altitudes, drones can conduct atmospheric research, take measurements to predict the weather, and even help with disaster management. They collect info via specialized sensors for air quality, temperature, and atmospheric composition. This supports meteorologists in weather forecasting and aids climate scientists in understanding dynamics. Also, high-altitude drones enable telecommunications services in remote regions where traditional infrastructure is impractical or unreliable. High-altitude drones, also known as pseudo-satellites or High-Altitude Pseudo-Satellites (HAPS), operate at altitudes nearing the edge of space, typically above 20 km (65,000 feet). These drones bridge the gap between traditional aerial drones and satellites, offering prolonged flight durations and persistent coverage of large areas. Pseudo-satellite drones are equipped with solar panels to harness sunlight for continuous energy, allowing them to operate for weeks or even months at high altitudes without the need for landing or refueling. This capability makes them ideal for applications such as telecommunications, environmental monitoring, and scientific research. One example is the Airbus Zephyr, a solar-powered HAPS designed for stratospheric operations. The Zephyr drones have set endurance records, flying continuously for over two months at altitudes above 20 km. Launched by hand, these drones utilize lightweight materials and efficient propulsion systems to navigate harsh atmospheric conditions, including low temperatures and thin air, encountered at such high altitudes. However, the challenges for pseudo-satellite drones include maintaining stable flight in stratospheric winds, optimizing energy management to sustain operations during extended periods of darkness, and ensuring reliable communication links with ground control stations [6]. Engineers and researchers are continuously improving designs and autonomy systems to enhance endurance, reliability, and data transmission capabilities for applications requiring long-duration, high-altitude operations. The deployment of pseudo-satellite drones is a promising advance, offering a cost-effective alternative to traditional satellite. As technology evolves, these drones are expected to play a pivotal role in expanding connectivity, enhancing global surveillance capabilities, and advancing atmospheric and climate research at the edge of the atmosphere. As HAPS like the Zephyr are very large, they require less energy to fly, allowing for the solar power that is harnessed to be used most efficiently. 1.1.4. Planetary Flyers: Ingenuity and Dragonfly drone Looking beyond Earth, drones, of various types, are at the forefront of exploration and scientific discovery on other planetary bodies in our solar system. For instance, in Mars exploration a drone was used, and in future missions one proposal is to use two drones in place of rovers. Drone missions might include mapping, studying geology, and finding places for humans to live or gather resources on other planets or moons. These drones are designed to navigate and communicate in space, allowing for accurate exploration and helping us learn more about places beyond Earth. As drone technology improves, it will expand the possibilities for scientific research and exploration in tough environments. Drones on Mars face similar challenges as those on the Moon, with additional complexities posed by the Martian atmosphere and terrain. NASA’s Perseverance rover successfully deployed Ingenuity, demonstrating the first controlled flight in the thin atmosphere of Mars. This was made possible by the use of a solar array for charging its on-board battery. However, due to its small size and limited solar regeneration capabilities, Ingenuity was limited to 90 s flights once per day. While the aerodynamics and suitability of drones, especially fixed wing drones, varies greatly across the vacuum of space compared to the higher gravity but thinner atmosphere of Mars, we will consider them all together when later reviewing the suitability of perovskite. Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 148 Additionally, Dragonfly, NASA’s octocopter for Titan, which is a moon of Saturn, features eight 1.35 m rotors optimized for the moon’s dense atmosphere and low gravity. Its design allows 10 m/s flights covering up to 16 km per charge, powered by lithium-ion batteries and an RTG. The 450 kg craft can fly at 4 km altitude, leveraging Titan’s unique conditions for efficient exploration. The dragonfly uses nuclear power (RTG) to fly. However, solar power could be an advantageous alternative as it wouldn’t contribute to the drones weight as much as the RTG does [7]. 1.2. Section 2: Recent advancements in drone technology Now that we have considered the drone usages and challenges, we review the three main areas where drones have improved or are anticipated to improve significantly in the next few years. Those areas are the weight of the drone declining due to advances in material and/or design, improved battery efficiency including the use of solid-state batteries, and usage of technologies including control algorithms for managing fuel or flight operations [8]. 1.2.1. Improved Drone Materials and Design Modern drones have undergone significant advancements in materials and design, enhancing their performance and durability. Lightweight yet robust materials such as carbon fiber and advanced polymers are now commonly used in drone construction, resulting in improved flight characteristics and longevity, even in challenging environments [9]. Aerodynamic improvements have led to extended flight times and increased maneuverability [10]. Additionally, features like foldable arms and modular components have enhanced portability and versatility, allowing for quick adaptation to various tasks [11]. 