SIMULATION TRAINING AND ITS IMPACT ON MILITARY LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [43] SIMULATION TRAINING AND ITS IMPACT ON MILITARY LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT Aristeo C. Salapa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0934-3571 Professor, University of Southeastern Philippines [email protected] Gerard R. Orense Graduate School Student, College of Development Management University of Southeastern Philippines, Mintal Campus, Davao City, Philippines gerardorens[email protected]m ABSTRACT This paper studies how military leadership development is conducted and achieved through simulation training. Using the criteria of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA), eighteen (18) publications were thoroughly considered. Eligibility Criteria were set, and sources of information were from ProQuest (38%), ScienceDirect (5%), and Google Scholar (57%). These study sources were 15% Qualitative, 15% Quantitative, and 70% Mixed Method and Conceptual Review/Development Papers. Based on the systematic literature review, it was found that simulation training offers advantages such as ‘Safety, Risk Reduction, and Cost Efficiency’, ‘Enhanced Learning Quality’, and ‘Flexibility and Accessibility’. These advantages are also attributed to the use of emerging technologies and simulation architectures such as ‘Extended Reality’, ‘Hybrid Synthetic Training Environment’, and ‘Artificial Intelligence’. Convergence of these technologies is done through ‘Blended Simulation’. Further, the impact of simulation training on military leadership development includes ‘Enhancing Core Leadership Skills’ and ‘Developing Soft Skills and Culture Change’. Enhancing Core leadership Skills further includes the following: ‘Decision-making, Situational awareness, and Tactical Skills’, ‘Strategic Thinking and Adaptability’, and ‘Workload Management’. ‘Developing Soft Skills and Culture Change’ includes methods such as ‘Role-Play Simulations’ and ‘Practical Application’. Underpinning these advantages is ‘Experiential Learning’, which serves as the foundational principle, allowing simulation training to operationalize the concept of ‘learning by experience’. Further, simulation training through experiential learning not just focuses on leadership skills development, but more importantly, on character development and self-efficacy, which serves as the bedrock for effective military leadership. Nevertheless, the relationship between simulation training and realworld mission success is also a viable topic for future research. Keywords: Simulation Training, Military Leadership Development, Experiential Learning, Systematic Review INTRODUCTION Military Leadership Development. Leadership development is at the core of every military training. Militarily, it is fundamental to the organization and a lifelong process beginning soon after enlistment (Kirchner & Akdere, 2017). Military leadership development is, therefore, a continuous, multi-faceted process that is designed to transform individuals into leaders capable of making sound decisions. Traditionally, leaders possess the “be, know, do” philosophy of leadership. This framework states a leader’s character (be), his professional and technical knowledge (know), and the ability to make sound and correct decisions (do) (FC8-071 Leadership in the Army, 2006). With the continuous evolution of military warfare into a multidimensional operational environment, training institutions must take the initiative in developing leaders by innovating training methods that replicate the complexities of real-world combat. Further, military leadership development has gradually transitioned from its traditionally hierarchical structure to a more adaptive organization that is capable of responding to the conflicts of the new operational environment. This positive shift in leadership development outlook fits with a new and Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [44] broader idea that leadership is not a skill born out of a so-called “great man theory of leadership”, but rather out of cultivating leaders who can excel in the worst leadership scenarios. As McCauley and Palus (2021) stated, leaders should be capable of succeeding in complex, ambiguous, and rapidly changing situations. Thus, to create these types of leaders, there is a need to shift from the traditional classroom setting of learning to a more holistic method that replicates the mental, emotional, and ever-changing operational setting of the real world. Developing Tactical Leaders. Effective military leaders generally exhibit strengths such as leadership, integrity, persistence, bravery, citizenship, open-mindedness, social intelligence, self-regulation, and creativity (Boe, Bang, & Nilsen, 2015). These are generally common characteristics that are often associated with military leadership. However, military leadership often varies from the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. Focusing on the tactical level, leaders must display competencies that are needed on the frontlines. Tactical leadership involves direct command of subordinate soldiers. It is characterized by daily close contact with subordinates, which involves interacting closely and directly with subordinates daily to perform assigned tasks (Calleja, Hoggan, & Temby, 2020). Tactical leaders are also considered as one of the most important personnel for a mission to succeed since they are the ones who must be able to make quick and timely decisions with limited information. They should be able to quickly recognize threats and patterns, as well as wargame and predict every possible scenario that may occur. This trait must be at the