Advancements in hybrid energy storage systems for enhancing renewable energy-to-grid integration
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Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40807-024-00120-4 REVIEW Open Access This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the US; foreign copyright protection may apply 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Sustainable Energy Research Advancements inhybrid energy storage systems forenhancing renewable energy-to-grid integration Adekanmi Miracle Adeyinka1*, Oladapo Christopher Esan2, Ahmed Olanrewaju Ijaola3 and Peter Kayode Farayibi4 Abstract The global energy sector is currently undergoing a transformative shift mainly driven by the ongoing and increasing demand for clean, sustainable, and reliable energy solutions. However, integrating renewable energy sources (RES), such as wind, solar, and hydropower, introduces major challenges due to the intermittent and variable nature of RES, affecting grid stability and reliability. Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS), which combine multiple energy storage devices (ESDs), present a promising solution by leveraging the complementary strengths of each technology involved. This comprehensive review examines recent advancements in grid-connected HESS, focusing on their components, design considerations, control strategies, and applications. It provides a detailed analysis of technological progress in various ESDs and the critical role of power conversion, control, energy management, and cooling systems in optimizing HESS performance. Highlighting case studies of some notable and successful HESS implementations across the globe, we illustrate practical applications and identify the benefits and challenges encountered. By addressing these challenges, HESS can significantly enhance the efficiency and reliability of RES, supporting the shift towards a sustainable and resilient energy infrastructure. The paper concludes by identifying future research directions, highlighting the development of intelligent control systems, sustainable materials, and efficient recycling processes to ensure the widespread adoption and long-term viability of HESS. Keywords Hybrid energy storage system, Renewable energy source, Energy storage device, Intelligent control system, Grid stability and reliability Introduction The global energy sector is facing critical challenges due to increasing energy demand and the need to combat climate change (Adediji etal., 2023; Adeyinka etal., 2023; Mbelu etal., 2024). Traditional fossil fuel-based energy infrastructure is increasingly recognized as unsustainable due to its significant environmental impact (Cowell & De Laurentis, 2022). The combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas for energy is a leading cause of global warming and air pollution, contributing to health issues and environmental degradation (Jiang etal., 2023). The release of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) from fossil fuel combustion increases the greenhouse effect, leading to higher global temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events (Singh etal., 2023). These environmental changes endanger ecosystems, human health, water resources, and agriculture, necessitating urgent action to mitigate their impacts (Weiskopf etal., 2020). *Correspondence: Adekanmi Miracle Adeyinka [email protected] 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36832, USA 2 Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA 3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67270, USA 4 Seagate Technology, Springtown Industrial Estate, Londonderry, UK
Page 2 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 The urgency to transition to cleaner energy systems is driven by international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals, which call for substantial reductions in GHG emissions to reduce global temperature rise (McCollum etal., 2018). These agreements highlight the global consensus on the need to limit temperature rise to significantly less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C to avoid the most catastrophic impacts of climate change (Gao etal., 2017; Warren etal., 2022). Achieving these targets necessitates a shift away from fossil fuels towards RES, which are abundant, sustainable, and environmentally benign (Sharma etal., 2023). The global push for renewable energy has been driven by both environmental concerns and the economic potential of green technologies. Renewable energy sources have emerged as crucial alternatives to fossil fuels because they contribute to energy security by diversifying the energy supply, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, lowering GHG emissions, and mitigating the impacts of climate change (Chen etal., 2023). In recent years, the installation of renewable energy systems has accelerated dramatically. