Pesticide Residue Analysis in Selected Food Crops in Bwari Area of Abuja, Nigeria

 Corresponding author: Salome Sagi Kolo. Email: Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Pesticide Residue Analysis in Selected Food Crops in Bwari Area of Abuja, Nigeria Salome Sagi Kolo 1, *, Sunday Adebayo Kolawole 1, Noela Chinyelu Igwemmar 1, Mary Sunday Dauda 1 and Rebecca Wusa Ndana 2 1 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Abuja, Nigeria. 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Abuja, Nigeria. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 Publication history: Received on 20 July 2025; revised on 28 August 2025; accepted on 03 September 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.27.3.3094 Abstract High yields in food crops and prevention of post-harvest losses are some agricultural practices which have led to a wide application of agrochemicals like organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). This study analyzed the presence and concentrations of twenty OCP residues in food crops selected from communities in Bwari area council of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Experimental values gotten were compared to Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) to ascertain that they are within acceptable limits. The stored food crop samples; maize (Zea mays), guinea corn (Sorghum bicolor) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) were collected from storages of households from the study site. Samples were prepared using QuEChERS method of preparation and analysis carried out using the Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Results from this study showed OCP residue presence in most food crops, at varying concentrations. Despite the presence of OCPs, their mean concentration values were at levels below MRL. However, Zuma Yellow Maize (ZYM) had the presence of p,p’-DDE (a metabolite of DDT) with mean concentration value of 146.38 µg/kg. This was far above MRL of 50 µg/kg for p,p’-DDE. Thus, ZYM showed health risk index of 337.513 which is greater than 100, indicating a higher health risk to consumers. Routine monitoring of food crops should be carried out frequently to ensure food safety and security. Furthermore, farmers should also be educated on the effects of pesticides, as actions are taken on the misuse of pesticides. Keywords: Organochlorine pesticides; Maize; Guinea corn; Cowpea; QuEChERS; Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry 1. Introduction Agricultural practices with the intention to have high yields in food crop production have led to the wide application of agrochemicals like organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). This is one way that the second Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on food security; which aims to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture - is achieved. The increasing demand for food supply has had a direct relationship with the steady rise in human population (Sruthi et al., 2017). In recent times, the world’s population has been estimated to be about 8.5 billion people by the year 2030 with annual growth rate put at 1.2% (Smith and Gregory, 2013). According to the United Nations (UN), 95% of this increase is likely to be experienced in developing countries of the world and mostly in Sub-Sahara Africa (Atangana, 2022). Therefore, to meet up with the second goal of the SDGs, this has encouraged the unreserved use of pesticides, especially as it pertains to post-harvest losses. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), have said that, ‘pesticides are chemical compounds that are used to control pests, including insects, rodents, fungi, larvae and unwanted plants (weeds) in order World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1160 to improve the yield of food crops’ (FAO, 2021). They are substances or any mixture of substances which have biological or chemical components intended for controlling, repelling or even destroying pests, thereby regulating plant’s growth (World Health Organization, 2023a). Some organochlorine insecticidal pesticides are DDT, Lindane and Chlordane. The usage of pesticides is widely distributed in the world ranging from agricultural fields, homes, parks, and schools. These pesticides often find their way further, into food crops commonly consumed by man (Kasozi et al., 2006; Oluwole and Cheke, 2009). The impact of pest and diseases have always been a setback in agriculture and its practices. This has led to crop damage, reduction in food availability and consequently, increase in food prices (Sruthi et al., 2017). For instance, the recurrence of Tuta absoluta, popularly known as “Tomato Ebola”, points to the country’s inability to handle recurring food crop diseases which has challenged many farmlands. This “Tomato Ebola” in Nigeria is a vivid demonstration of the importance of pesticides in modern day