very heart of their skills. Nevertheless, tactical leader traits cannot be easily learned, especially not in a closed-door and classroom setting. There must be a venue in which these leaders can be able to test their leadership acumen. They must be able to apply their decision-making and tactical skills in a place where failure does not end in the worst possible scenarios. Simulation Training as an Effective Tool for Tactical Leadership Development. Simulation training is considered one of the best ways for modern tactical leaders to test their skills in a controlled and safe environment. It presents a shift from traditional training drills into a more responsive and adaptive training environment. Further, it must also be stressed that ‘simulation’ is a technique, not a technology, to replace or amplify the real world in a fully interactive manner (Nestel, Kelly, Jolly, & Watson, 2017). Therefore, simulation does not only imply the use and incorporation of technology, but rather an approach to training that recreates real-world scenarios as a venue for safe learning. The interactive nature of simulation training also makes it more applicable for tactical leadership development, since tactical leadership requires learning not just in a closed-door setting, but also in a venue to apply their individual leadership skills. They must also be able to train under extreme conditions and show improvements in their cognitive and emotional abilities. This is highlighted in a study where learners build more conceptual knowledge compared with traditional teaching when exposed to a simulation-based procedural skill setting (Aagesen et al., 2020). Another study also highlighted that interactive methods for learning provide a more hands-on and immersive learning experience. Activities like live-fire exercise, war games, and virtual reality simulations allow military leaders to develop essential skills such as decision-making, teamwork, and problemsolving in a realistic, high-pressure scenario (Panait, 2024). Therefore, the approach to tactical leadership development must continually adapt to the ever-changing and modern tactical battlefield. Simulation training that is based on modern learning, recent tactical scenarios, and a controlled but powerful setting would develop tactical leaders who are ready for future conflicts. Tactical leaders are expected to be decisive, resilient, and adaptable to the ever-changing operational environment. OBJECTIVES This paper primarily reviews tactical military leadership development, particularly through the conduct of simulation training. It specifically focuses on tactical leader development, looking into a training methodology that directly impacts key tactical leadership tasks. Thus, the primary objective of this systematic literature review paper is to synthesize all the literature related to military simulation training and tactical leader development. Specifically, this paper aims to: 1) Identify existing literature works on military simulation training and tactical leader development; 2) Establish a link between simulation training and tactical leadership development. 3) Synthesize empirical evidence supporting experiential learning as a framework for military training effectiveness. METHOD This review is primarily designed in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 statement. Specifically, a systematic literature review was conducted to determine how warfighting simulation training impacts tactical leader Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [45] development. Following the criteria for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA), the researcher ensured that the research process followed a stringent method of systematic review. A systematic review extensively scans all reports published on the subject to find the answers to a clearly defined research question, and to that end, will use various inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify the reports to be included in the review, and then synthesize the findings (Selçuk, 2019). Further, the review includes the following process: Eligibility Criteria; Information Sources; Search Strategy; Selection Process; and Data Collection Process and Synthesis. Eligibility Criteria. Materials were considered eligible if they were able to present the following: (1) Empirical and conceptual evidence of the topic under study, specifically on military or defense organizations; (2) Studies that involve high-intensity, immersive, or realistic simulation training, military tactical leader development, and experiential learning in military training; and (3) Published in peer-reviewed journals. Papers and studies that were non-military training or simulations, or studies that do not involve military leadership development, were excluded. Further, studies that were written in languages other than English, other less academic stringent papers, and those that were not displayed in full-text were excluded from this study. Studies were further grouped into simulation training modalities, leadership development, and experiential learning alignment. Information Sources. This research was able to obtain relevant studies from online databases and search engines. The researcher also made sure that no similar review was conducted with the same topic being explored. In fact, no existing systematic literature review has been conducted following the objectives of this research paper. After which, a comprehensive and systematic search was conducted on the following online databases: ProQuest, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. These three (3) were chosen since they provided journals and articles that are most relevant