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the total capacity for renewable energy reached 2813 gigawatts (GW) by the end of 2020, with solar and wind power experiencing the most significant growth (IRENA, 2023) and estimated to reach 7300GW by 2028 (IEA, 2023), further highlighting the momentum behind the global energy transition. Solar power has seen remarkable growth, contributing to three-quarters of renewable capacity installations globally (IEA, 2023). The rapid decline in the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) technology has made solar energy increasingly competitive with traditional energy sources (G. He etal., 2020). Innovations in PV materials, manufacturing processes, and installation techniques have improved efficiency and reduced costs, enabling widespread adoption (Schmela etal., 2023). Similarly, wind power continues to expand, with a global capacity of around 1000 GW at the end of 2023. Technological advancements in materials, turbine design, and control systems have significantly improved the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of wind energy (Alex, 2024). Despite these advancements, integrating RES into the existing power grid presents challenges due to their intermittent and variable nature (Ayamolowo etal., 2020; Purkait etal., 2024). Unlike traditional fossil fuel plants, which can provide a reliable and controllable power output, renewable energy generation fluctuates with the weather and time of day, leading to periods when energy production is either insufficient or excessively high compared to demand (Deguenon etal., 2023). This variability can cause instability and reliability issues in the power grid, which has traditionally been designed for the steady output of fossil fuel plants (Benzohra etal., 2020). The intermittency of power generated from RES can lead to challenges for grid integration due to mismatches between energy supply and demand (Mlilo etal., 2021). These often require grid operators to balance these fluctuations in real time to avoid frequency deviations, voltage drops, and power outages (Khalid, 2024). Energy storage devices (ESDs) are essential in addressing these challenges by saving excess energy generated during periods of high production and making it available during periods of low production (Kebede et al., 2022). ESD, such as batteries, pumped hydro storage, and flywheels, provides various benefits, including load leveling, frequency regulation, and backup power during outages, enhancing grid stability and reliability (Chong etal., 2016; Tan etal., 2021). However, no single storage technology can effectively address all grid stability and reliability requirements. This is where the hybrid energy storage systems come into play. HESS combines different energy storage technologies to provide short-term high power output and long-term energy storage solutions (Y. Wang etal., 2020). By buffering the intermittency of RES, HESS enhances grid stability, improves energy reliability, and reduces the dependence on auxiliary fossil fuel power plants, thereby facilitating a smoother transition to a renewable energy-dominated grid. Furthermore, HESS is particularly crucial for noninterconnected power systems, such as those found on isolated islands. Fotopoulou etal. (2024) emphasize the importance of HESS in these environments, highlighting their role in mitigating power quality issues and providing essential ancillary services like frequency regulation, voltage control, and black start capabilities. The versatility and reliability of HESS make them an indispensable component for enhancing the sustainability and operational efficiency of isolated grids, which face unique challenges compared to interconnected systems (Fotopoulou etal., 2024). Table 1 provides an overview of review studies on HESS. Even though few reviews on some important HESS concepts have been published (Abo-Khalil etal., 2023; Arsad et al., 2022; Chatzigeorgiou et al., 2024; Emrani & Berrada, 2024; Lei etal., 2023a, 2023b; Lin & Zamora, 2022; Modu etal., 2023; Rezaei etal., 2022; Wali etal., 2023; Wang etal., 2022), a detailed understanding of the advances in HESS and their role in enhancing renewable energy integration into the power grid and case studies of successful installation of grid-connected HESS were not considered. Consequently, a timely and contemporary review of grid-connected HESS is vital for information and knowledge updates.