agricultural practices (Sruthi et al., 2017). For without the use of pesticides, unimaginable losses of food crops would occur, while farmers helplessly look on. In the past, the Nigerian news has reported on a number of cases of food poisoning and fatalities in various parts of the nation, including Cross River, Taraba, and Gombe States (Mazlan et al., 2017). Furthermore, because of high levels of contamination, the European Union (EU) prohibited some agricultural food exports from Nigeria (Akande et al., 2023). The Nigerian Agricultural Quarantine Service (NANQS) has reported that plant pests account for about 50% of food crop loss (Dextra International, 2019; Ugwu et al., 2022). As a measure to curtail food crop loss and damage, farmers in Nigeria and most part of the world at large, have employed the use of pesticides for many decades (Asogwa and Dongo 2009). Though pesticides are very important in food crop production and storage today, they are very poisonous by nature when they get into food crops and constitute one of the most hazardous groups of contaminants to human health, fauna and the environment at large (Alengebawy et al., 2021). Food crops whose main nutrients come from persistent and continuous development of soil nutrients, have an awesome capacity of retaining nutrients and other components from the soil (Kolawole et al., 2022). The thriving of such plants in contaminated soil is an indication of a potential hazard and overwhelming contamination retention by plants is of serious human health risks; as through the food chain, even pesticide residues enter the human body (Kolawole et al., 2022). When people come in contact with large quantities of pesticides, it may cause severe poisoning or long-term health effects, cancer inclusive, and adverse effects on reproduction. Pesticides, particularly in food crops, have become the leading cause of death by self-poisoning, particularly in lowand middle-income countries (Eddleston, 2020). To protect food producers and consumers from the adverse effects of pesticides, the World Health Organization (WHO) reviews evidence and have developed internationally-accepted maximum residue limits for pesticides (Donkor et al., 2016). The use of some of these banned organochlorine pesticides in farming activities, storage of food crops and around the house, has exposed our ecosystem to varying degrees of contamination due to the proliferation of different types of organochlorine pesticides used in cultivation and storage of food crops. As these pesticides are often used on food crops both on farmlands and in storages, its continuous spread in the environment becomes inevitable. It is therefore necessary to ascertain the distribution, behavior and fate of these compounds in various food crops (grains) and put in place strict regulations and control. This study therefore determined organochlorine pesticide residues in selected food crop in communities in Bwari Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja – Nigeria. These areas were selected as a result of much farming activities ongoing in the areas which contributes to a significant amount of food crops in that environment. Also, there is limited data on organochlorine pesticide residues in the study area. The results from this study will serve as an awareness to the farmers, education for the consumers, a guide in policy-making for regulatory bodies, contribution to better handling of food crops to ensure food security and safety; and also, good insight to agricultural productivity and by extension, safeguarding the environment. 2. Materials and method 2.1. Study Area The study area is along Duste - Bwari road in the NorthEastern part of Abuja. This study was conducted on 2 communities and their extension areas latitude 9° 17' 5" North of the Equator and longitude 7° 25' 23" East of the Greenwich Meridian, with sunrise at 07:16:48 and sunset at 19:54:52 (Imhanfidon et al., 2023). It is sited about 26 kilometres away from Abuja city and 10 kilometres away from Bwari town (Sunday, 2021); where there are so much farming activities on-going as a major occupation of the inhabitants. This district has a tropical climate with the World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1161 characteristic dry and wet seasons. Dry season begins from November to February while the wet season is from March to October. The mean annual rainfall is between 125 cm and 175 cm while the annual temperature is about 28 oC (Sunday, 2021). 2.2. Experimental design Samples were carefully sampled and unwanted materials picked out from them. They were homogenized so as to get uniform particles and further sieved. Food crop samples were subjected to QuEChERS method of extraction and cleanup. These were further subjected to Gas – Chromatography (GC-MS) analysis and final results analyzed using Microsoft Excel (MS Excel) and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). 