to the objectives of this paper. Search Strategy. The researcher used the Boolean search strings to generate studies related to the topic. This was particularly useful since the Boolean search string technique returns more relevant articles compared to the free text query by at least 77% and in a shorter time frame (Aliyu, 2017). Keywords used for searching related literature include the following: “high-intensity simulation” or “immersive simulation” or “military simulation training” and “tactical leadership” or “leader development” or “decision-making” or “mission planning”; “tactical leader competencies”; “experiential learning” or “scenario-based training” and “military” and “simulation”. The search for related journals and articles was conducted from October to November 2025. Further, the search was recorded with the following details: Source Category, Source Name, Search Method, and Date of Search. Source Category Source Name Search Method Date of Search Online Database ProQuest Abstract, Title, and Keywords 2025-10-25 ScienceDirect Abstract, Title, and Keywords 2025-11-8 Search Engine Google Scholar Full Text, Abstract, Title, and keywords 2025-11-9 Table 1. Search space for selected databases. To further narrow down and strategize search groupings, the search process was sequentially conducted with the following order of topics: (1) military simulation; (2) tactical leader development; and (3) experiential learning in military training. Selection Process. A selection process aided the researchers in identifying articles that are fit for review. Table 2 provides the stages in the study selection process made by the researchers. Stage Description S1 Identification of military simulation training, tactical leader development, and experiential learning in military training. S2 Selection of studies from different sources S3 Exclusion of studies based on duplicates S4 Exclusion of studies based on ‘title, abstract, and keywords’ screening against the eligibility criteria S5 Exclusion of studies based on ‘full text screening’. Table 2. Stages of the study selection process Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [46] Further, Figure 1 provides a detailed search by first identifying related studies per topic. Three search topics identified are military simulation training, tactical leader development, and experiential learning in military training. Each topic was given a topic number to quantitatively account for the number of related studies. In total, 720 articles were initially identified. In the screening process, titles were carefully scanned, from which 297 were excluded. In checking for duplicates, out of 423, 138 were removed, with only 285 articles remaining. This was followed by assessing the eligibility of the articles based on the eligibility criteria set by the researchers. This includes relatedness to the topic under study, studies published in a peer-reviewed journal, and the publication period. After thorough evaluation, only 19 articles remained and were included in the final review. Table 3 presents the before and after distribution of the articles from various search engines and databases after the rigorous selection process. From the initial 720 articles, only 19 were considered fit to be included in the systematic review. Source Before After ProQuest 200 7 Science Direct 270 1 Google Scholar 250 11 Total 720 19 Table 3. Distribution of Articles Before and After the selection process Figure 1. Contextualized PRISMA Model Used in the Study Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [47] Data Collection Process and Synthesis. The process of data collection and synthesis was performed by carefully reading all 19 articles. Extracted data and results were carefully recorded. The summary of the systematic literature review was presented in columns following the Article Title, Author, Country of Origin, Research Design, Participants, Brief Description, and Key Findings of the study related to simulation training, leadership development, and the impact of experiential learning in simulation training and leadership development. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results and discussion of the systematic literature review are provided in this section. A summary of data sources, research design, and the data extracted will be discussed first, followed by the discussion of military simulation training, its impact on tactical leader development, and the importance of experiential learning in pursuing leadership development. Data Sources, Research Design, and Data Types. As presented in Table 4 below, most of the reviewed articles came from Google Scholar (57%). The remaining studies were taken from ProQuest (38%) and Science Direct (5%). Identification of these studies was based on the PRISMA model. Further, 15% of the reviewed studies were Quantitative Papers, 15% Qualitative Papers, and 70% from Mixed Method and Concept Review/Development Papers. Distribution of Articles n % Based on Sources ProQuest 7 37 SciDirect 1 5 Google Scholar 11 58 Based on Research Design Quantitative 3 15 Qualitative 3 15 Mixed/Concept Review 13 70 Table 4. Distribution of Articles Based on Sources and Research Design Military Simulation Training. Simulation training has become an indispensable component of modern military preparedness, as it reflects a significant shift from traditional military drills to technological advances and adaptive training environments. Military forces have partially replaced real training drills with training simulation systems to further achieve combat readiness (Kuei-Hu, Yung-Chia, Chain, & Hsiang-Yu, 2016). This was further pursued due to the dynamic shift in the battle