Page 3 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 Table 1 Critical review of recent studies on HESS Refs. Year ESD Highlights from the paper Area of review focus Technology Control system RES integration Case studies for grid application (Chatzigeorgiou et al., 2024)2024 BESS Reviewed applications, developments, and research trends in hybrid installations for end-users; highlighted the growing importance of BESS in integrating renewable energy sources ✓ ✓ ✓ (Emrani & Berrada, 2024)2024 All ESDs Elucidated the integral role of energy storage devices in optimizing hybrid photovoltaic/ wind power systems, focused on recent technical advancements and economic factors influencing their adoption and implementation ✓ ✓ (Abo-Khalil et al., 2023) 2023 All ESDs Emphasized the benefits of integrating various energy storage technologies to enhance system performance and reliability; discussed traditional and intelligent control techniques ✓ ✓ (Lei et al., 2023a, 2023b)2023 BESS, SC, FC, SMES, Flywheel Focused on components, powertrain topologies, and control methods; emphasized the integration of different energy storage devices to optimize performance and extend vehicle range ✓ ✓ (Wali et al., 2023) 2023 Hydrogen storage Introduced a novel ‘usage count’ indicator for identifying impactful research in hydrogen-based HESS; emphasized hydrogen’s high energy density and storage capacity and its role in decarbonization ✓ ✓ (Modu et al., 2023) 2023 Hydrogen storage Highlighted recent advancements in the integration of hydrogen storage within HRES; examined various optimization techniques and energy management systems ✓ ✓
Page 4 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 By examining the current state of HESS, its applications, benefits, and challenges, this paper will provide a comprehensive overview of how these systems can support the transition to a sustainable energy infrastructure. The organization structure of this article is as follows: the overview of the technology, components, design considerations, types of hybrid systems, control systems, topologies, and applications of HESS are reviewed in Sect."An overview of hybrid energy storage systems". The recent technological development focusing on advanced control strategies for enhancing renewable energy integration are discussed in Sect. "Technological advancements in HESS control strategies for enhancing renewable energy integration". Sect."Case studies of successful implementation of HESS" explores the case studies of the successful implementation of HESS around the world. Finally, the challenges and future directions for research and development are discussed in Chapter5. An overview ofhybrid energy storage systems Hybrid energy storage systems are advanced energy storage solutions that provide a more versatile and efficient approach to managing energy storage and distribution, addressing the varying demands of the power grid more effectively than single-technology systems. HESS has transformed from conceptual frameworks into advanced Table 1 (continued) Refs. Year ESD Highlights from the paper Area of review focus Technology Control system RES integration Case studies for grid application (Rezaei et al., 2022) 2022 BESS, UC Categorized energy management systems into optimizationbased, frequencybased, and rule-based approaches; highlighted practical applications and potential for future improvements ✓ ✓ (Wang et al., 2022) 2022 BESS, SC Analyzed various topologies, such as non-isolated and isolated converters, and emphasized their roles in voltage matching and power decoupling ✓ (Lin & Zamora, 2022) 2022 BESS, SC Categorized control strategies into centralized, decentralized, and distributed methods; highlighted future trends in control strategies for HESS ✓ ✓ (Arsad et al., 2022) 2022 Hydrogen storage Utilized bibliometric analysis to identify research trends and future directions; highlighted the potential of hydrogen storage for energy sustainability and examined highly cited articles ✓ This review 2024 All ESDs Comprehensive review of advances in HESS technologies, control systems, RES integration and case studies of grid-connected HESS ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Page 5 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 systems integrating multiple energy storage technologies, evolving through continuous advancements and innovations. The development trend of HESS results from the growing demand for efficient and reliable energy storage solutions to tackle the challenges posed by modern energy systems. Figure 1 provides an overview of the technological development of HESS. The technological roadmap illustrates the evolution and future directions of hybrid energy storage technologies. It provides a visual representation of milestones, advancements, trends and projects for future advancements in the development of HESS. Components ofHESS Each component in a HESS has distinct functions that enhance the reliability and efficiency of the system. Figure 2 provides an overview of the interconnectivity between the components of HESS. The primary elements of HESS and their functions are: Energy storage devices (ESD) Energy storage devices are the core components of HESS, responsible for saving excess energy generated during periods of