2.3. Data Collection This research work was aimed at analyzing organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues in selected food crop samples of some communities in Bwari Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. The study sites were visited not less than three times, so as to get familiar with the terrain. Focus group discussions were held with community heads and leaders, after which interviews were scheduled at a later time. 2.4. Food Crop Samples Collection Guinea corn (brown and white); Maize (yellow and white); Cowpea (brown and white) were obtained from ten (10) storage bags each. Sub-samples were collected using a grain probe from various locations of each bag. These were composited to produce representative samples. Samples were put in Ziploc bags, labelled appropriately as shown on table 1. Table 1 Showing Collected Food Crop Samples and their Laboratory Code Sample ID Sample Description Lab. CODE 1 Gaba Brown Guinea corn sample GBGC 2 Gaba White Guinea corn sample GWGC 3 Gaba Yellow Maize sample GYM 4 Gaba White Maize sample GWM 5 Gaba Brown Cowpea sample GBCP 6 Gaba White Cowpea sample GWCP 7 Zuma Brown Guinea corn sample ZBGC 8 Zuma White Guinea corn sample ZWGC 9 Zuma Yellow Maize sample ZYM 10 Zuma White Maize sample ZWM 11 Zuma Brown Cowpea sample ZBCP 12 Zuma White Cowpea sample ZWCP These were taken to the laboratory and stored in the freezer at 4 oC for further analysis. 2.5. Preparation of Food Crop Samples Foreign matters (like stones and admixtures) were sorted out from the samples. Thereafter, samples were pulverized using Master Chef blender model MC – BL1970 to ensure proper comminution and homogeneity. The pulverized samples were sieved through 1.0 mm size sieve mesh to obtain uniform particle size. They were put in air-tight Ziploc bags, labelled accordingly and stored in the freezer at 4 oC until needed for further analysis. 2.6. Reagents Used for Analysis In this study, all chemicals and reagents that were used for the analysis were of analytical grade (AR). Anhydrous Magnesium sulfate (98 % Sigma-Aldrich, US), Acetonitrile (99.5 % Thermo-Scientific Chemicals, US), Glacial acetic acid World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1162 (99.5% Welychem Co. Ltd, China), Anhydrous Sodium citrate (99 % Hawkins Inc., US), Sodium chloride (95 % Hawkins Inc., US), pure Acetone 99.5 % (Sigma-Aldrich, US). Extraction and Clean-up of Samples: The samples were extracted using multi-residue pesticide analysis technique, which involves the QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) method of sample preparation (OAOC 2007.01 procedure). This was further cleaned up using Primary Secondary Amine (PSA). Analytical Method: The analytes were stored in GC vails and sent for GC-MS analysis. Samples were collected and analyzed in triplicates after which the data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Extraction of Organochlorine Pesticides in Food Crop Samples: 10 g of finely grounded sample was placed in a 50 mL polypropylene centrifuge tube with 10 mL water (H2O) added to it. To this mixture was added 15 mL acetonitrile (CH3CN) and the mixture was vortexed vigorously for 5 minutes. Furthermore, 0.5 g disodium hydrogen citrate sesquihydrate (C6H8Na2O8), 1 g trisodium citrate dihydrate (C6H5Na3O7.2H2O) (buffers), 4 g anhydrous magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) and 1 g sodium chloride (NaCl) (for salting-out) were added. The mixture was vortex immediately for another five (5) minutes then centrifuged at 4500 rpm for five (5) minutes. The extract was then separated from the precipitates by simple decantation. QuEChERS Clean-Up of Sample Extract: Using the AOAC 2007.01 procedure, 1 ml aliquot of the extract from extraction and partitioning steps was transferred into a polypropylene centrifuge tube containing 100 mg anhydrous magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), 75 mg graphite carbon black (C18) sorbent (to remove plant pigment), and 20 mg Primary Secondary Amine (PSA) sorbent (to remove excess water). The tube was again vortexed for 0.5 minute and centrifuged at 4500 rpm for 2 minutes. An aliquot of the supernatant was transferred into a glass test tube and acidified by adding 15 µL of 5 % (v/v) formic acid in acetonitrile per mL of extract for subsequent injection into the Gas Chromatography. 2.7. Instrumental analysis GC-MS: Agilent HP-5-60 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry was used to determine the concentration of organochlorine in the samples (Zhang, 2019). The instrument column was 30 m × 0.25 mm x 0.25 µm film thickness. It was operated at 250 oC and attached to a Gas Chromatograph (6890N Agilent technologies) and a Mass Selective Detector (Agilent 5975B). 