space, in which conventional warfare has been slightly replaced by hybrid warfare (Ţecu & Pînzariu, 2021). This, therefore, increases the demand for new approaches and ways of conducting military training. Nevertheless, military simulation training encompasses a diverse range of technologies and methodologies that are designed primarily to enhance troop readiness, efficiency, and to provide specialized training in a controlled setting. The key benefits of adopting simulation training include: 1. Safety, Risk Reduction, and Cost Efficiency. Simulation training is a safer way of conducting military training as it mitigates the risks of training casualties, accidents, and injuries. For instance, land mine training before is considered a high-risk training since it involves live use of mines and explosives. Further, acquiring landmines with different properties used in the mine detection training and placing them one by one in the soil before each training session carries vital risk factors for the soldiers who carry out this task, while also resulting in loss of time and cost (Arisoy, 2021). This high-risk training environment necessitates a need for safe and practical landmine detection training. Thus, landmine detection simulation training provides the necessary technical skills without the actual risks involved. Additionally, training that requires advanced weapon systems presents a considerable financial resource. This does not only include the material costs, but also the financial costs to train trainers to master and hone their skills. Simulators are assumed to reduce these costs by minimizing equipment wear and tear and preventing waste of resources. One such form of simulation training that reduces training cost while providing better situational awareness and a safer training environment is Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality technology for military training (Ţecu & Pînzariu, 2021). Reducing training costs without compromising the quality of training is particularly critical because national defense budgets are curtailed due to Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [48] global and financial constraints (Kuei-Hu et al., 2016). Further comparative analysis also shows that simulation exercises favor mechanized and supporting units over live exercises (Bucka, 2017). 2. Enhanced Learning Quality. Simulation training through advanced technologies accelerates learning, enhances efficiency, and provides a realistic training experience, which are considered crucial elements in developing military technical and tactical skills. Using the latest technologies for training military personnel is beneficial not only for the velocity of learning but also for the quality of its application (Ţecu & Pînzariu, 2021). 3. Flexibility and Accessibility. Simulation training can be conducted regardless of adverse conditions such as poor weather and climate. Countries have gradually incorporated simulators in their military force training since it overcome problems such as a shortage of training equipment, poor climate (rainy or typhoon days), and adverse environmental conditions (e.g., high temperature and extreme cold weather) (Kuei-Hu et al., 2016). In addition, simulators can be used to simulate real-life battlefield environments. Relatedly, these advantages of simulation training can be attributed to the emerging technologies and simulation architectures. The effectiveness of modern military simulation has mostly relied on emerging and disruptive (EDT) technologies and the development of an integrated training architecture. These include: 1. Extended Reality. This includes virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR). Primarily, extended reality is transforming military training by offering interactive and immersive simulations to create training scenarios. By employing immersive training technology, trainees can gain hands-on experience in a safe and controlled environment that enhances their tactical skills, situational awareness, and decision-making abilities (Piele, Coman, & Maniu, 2025). 2. Hybrid Synthetic Training Environment (HSTE). This framework combines XR technologies and commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) solutions and virtual simulation systems that support the need for military training. 3. Artificial Intelligence (AI). Is employed in support of training planners to automate the analysis and statistical processes of training. This provides features such as pathfinding, navigation, and event recognition. Primarily, the goal of AI is to improve the readiness of troops and increase lethality, allowing them to face nonconventional adversaries (Ţecu & Pînzariu, 2021). 4. Distributed and Blended Simulation. Blended simulation refers to the convergence of live, virtual, and constructive (LVC) simulation. It is considered a worthy vision for the future despite requiring large budgets and an extensive network. Nevertheless, major organizations such as the US Army are pursuing unified, cloud-based architectures to integrate these environments (Ţecu & Pînzariu, 2021). Impact and Importance of Simulation Training on Military Tactical Leadership Development. Simulation training is widely recognized worldwide as an effective tool for developing effective military leaders. This type of training moves beyond the development of mere combat proficiency and includes addressing cognitive abilities (Elkington, Ruttenberg-Rozen, & Worthington, 2025). It is being actively used to develop the competencies required for military leaders, especially in navigating volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous environments. Further, key effects of simulation training