high production and supplying it during periods of high demand (Hassan etal., 2023a, 2023b). This ensures a stable and reliable energy supply, meeting load balancing, grid stabilization, and energy management needs. Different types of ESD are integrated into HESS to leverage their unique strengths and mitigate their weaknesses. These include batteries, supercapacitors, flywheels, pumped hydro, super magnets, compressed air, and hydrogen, which are used to store energy in various forms (Gusain etal., 2021; Worku etal., 2022; Zhang etal., 2021a, 2021b). Table2 provides a comparison of different ESDs reviewed in this study, focusing on metrics such as energy density, power density, efficiency, cost, and the times required for charging and discharging. Power conversion system The power conversion system (PCS) converts energy between different forms to ensure compatibility and efficient integration with the power grid (Atawi etal., 2023). The PCS includes bidirectional inverters, rectifiers, and converters that convert direct current from energy storage devices to alternating current for grid supply and vice versa. This bidirectional capability enables seamless energy flow management and allows the charging and discharging of ESDs. The PCS is essential for maintaining voltage stability and regulating the frequency of the electricity supplied to the grid (Jarosz, 2024). By interfacing with the ESDs, the control system and the energy management system (EMS), the PCS ensures that energy is efficiently converted and delivered to meet real-time demand. Control system The control system is a critical component of HESS, responsible for managing and regulating the operation of the ESDs and ensuring their optimal performance (Lin & Zamora, 2022). The control system uses advanced Fig. 1 Technological roadmap for HESS
Page 6 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 control algorithms and safety protocols to continuously monitor the status of the energy storage devices, including state of charge, health, and operating conditions. It uses this information to make real-time decisions about when to charge or discharge the storage devices to prevent overcharging, deep discharging, and overheating issues (Hajiaghasi etal., 2019). Furthermore, the control system coordinates the operation of the power conversion system (PCS) and the energy management system (EMS) to ensure a balanced and stable energy supply. For instance, the control system can rapidly respond to shortterm power fluctuations by adjusting the output of the storage devices, helping to stabilize the grid and prevent outages or frequency deviations. The control system also interfaces with the cooling system to manage the thermal conditions of the storage devices, ensuring they operate within safe temperature limits. Energy management system The energy management system (EMS) uses advanced algorithms and forecasting techniques to predict energy demand and supply, enabling it to dynamically adjust the charging and discharging schedules of ESD (Meliani etal., 2021). One of the primary functions of the EMS is load forecasting. By analyzing historical data, weather conditions, and usage patterns, the EMS can predict future energy demand accurately. This allows it to optimize the charging and discharging cycles of the ESDs (Wazirali etal., 2023). By working in conjunction with the control system, the EMS monitors the status of the ESDs, making real-time adjustments to maintain optimal performance and prevent issues such as overcharging, deep discharging, and overheating. Cooling system The cooling system maintains the optimal operating temperature of the ESDs, PCS, and control system to ensure efficiency and longevity. Effective thermal management is needed to prevent overheating, which can degrade performance, reduce efficiency, and shorten the lifespan of ESDs (Nadjahi etal., 2018). The cooling system utilizes various methods, such as air cooling, liquid cooling, and heat sinks, to dissipate excess heat produced during charging and discharging cycles. By keeping the temperature within safe limits, the cooling system ensures that the ESDs operate efficiently and reliably (Zhang Fig. 2 An overview of hybrid energy storage systems and their components
Page 7 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 Table 2 Comparative analysis of different energy storage devices Energy storage devices Energy density Power density Efficiency Charge/discharge time Cost Primary use Advantages Disadvantages Refs Lithium-ion batteries High Moderate High (~ 90–95%) Hours Moderate Portable electronics, EVs, grid storage High energy density, wellunderstood Degradation with use, sensitive to temperature (Goodenough & Kim, 2010) Lead-acid batteries Low Low Moderate (~ 70–80%) Hours Low UPS, grid storage, automotive Low cost, reliable, well-established Low energy density, heavy, environmental issues (Lopes & Stamenkovic, 2020) Supercapacitors Low Very high Very high (> 95%) Seconds to minutes High Regenerative braking, power quality Very fast charge/ discharge, very long lifespan Low energy density, high cost per energy unit (X. He & Zhang, 2022) Flywheels Moderate High High (~ 85–95%) Seconds to minutes High Frequency regulation, UPS No chemical degradation, rapid response High mechanical