1.2.2. Better Batteries and Energy Use The evolution of drone battery technology has significantly improved energy efficiency and flight duration. While lithium-polymer (LiPo) batteries remain prevalent, recent developments focus on increasing energy density and reducing charging times. Solid-state batteries show promise, offering higher energy capacity, improved safety, and potentially longer lifespans. These advancements could substantially extend flight ranges and enhance reliability for applications such as long-distance surveillance or exploration of remote areas. 1.2.3. Algorithms and Programs for Managing Power and Flight Automated algorithms are playing an increasingly crucial role in drone power management and flight control. They enable real-time flight path optimization, allowing drones to navigate around adverse weather conditions and obstacles while minimizing energy consumption [10]. More accurate fuel level monitoring helps prevent unexpected power depletion during missions [12]. This approach to energy management is particularly valuable for complex operations, such as remote area exploration or space missions, where efficient power utilization is critical to success [11]. 1.2.4. Composite Materials Drones are increasingly being constructed using advanced composite materials, particularly carbon fiber and carbonreinforced composites [13]. These materials are preferred for drone bodies due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing drones to be both lightweight and durable. When even higher strength is required, manufacturers are turning to alloys made from metals such as aluminum, titanium, and magnesium [13]. 1.2.5. Ultra-thin Coatings Innovative coating technologies are being applied to improve drone performance and protection. Parylene coatings, which are ultra-thin and lightweight, are being used to provide superior thermal stability and high tensile strength [13]. These coatings are applied using a chemical vapor deposition process, resulting in highly conformal films that can wrap around every edge of the drone, enhancing aerodynamics and protecting against harsh environments. 1.2.6. Next-generation Batteries While lithium-ion batteries remain common, new battery technologies are being developed to extend flight times. Solidstate batteries and lithium-sulfur batteries are emerging as promising alternatives, offering improved energy density and longer lifespans compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries [13]. These advancements are crucial for increasing the range and operational capabilities of drones. Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 149 1.2.7. Green Propulsion Systems Efforts to make drones more sustainable have led to the development of eco-friendly propulsion systems. Some drones are being designed to run on solar power, with solar panels installed on their wings to harness the sun’s energy for extended flight times [14]. Additionally, researchers are exploring the use of biofuels derived from organic materials as a more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels [14]. These green propulsion systems not only make drones more environmentally friendly but also have the potential to significantly extend their operational range. These advancements collectively contribute to creating drones that can fly longer, higher, and with greater efficiency, while also being lighter and stronger. As research continues, we can expect further innovations in materials science and energy storage to push the boundaries of drone capabilities even further. 1.2.8. Summary of drone improvements Drones are lighter than before due to advances in materials, and incrementally even lighter still due to design improvements. Graphene could be a key material in doing this. Solid state batteries could improve this even more, where structural components of the drone will be themselves batteries. Possibly these structural components could not only be batteries but also coated so the pieces themselves are generating solar energy, even side pieces. Autonomous operation via algorithms and sensors makes it easier for drones to operate in remote environments, including not needing to return to base, charging in place via solar could make even returning for charging unnecessary. 1.3. Section 3: Improvements in perovskites related to drone applications First, here is a summary of silicon cells versus perovskites (Table 1): Table 1 Perovskite and silicon cell comparison. https://solarmagazine.com/solar-panels/perovskite-solar-cells/ accessed 20 August, 2024 Monocrystalline Silicon (Mono c-Si) Polycrystalline Silicon (Poly c-Si) Perovskites Highest Recorded Ef�iciency 25.4% 24.4% 29.15% Lifespan 25–30 years 30 months (2.5 years) Light Absorption Potential Wavelengths of light of 1100 nm Wavelengths of light of 850 nm This section reviews perovskite progress across the key components most relevant to usage in drones. • Efficiency • Flexibility • Stability • Thickness 1.4. Efficiency This section reviews perovskite progress across the key components most relevant to usage in drones. Over the past decade, perovskite solar cell efficiency has significantly improved, rising from around 10% in 2014 to over 30% in 2024. Advances in material stability, multi-junction designs, and fabrication methods have contributed to this progress, making perovskites highly competitive with traditional silicon-based solar cells (Figure 1). Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 150 Figure 1 Increasing efficiency of perovskite solar panels [15] Perovskite can also be used as a layer in a multi-junction cell (Figure 2): Figure 2 Multi-junction cell (Image: Daniel Morton/CU Boulder) [16] In fact, using 4 layers of materials, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems in 2022 created a four-junction cell that reached 47% efficiency [17]. For this investigation, we are focusing on only perovskites, but given the potential for even higher efficiencies at acceptable thicknesses it is important to note that multi-junction cells might be preferrable in some cases. 