1 µL samples was injected into the machine in a spitless mode and the initial column temperature was maintained at 100 oC for 2 minutes and then increased to 180 oC at a rate of 15 oC per minute. Thereafter it was ramped up to 250 oC at a rate of 3 oC per minute, where it was held for 9 minutes. The carrier gas used was helium with a flow rate of 1.0 mLmin-1. The operation mode of the mass spectrometer was electron impact ionization with the use of automatic gain control. The storage window was programmed at full scan mode in the range of m/z 200 – 500, and the Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM) mode was employed in acquiring data by Agilent ChemStation software. Sample Analysis for Organochlorine Pesticides Residues: Internal standard technique was used to analyze the food crop extracts (Hiatt, 2010). The organochlorine standards containing a mixture of 14 organochlorine compounds of high purity (alpha BHC, beta-BHC, Lindane, delta-BHC, Heptachlor, Aldrin, Heptachlor – epoxide, Endosulfan I, p,p’-DDE, Dieldrin, Endrin, Endosulfan II, p,p’-DDT, and Endosulfan sulphate) were prepared at concentrations ranging from 0.100 to 2.000 ppm, with Anthracene, PCB-153, and PF-38 added as Internal Standards. The modern Shimadzu GC-MS QP2010 was used to analyze the standards. Also, calibration curve for each compound was prepared automatically (Kadokami, 2013). Food crop sample extracts from the clean-up were then analyzed under the same conditions as for the standards, while Selective Ion Mode (SIM) had m/z values ranging from 65 to 274. Recovery Studies: The efficiency of the method was validated with recovery studies. Fortification of reference materials without pesticide residues with four organochlorine compounds at two concentration levels 0.1 mg/kg and 1.0 mg/kg were carried out in triplicate and the same method of extraction and clean-up was followed. Other quality assurance measures applied in the laboratory included rigorous contamination control procedures (washing and cleaning procedures), monitoring of blank levels of solvents and analysis of procedural blanks. The samples were then analyzed with GC-MS with percentage recovery (Richter et al., 2020) calculated using equation (1): % 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 100 (1) World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1163 Where fortification concentration is the same as spike concentration. Quality Assurance: Glass wares and tools that were used during laboratory analysis were thoroughly washed with detergent and running water. This was followed by rinsing with distilled water and then proper drying. These were further rinsed with acetone before they were used in the laboratory. Chemicals and reagents used were all of analytical grade and obtained from BDH and Sigma and Co. They were all used in accordance to given instructions. Instruments were calibrated and test-run before they were used. 2.8. Statistical analysis The results obtained from this study were analyzed using Microsoft Excel. The correlation and level of statistical significance were also estimated using ANOVA (analysis of variance). The concentrations of organochlorine pesticide residues in guinea corn, maize, and cowpea samples in the study area were then compared with the Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) by European Union (Carrère et al., 2018). 3. Results and Discussion Organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residue GC-MS standard chromatograms for all food crop samples from Gaba and Zuma communities were sharp, clear and distinct, indicating that the samples were properly prepared (extracted and cleaned up) before GC-MS analysis was carried out on them. Also, the right analytical equipment was used which presented less noise during analysis. The mean concentration values for all food crop samples from the communities were calculated and designated appropriately. Also, the percentage distributions of the various OCP residues in each of the samples were calculated. The retention time (RT) and Q-values were also calculated accordingly. 3.1. OCP Residue Concentrations as Observed in Food Crop Samples Gaba Guinea Corn Samples: The mean concentration value (MCV) of organochlorine pesticides in Gaba brown guinea corn sample (GBGC) ranged from 0.03 ± 0.01 µg/kg to 11.43 ± 1.29 µg/kg and that of white guinea corn sample (GWGC) ranged from 0.03 ± 0.01 µg/kg to 49.20 ± 1.69 µg/kg. Mean concentration value for GWGC; p,p’-DDE (49.20 µg/kg was the most abundant organochlorine pesticide residue, followed by γ-chlordane (5.51 µg/kg) and γ-BHC (2.80 µg/kg), respectively. Figure 1 shows the chart of mean concentrations of various pesticides of interest in guinea corn samples from Gaba communities. Figure 1 Graphical Representation of OCPs of Gaba Guinea corn Samples World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1164 The results showed that most organochlorine pesticide residues in the samples were below maximum residue limits (MRLs) set by the European Union. These values were within EU/CODEX/FAO