maintenance, energy loss over time (Ji et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2021) Flow batteries Moderate Low to moderate Moderate (~ 70–85%) Minutes to hours Moderate Long-duration grid storage Scalable energy capacity, long discharge duration Complex plumbing and maintenance (Esan et al., 2020) Compressed air energy storage (CAES) Low Low Moderate (~ 40–75%) Hours to days Moderate Grid energy storage, load leveling Large-scale energy storage, long lifespan Requires specific geological formations (Olabi et al., 2021; X. Zhang et al., 2024) Thermal energy storage (TES) Variable Variable Variable Hours to days Variable Building heating/ cooling, industrial processes Flexible application scope Efficiency varies with installation (Cabeza et al., 2015; Guelpa & Verda, 2019) Hydrogen storage (via electrolysis) Low Low Low (~ 35–55%) Hours High Fuel for vehicles, grid storage High capacity for large-scale storage High costs, requires advanced infrastructure (Hassan et al., 2023a, 2023b; Terlouw et al., 2022) Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) Low Very high Very high (> 95%) Instantaneous Very high Power quality, grid stability Extremely fast response time, very high efficiency High cost, complex cryogenics (Adetokun et al., 2022) Pumped hydro storage Low Low High (~ 70–85%) Hours to days Low Grid energy storage, load leveling Long lifespan, large-scale storage Geographic and environmental constraints (Hoffstaedt et al., 2022; Rehman et al., 2015)
Page 8 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 etal., 2021a, 2021b). Furthermore, the cooling system is integrated with the control system to dynamically adjust cooling efforts based on real-time temperature data and operational conditions. Key design considerations forHESS Designing HESS requires careful consideration of several key factors to ensure optimal performance, efficiency, and reliability. The following are critical design considerations. Technology compatibility HESS should be designed for seamless compatibility with existing power systems, renewable generation units, and grid interfaces (R. & Kowsalya, 2024). Ensuring effective communication and adaptation with current grid management tools and demand response systems is critical. The selected combination of storage technologies should complement each other to optimize performance (see Fig.3 for suggested compatibility and effectiveness of various ESDs for potential HESS configuration). For example, batteries with high energy capacity but limited cycle life can be paired with supercapacitors with high power output and rapid cycling capability. This synergistic approach should be adapted to the specific energy profiles and operational demands of the application, enhancing the overall efficiency and reliability of the HESS. Capacity sizing Capacity sizing involves a detailed analysis of energy requirements (kWh) and power demand (kW) over specific periods based on historical data, anticipated growth, and the variability in energy production from renewable sources (Colak & Ahmed, 2021). Recent progress has been made in software-based capacity sizing for hybrid systems, which leverages advanced computational tools and algorithms to optimize system performance and cost-effectiveness (Lian etal., 2019). Tools like RETScreen, Hybrid Optimization by Genetic Algorithms Fig. 3 Heatmap of different forms of HESS combinations
Page 9 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 (iHOGA), and Integrated Simulation Environment Language (INSEL) provide comprehensive energy management, efficiency analysis, and scenario simulations to handle the complexities of renewable energy integration and storage management (Adeyinka & Kareem, 2018; Canada, 2021; Hoarcă et al., 2023; Sinha & Chandel, 2014). Artificial Intelligence capacity sizing approaches utilizing advanced techniques such as genetic algorithms, neural networks, and fuzzy logic have been increasingly adopted to optimize HESS (Bajpai & Dash, 2012; Zahraee etal., 2016). These AI methods are adept at handling complex, nonlinear relationships in energy systems and can adapt to dynamic conditions, ensuring precise and flexible optimization of storage capacity (Tang etal., 2021). Proper capacity sizing ensures that the HESS can handle peak loads and maintain supply during periods of low energy generation. System reliability andsafety Designing HESS for reliability and safety involves integrating redundancy to enhance system resilience against failures or unexpected demand spikes and implementing robust safety protocols to manage risks associated with high-energy systems (Reveles-Miranda etal., 2024). This includes measures to prevent thermal runaway in batteries, such as integrating advanced thermal management systems, fail-safe mechanisms, and robust containment strategies to prevent overheating and mitigate failures (A. M. Adeyinka & Olaleke, 2020). Continuous monitoring systems are critical for maintaining the reliability and safety of HESS by using sensors and real-time data analytics to detect and diagnose potential issues, enabling predictive maintenance that extends the life of ESDs and avoids unexpected failures. Environmental impact Considering the environmental impact throughout the system’s lifecycle is crucial when designing