1.5. Flexibility Drones are meticulously designed to control the aerodynamics of the flight, which can be negatively impacted by the use of rigid and heavy solar cells. It has been shown that ultra-flexibility is needed such that the solar cells fully conform to the curved surfaces of the drone. In addition, stretchability would be necessary in advanced drones with foldable components [18]. 1.6. Stability The stability of perovskites over time has been a limiting factor, but this is being overcome with barriers, compositional modifications, or the use of stable transport layers. Since the average drone lifespan is much shorter than the 25+ years needed by the energy industry the key to using perovskite in such drones is more around lower cost, flexible, efficient Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 151 output and power-to-weight ratio rather than long term durability. Their stability is reaching the 3-to-5-year length needed for drone usage [19]. Perovskite shown to be useful in space orbit. Dr. Lyndsey McMillon-Brown, a NASA research engineer, led a spaceflight experiment to test perovskite solar cells on the International Space Station. After 10 months in space, the film remained dark black, indicating the material’s durability and efficiency in harsh space conditions. This success suggests that perovskites could be key in creating thinner, lighter, and more flexible solar cells for long-duration space missions, potentially providing reliable power for future Moon and Mars explorations [20]. Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) are promising materials for solar cells, offering high efficiency similar to silicon, with added benefits like adjustable properties for specialized devices. They are also highly resistant to temperature changes and defects, making them good candidates for space use [21]. To test their space durability, a thin film of perovskite was placed on the International Space Station for 10 months. After the mission, tests showed that the material was stable, didn’t suffer irreversible radiation damage, and had an improved operational range. Additionally, surface defects actually improved with exposure to light. These findings confirm that MHPs can be effectively used in space [22]. 1.7. Thickness While thickness is not completely correlated to efficiency, it is true that earlier perovskite cells were thicker and only recently have they been reduced to the micron range. Some thicknesses work better for various wavelengths and applications as seen in Figure 3: Figure 3 Thickness and light-intensity dependent performance of p–i–n PSCs. (a) Power conversion efficiency (PCE) versus perovskite layer thickness (AM 1.5, 1 sun intensity, 50 mV s−1 scan rate), the inset figure plots a schematic illustration showing p–i–n device configuration and layer composition. (b) Dependence of PCE on light intensity of representative solar cells comprising MAPI perovskite films of 250 nm, 500 nm and 750 nm, measured with an intensity-tunable LED array. (c) Photovoltaic parameters versus light intensity for devices with 250, 500 and 750 nm MAPI active layer thickness. Left panel: short-circuit current density (JSC), with the linearity of JSC with light intensity (α) indicated; Middle panel: open-circuit voltage (VOC); Right panel: fill factor (FF) [23] Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 152 However, by reviewing various articles since perovskites were first developed in 2010 a general trend can be visualized in Figure 4: Figure 4 Chart pulled from various studies [2,24–26]. And most recently (2024) Kepler University developed lightweight, thin (<2.5 μm), flexible and transparent-conductiveoxide-free quasi-two-dimensional perovskite solar cells by incorporating alpha-methylbenzyl ammonium iodide into the photoactive perovskite layer. They fabricated the devices directly on an ultrathin polymer foil coated with an alumina barrier layer to ensure environmental and mechanical stability without compromising weight and flexibility. Most impressively, it demonstrated a champion specific power of 44 W g−1 (average: 41 W g−1), an open-circuit voltage of 1.15 V and a champion efficiency of 20.1% (average: 18.1%) [2]. To show its actual potential, they built a photovoltaic drone module consisting of 24 interconnected 1 cm2 solar cells and demonstrate energy-autonomous operation of a hybrid solar-powered quadcopter. The solar cells made up only 1/400 of the drone’s weight and were 70 times thinner than a human hair. See Figure 5 for the construction of the solar cells and resulting drone [2] including the configuration and dimensions in Figure 5, subfigure a and the finished drone in sub-figure b. Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 2025, 22(02), 145-161 153 Figure 5 Kepler University solar cell composition and drone design The key of the Kepler University work is not just the thickness, but the champion efficiency at that thickness yields a high power to weight ratio. With that, we can summarize that the key perovskite improvements are flexibility, stability, cost, efficiency and low weight—also meaning high power per weight. The key aspects of these for drones are the low weight, high efficiency, and flexible shape, as shown in Figure 6: Figure 6 Perovskite key aspects [27] So, both drones and perovskite cells have had substantial improvements over the years. If we combine them, will we reach the point where lightweight drones can be self-sufficient? 2. 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