Maximum Permissible Limits (MRLs) of 50 µg/kg for all metabolite products of DDT and ADI limit of 20 µg/kg for p,p’-DDD and p,p’-DDT while 5 µg/kg was for Methoxychlor. However, p,p’-DDE contamination violated the acceptable ADI value of 20 µg/kg recommended by EU and FEPA (World Health Organization, 2023a). The concentration of DDT metabolites present in GBGC and GWGC were less than those reported by Oshatunberu et al. (2022), that monitored organochlorine pesticide residue contamination of cereals sold in selected markets in South West of Nigeria. Another report by Anzene et al. (2014), studied organochlorine pesticide residue analysis of post-harvest cereal grains in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Oshatunberu et al. (2022) reported that the levels of p,p’-DDE residues in millet grains from markets of Ado-Ekiti (212 µg/kg), Ibadan (210 µg/kg), Osun (46 µg/kg) and Ondo (127 µg/kg) were higher that the MRL recommended by both the FAO/WHO as well as the EU. Also, in a study by Kolo et al. (2025), that determined levels of organochlorine pesticide residues in selected farmlands soil samples in Bwari – Abuja, found p,p’-DDE pesticides in Gaba farmlands soil sample to be within the MRL recommended by EU/CODEX/FAO (World Health Organization, 2023a), while γ-Chlordane and γ-BHC were above the 10 µg/kg set by the European Union (EU). Though, the levels of DDT metabolites reported in this study were within EU/CODEX/FAO Maximum Permissible Limits (MRLs), their presence in the samples suggests that there is a need to increase monitoring of pesticides in these food crops. Farmers can be educated, and awareness raised, of the dangers of unauthorized use and mis-use of pesticides, especially those that have been banned, which can harm Nigeria’s agriculture industry’s reputation as a whole. Hence, it has been reported that banned organochlorine pesticides bio-accumulates in food chain and high level exposure could result in nervous system dysfunction and liver damage (Akoto et al., 2013). Zuma Guinea Corn Samples: The mean concentration value (MCV) of organochlorine pesticides in Zuma brown guinea corn sample (ZBGC) ranged from 0.02 ± 0.01 µg/kg to 4.36 ± 0.02 µg/kg and that of white guinea corn sample (ZWGC) ranged from 0.02 ± 0.01 µg/kg to 3.89 ± 1.32 µg/kg. Figure 2 shows the chart of concentrations of OCP residue variations, representing the distribution of pesticide residues in the guinea corn sample from Zuma communities. Figure 2 Graphical Representation of OCPs of Zuma Guinea corn Samples The results showed that most organochlorine in the samples were below maximum permissible limits (MLRs) and acceptable dietary intake (ADI) set by the European Union. Guinea corn samples from Zuma communities were found to have metabolite products of DDT. ZBGC was contaminated with p,p’-DDE (4.36 µg/kg), p,p’-DDD (0.08 µg/kg), p,p’-DDT (0.05 µg/kg) and methoxychlor (0.22 µg/kg). Also, ZWGC was found to have p,p’-DDE (5.98 µg/kg), p,p’-DDD (0.04 µg/kg), p,p’-DDT (0.04 µg/kg) and methoxychlor (0.23 µg/kg). These values were also within EU/FAO/WHO Maximum Permissible Limits (MLRs) of 50 µg/kg (Raimi, 2021) for all metabolite products of DDT and ADI limit of 20 µg/kg for p,p’-DDD and p,p’-DDT and 5 µg/kg for Methoxychlor (World Health Organization, 2023a). The concentration of DDT metabolite present in ZBGC and ZWGC were less than those reported by Oshatunberu et al. (2022) monitored organochlorine pesticides contamination of cereals sold in selected market in South West of Nigeria and also that reported by Anzene et al., (2014) that studied organochlorine pesticide World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1165 residues analysis of post-harvest cereal grains in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Oshatunberu et al. (2022) reported that the levels of p,p’-DDE residues in millet grains from markets of Ado-Ekiti (212 µg/kg), Ibadan (210 µg/kg), Osun (46 µg/kg) and Ondo (127 µg/kg) were higher that the MRL recommended by both the FAO/WHO as well as the EU. Also, Kolo et al. (2025), determining levels of organochlorine pesticide residues in selected farmlands soil samples in Bwari – Abuja, reported that p,p’-DDE pesticides in Gaba farmlands soil samples was found to be within the MRL recommended by EU/CODEX/FAO (World Health Organization, 2023a). Though γ-Chlordane and γ-BHC were found to be less than the standards in this study, their concentrations were higher than the Adequate Daily Intake (ADI) recommended. Which is to say that, their presence in guinea corn samples revealed that the pesticides, despite their ban, are still in use by farmers of those communities. In a similar study by Anzene et al. (2014), concentration of gamma-BHC (Lindane, Gammalin-20) (25 µg/kg) was found in post-harvest guinea corn samples in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. This value and that reported in this study were higher than EU/FAO maximum residue limit. Hence, it has been reported that lindane bioaccumulates in food chain and high level exposure had resulted in nervous system dysfunction, and liver damage (Akoto et al., 2013). Comparing concentrations of pesticides in guinea corn samples from the study sites; ZWGC > ZBGC > GWGC > GBGC. Figure 3 Graphical Representation of OCPs of Gaba and Zuma Guinea corn Samples Gaba Maize Samples: The MCVs of organochlorine pesticides in GYM ranged from 0.03 ± 0.00 µg/kg to 26.34 ± 1.36 µg/kg and that of GWM ranged from 0.04 ± 0.02 µg/kg to 45.26 ± 1.13 µg/kg. Figure 4, shows the chart of concentrations of pesticide residue variations in maize samples from Gaba communities. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1166 Figure 4 Graphical Representation of OCPs of Gaba Maize Samples The results showed that most OCPs in the samples were below MRLs while a few were slightly above acceptable dietary intake (ADI) set by the European Union. Maize samples from Gaba communities were found to have metabolite products of DDT. The GYM had p,p’-DDE (26.34 µg/kg), p,p’-DDD (0.04 µg/kg), p,p’-DDT (0.11 µg/kg) and Methoxychlor (0.43 µg/kg) while GWM was with p,p’-DDE (45.26 µg/kg), p,p’-DDD (0.06 µg/kg), p,p’-DDT (0.04 µg/kg) and Methoxychlor (0.30 µg/kg). These values were within EU//FAO/WHO Maximum permissible Limits (MRLs) of 50 µg/kg (Raimi, 2021) for all metabolite products of DDT but higher than ADI limit of 20 µg/kg for p,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDD and p,p’-DDT. (World Health Organization, 2023a). The concentration of DDT metabolites present in GYM and GWM were less than those reported by Oshatunberu et al. (2022) that monitored organochlorine pesticides contamination of cereals sold in selected markets in South West of Nigeria and that reported by Anzene et al. (2014) that studied organochlorine pesticide residue analysis of post-harvest cereal grains in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Sosan et al. (2020), while accessing the dietary risk assessment of organochlorine pesticide residues in maize-based complimentary breakfast food products in Nigeria, reported the presence of p,p’-DDE (89 µg/kg); p,p’-DDT (282 µg/kg); and Methoxychlor (12 µg/kg). Another study of organochlorine pesticide residues in cereals in Nigerian markets revealed that maize sold had mean p,p’-DDE contamination of 23 µg/kg and total DDT contamination of 66 µg/kg (Osibanjo and Adeyeye, 1995). Though, the levels of DDT metabolites reported in this study were within EU/CODEX/FAO Maximum Permissible Limits (MRLs), it would pose no health risks to consumers at the moment. Caution should therefore be taken that it is within limits and does not go beyond the permissible limits. Zuma Maize Samples: The MCVs of organochlorine pesticide residues in ZYM ranged from 0.03 ± 0.01 µg/kg to 146.38 ± 1.13 µg/kg and that of ZWM ranged from 0.02 ± 0.01 µg/kg to 5.08 ± 0.70 µg/kg. Figure 5, shows the chart of concentrations of pesticide residue variations in maize samples from Zuma communities. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(03), 1159-1173 1167 Figure 5 Graphical Representation of OCPs of Zuma Maize Samples The results showed that most OCP residues in the tested samples were below maximum permissible limits (MLRs) and acceptable dietary intake (ADI) set by the European Union (EU). Maize samples from Zuma communities were found to be contaminated with metabolite products of DDT. ZYM was contaminated with p,p’-DDE (146.38 µg/kg), p,p’-DDD (12.54 µg/kg) and p,p’-DDT (0.06 µg/kg). Also, ZWM was contaminated with p,p’-DDE (5.08 µg/kg), p,p’-DDD (0.08 µg/kg) and p,p’-DDT (0.07 µg/kg). These values were within EU/FAO/WHO Maximum Permissible Limits (MLRs) of 50 µg/kg (Raimi, 2021) for all metabolic products of DDT except for p,p’-DDE in ZYM. ADI of 20 µg/kg for p,p’-DDD and p,p’-DDT also met maximum standards (World Health Organization, 2023a). The concentration of DDT metabolites present in ZYM and ZWM were similar to those reported by Oshatunberu et al. (2022) that monitored organochlorine pesticides contamination of cereals sold in selected markets in South West of Nigeria, and that reported by Anzene et al., (2014) that studied organochlorine pesticide residues of post-harvest grains in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Sosan et al. (2020) while accessing the dietary risk assessment of organochlorine pesticide residues in maize-based complimentary breakfast food products in Nigeria, reported the presence of p,p’-DDE (89 µg/kg) and p,p’-DDT (282 µg/kg). Concentration of BHC isomers detected in the samples were less than the maximum permissible limits of both EU and FEPA except for the concentration of gamma-BHC (Lindane) which was higher than 0.3 µg/kg/body weight ADI limit set by EU/FAO (World Health Organization, 2023b). When concentrations of all maize samples are compared: ZWM > ZYM > GWM > GYM.