HESS (Hassan etal., 2023a, 2023b). This involves evaluating the materials used in batteries and other components, focusing on their manufacturability, recyclability, and disposal (Ijaola etal., 2022). Selecting environmentally friendly materials and technologies is essential to minimize the ecological footprint of HESS. Lifecycle assessments should be conducted to assess the environmental impact from production to disposal, ensuring that the design choices contribute to sustainability. These assessments consider factors such as the extraction of raw materials, manufacturing processes, operational efficiency, and end-of-life disposal or recycling. Additionally, integrating recycling strategies that recover valuable materials from used components can reduce the demand for new raw materials and mitigate environmental degradation. Cost factors When designing HESS, it is crucial to consider the cost factors, which include upfront capital costs, operational and maintenance costs, and potential replacement costs, which vary significantly based on the technology used (Abo-Khalil et al., 2023). Scalability and potential for future upgrades to adapt to evolving energy demands and integrate new technological advancements, ensuring long-term cost-effectiveness, should be considered (Lei et al., 2023a, 2023b). Furthermore, assessing the economic viability includes considering financial incentives and revenue generation opportunities through mechanisms like energy arbitrage and demand response programs, which can significantly offset the initial and operating costs (Gudlaugsson etal., 2023). Types ofhybrid systems Hybrid systems integrate the strengths of various storage devices to address specific energy storage needs and enhance the overall functionality of energy systems. The heatmap in Fig. 3 illustrates the applications and effectiveness of various combinations of energy storage devices (ESDs) in HESS. The colors indicate the relevance and performance of each combination, with “High”, “Moderate”, and “Low” representing the effectiveness of each pairing. The heatmap shows that certain combinations, such as lithium-ion with supercapacitors or CAES with flow batteries, exhibit high performance in terms of efficiency and reliability, as indicated by the red areas. These highperforming combinations leverage the unique strengths of each technology to deliver superior results in specific applications, such as grid stabilization, renewable energy integration, and quick response scenarios. However, it is important to consider other factors beyond performance when designing and selecting HESS configurations. The availability of RES, cost, maintenance requirements, and environmental impact are critical factors that influence the overall feasibility and sustainability of HESS. Hence, a comprehensive economic, environmental, and resource availability analysis should be conducted to make informed decisions about deploying HESS. Recent technological advancements have significantly enhanced the performance, safety, and scalability of various energy storage solutions. These innovations are critical for integrating RES into the grid, mitigating intermittency issues, and ensuring a stable, reliable power supply. Pumped hydro storage Pumped hydro storage remains one of the most mature and widely used energy storage technologies. Recent advancements focus on increasing efficiency and
Page 16 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 proposed power management strategy was able to manage the power flow of the ESDs and charge or discharge power based on their SOC. Despite the advantages of ANN-based control, these systems have limitations, such as requiring substantial computational resources for training, the risk of overfitting, and the need for large amounts of labeled training data. Reinforcement learning (RL) Reinforcement learning (RL) is an advanced AI-based technique that enables systems to learn optimal control policies through trial and error by interacting with their environment (Buşoniu etal., 2018; Sutton & Barto, 2018). RL operates by using an agent that makes decisions based on a reward signal, which evaluates the performance of its actions in achieving specific goals (Khan etal., 2012), such as minimizing energy costs, balancing SOC, or maximizing the lifespan of storage units. Researchers have employed RL in HESS to tackle challenges such as managing fluctuating renewable energy inputs, responding to varying load demands, and enhancing overall system efficiency (Perera & Kamalaruban, 2021). (Xiong et al., 2018) proposed a real-time energy management using RL for HESS in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV). By learning current driving power information, their algorithm updates the strategy to reduce the energy loss of the HESS. RL algorithms, like Q-learning and Deep Q-Networks (DQN), are effective in these applications as they can handle high-dimensional state and action spaces and adapt to changing system dynamics in real-time (Kofinas etal., 2018). The main advantages of RL in HESS include its ability to learn and improve control policies over time, adapt to new and unforeseen scenarios, and optimize performance without requiring explicit models of the system (Khan etal., 2012). However, RL is limited by its need for extensive training data, computational resources, and susceptibility to the choice of hyperparameter values (Henderson etal., 2018). Case studies ofsuccessful implementation ofHESS Numerous HESS projects have been successfully deployed, demonstrating their viability and effectiveness in transitioning towards a more sustainable and resilient energy infrastructure. Table4 presents an overview of successful HESS implementations in different parts of the world, illustrating the various applications and configurations employed. By leveraging advanced storage technologies and smart grid integration, these projects have successfully reduced greenhouse gas emissions, enhanced grid stability, improved energy efficiency, and ensured a reliable power supply. Challenges andfuture directions Figure6 presents an overview of the current challenges, progress, and future direction of HESS. Advancements in HESS have been rising in recent years, driven mainly by the development of renewable energy sources, advanced energy storage devices, advanced control strategies, and microgrid infrastructure. However, to advance the development of HESS, the following challenges must be addressed: • Effective strategies for integrating HESS with existing grid infrastructure: Integrating HESS with existing grid infrastructure is challenging. It requires the development of standardized protocols for communication and control. The bidirectional flow of energy and information between the grid and storage systems needs to be managed in realtime to ensure synchronization and efficient energy dispatch. • Improving energy density and efficiency of storage technologies: The energy density and efficiency of storage technologies need significant improvement. Current materials and technologies often fall short of the desired performance, and advancements in these areas are crucial for developing more effective HESS. • Compatibility between different ESDs: Compatibility between different ESDs within a hybrid system is complex due to the varying operational principles, management systems, and performance characteristics of each ESD. These differences can lead to inefficiencies and operational difficulties, making seamless integration and efficient management challenging. • High initial cost of HESS: The high initial cost of HESS is a significant barrier to widespread adoption. Advanced storage technologies, such as Hydrogen Storage systems, require substantial investment in infrastructure and technology, making them less viable for widespread use without significant financial support. • Sizing of HESS: Accurately sizing HESS based on application requirements, cost, and performance constraints is critical. Improper sizing can lead to inefficiencies, either by over-sizing, which increases costs, or under-sizing, which fails to meet energy demands. • Safety and reliable operation: Ensuring the safe and reliable operation of HESS, particularly when integrating different chemistries and technologies, is a critical challenge. Different components may have varying maintenance schedules and reliability concerns, such as mechanical wear in flywheels and battery degradation, requiring robust monitoring and predictive maintenance.
Page 17 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 Table 4 Notable HESS installations across the world HESS plant Country Start of operation RES ESD Description Refs. Flinders island hybrid energy hub Australia 2017 Wind and solar PV Batteries, flywheels and dynamic resistors The project installed a 200 kW DC solar farm, 900 kW wind turbine, 1.5 MW dynamic resistor, 850 kVA flywheel, and 750 kW/266 kWh battery (ARENA, 2020) Coober pedy hybrid renewable power station Australia 2017 Wind and solar PV Flywheel, resistors, and battery This plant combines 4 MW wind generation, 1 MW solar generation, a 1 MW/500kWh battery and other integration technologies with the diesel power station as a backup (EDL, 2024) Braderup hybrid power plant Germany 2014 Wind Lithium-ion and vanadium redox flow batteries 2 MWh lithium-ion batteries and 1 MWh Vanadium redox flow batteries (PressCenter.com, 2014) Zhangbei national wind and solar energy storage project China 2021 Wind and solar PV Lithium-ion batteries, vanadium redox flow batteries Combines 500 MW wind, 135 MW solar with 200 MW/500MWh lithium-ion and 100 MW/800MWh vanadium flow batteries (Carmen, 2021b) Notrees battery storage plant USA 2018 Wind Lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries 36 MW lithium-ion and 25 MW leadacid battery systems providing 9MWh storage capacity (Duke Energy, 2013) Zhong neng tongliang hybrid energy storage project China 2021 Wind CAES and lithium-ion batteries Combines compressed air energy storage (10 MW/40MWh) with lithium-ion batteries (6 MW/6MWh) for wind power integration (Liu, 2023) Stillwater triple hybrid power plant USA 2011 Geothermal, concentrating solar power, solar PV Thermal energy storage (TES) The plant consists of a 33 MW geothermal power plant, a 26 MW DC photovoltaic solar power plant, a 27 MW DC photovoltaic plant and a 2 MW solar thermal plant (GeoEnergy, 2021) Rokkasho village wind farm Japan 2008 Wind Lithium-ion and redox flow batteries 17 sets of 2 MW battery units monitored using smart grid monitoring and controls (Carmen, 2021a) Tehachapi wind energy storage project USA 2014 Wind Lithium-ion batteries, sodium-sulfur batteries 135 MW of wind power capacity integrated with a 32 MWh battery energy storage system (Gano, 2022) Laurel mountain wind farm USA 2011 Wind Lithium-ion batteries, ultracapacitors 97.6 MW of wind power capacity and 32 MW integrated battery-based energy storage system (D’Ambrosio, 2011)
Page 18 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 • Developing sustainable materials and recycling processes: Developing sustainable materials and recycling processes is essential to mitigate the environmental impact of HESS. Current technologies often rely on materials that are not environmentally friendly or are difficult to recycle, posing significant challenges. • Developing efficient control strategies and power management systems: This is crucial for the optimal operation and coordination of HESS. These strategies and algorithms are needed to balance load, predict demand, and optimize the charge–discharge cycles of the ESDs. These challenges should be addressed to fully realize the potential of HESS in enhancing energy storage solutions. Overcoming these obstacles will require collaborative efforts in technological innovation, investment, and policy support to ensure HESS can effectively contribute to more widespread adoption and successful integration of HESS in various applications. Several promising directions can drive the future of HESS. More efficient and safe HESS will become available by exploring new and emerging energy storage devices, such as solid-state batteries. Solid-state batteries offer benefits such as higher energy densities, improved safety, and longer lifespans compared to traditional batteries. Also, focusing on recycling and sustainable practices will help reduce the environmental impact of HESS. The advancement in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies can enhance the flexibility and storage capacity of HESS. The development of intelligent control and optimization based on artificial intelligence will improve system performance, and increasing the integration of digital technologies and Internet-of-Things (IoT) will facilitate real-time monitoring and control. Establishing standardized testing and performance evaluation protocols will promote widespread adoption by ensuring consistency, reliability, and compatibility across different HESS technologies. Fig. 6 Current challenges, progress, and future directions of HESS
Page 19 of 23 Adeyinkaetal. Sustainable Energy Research (2024) 11:26 Concluding remarks HESS has emerged as a promising solution to address the challenges of integrating renewable energy sources into the grid and ensuring a reliable and sustainable energy supply. By leveraging the strengths of various ESDs and employing advanced control strategies, HESS contributes to a more resilient and efficient energy infrastructure. This paper has critically reviewed HESS, highlighting its components, design considerations, topologies, control strategies, and practical applications. A comprehensive analysis of different energy storage technologies has been conducted, evaluating their features, design considerations, and performance characteristics. Significant progress in developing advanced control and optimization strategies for HESS integrated with RES has been discussed. Ongoing research and development efforts in advanced energy storage technologies, control strategies, and system optimization will further enhance the performance and costeffectiveness of HESS, paving the way for widespread adoption and a more sustainable energy landscape. Abbreviations RES Renewable energy source PV Photovoltaics HESS Hybrid energy storage system ESD Energy storage device GHG Greenhouse gas BESS Battery energy storage system SC Supercapacitor FC Fuel cell SMES Superconducting magnetic energy storage UC Ultracapacitor CAES Compressed air energy storage TES Thermal energy storage PCS Power Conversion system: EMS Energy management system DC Direct current SOC State of charge DBC Dead beat control FBC Filtration-based control SMC Sliding mode control RBC Rule-based control MPC Model predictive control OPC Optimization-based control FLC Fuzzy logic control ANN Artificial neural network RL Reinforcement learning Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge all the editors and reviewers for their constructive comments, which greatly improved the work. Author contributions All authors contributed equally in study conception and design, data collection, analysis and interpretation of results, and final draft manuscript preparation. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Data availability No data was used for the research described in the article. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Received: 7 June 2024 Accepted: 27 June 2024 References Abo-Khalil, A. G., Sobhy, A., Abdelkareem, M. A., & Olabi, A. G. (2023). Advancements and challenges in hybrid energy storage systems: Components, control strategies, and future directions. International Journal of Thermofluids, 20, 100477. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. ijft. 2023. 100477 Adediji, Y. B., Adeyinka, A. M., Yahya, D. I., & Mbelu, O. V. (2023). 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