on military leadership development include ‘Enhancing Core Leadership Skills’ and ‘Developing Soft Skills and Culture Change’: 1. Enhance Core Leadership Skills. Simulation training directly impacts core leadership competencies such as: a. Decision-making, Situational Awareness, and Tactical Skills. Simulation training activities, such as Extended Reality (XR) simulation, allow for training in a controlled environment that minimizes risks associated with traditional methods. Utilizing XR immersive simulations in military training could lead to notable improvements in the development of new military capabilities, decision-making processes, and situational awareness. Immersive simulations also create training scenarios that allow trainees to gain hands-on experience in a safe and controlled environment that enhances their tactical skills, situational awareness, and decision-making abilities (Piele et al., 2025). Further, an immersive simulation environment allows soldiers and leaders to improve their situational awareness, decision-making, and coordination skills (Fan & Wen, 2019). Moreover, role-play games in military training, as a form of simulation, facilitate the development of critical thinking skills essential for military leadership roles. By immersing participants in dynamic and interactive scenarios, it would allow them to critically analyze information, evaluate alternatives, and make decisions under pressure. This mirrors the cognitive demands of real-world military operations, helping soldiers refine their decision-making abilities in a safe and controlled environment (Horiacheva & Ryzhykov, 2024). Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [49] b. Strategic Thinking and Adaptability. Training while exploiting simulation technologies does allow commanders and staff members to develop their decision-making thought processes in both tactical and operational use (Bucka, 2017). It also facilitates the development of a strategic mindset, which prepares trainees to navigate the complexities of modern warfare with agility and adaptability (Horiacheva & Ryzhykov, 2024). c. Workload Management. Quantitative research suggests that training conducted in VR environments can minimize their stress and workload, which later can be correlated to lower performance failure in real-world missions (Steven, Hauw, Keane, & Gunawan, 2023). 2. Developing “Soft Skills” and Culture Change. Simulations are increasingly being explored as a method to develop “soft skills” and influence organizational culture: a. Role-play Simulations (Soft Skills). Virtual simulation, which merges AI with realworld scenarios, supports the leadership development of junior military leaders (Elkington et al., 2025). Leadership simulations designed around military situations were further believed to have beneficial outcomes. b. Practical Application. Role-play as a tool in professional military education offers handson experience and opportunities for skills development in a controlled environment (Horiacheva & Ryzhykov, 2024). It provides opportunities to experience diverse scenarios such as tactical operations, diplomatic negotiations, and crisis management, which allows participants to apply theoretical knowledge to realistic conditions. Importance of Experiential Learning in Simulation training and leadership development 1. Definition and Integration of Experiential Learning in Simulation Training and Leadership Development. Experiential learning is a core approach in simulation training, which allows participants to transform theoretical concepts into practical competence and character development. It involves active engagement with real-world situations, enabling learners to construct meaning and develop critical skills through reflection and experience (Horiacheva & Ryzhykov, 2024). By definition, Experiential learning is learning through experience by allowing learners to work out a simulated ‘real-life’ situation (Wade, 2016). The use of simulation in military training also introduces the concept of “learning by doing”. In ensuring the highest level of military training, it should be effectively done on the training ground and supplemented by specialized trainings that simulate combat experience in different environments and conditions (Mitrea, 2013). Relatedly, role-play games serve as a dynamic and immersive method for experiential learning within military training contexts, drawing upon principles of experiential learning and cognitive psychology (Horiacheva & Ryzhykov, 2024). In a military environment, simulation activities provide an opportunity for experiential learning in a completely safe environment (Gawlik-Kobylińska & Maciejewski, 2019). 2. Impact of Experiential Learning on Leadership Development. Experiential learning is considered a crucial factor in developing character and leadership qualities. Character Development is considered one of the major impacts of experiential learning on leadership development. Training methods through experiential learning are a venue for character building. The military extensively uses experiential learning methods to teach soldiering. Field exercises simulate battle environments, along with various training methods, and prepare soldiers to become accustomed to stressful situations. This exposure eventually leads to character building, in addition to the leadership and tactical training (Wade, 2016). Further, specific experiential learning programs have been studied to be effective in developing leaders of character. Self-efficacy, which is linked to leadership, is also seen to improve. Experiential learning experiences strengthen values and further allow participants to reflect on personal weaknesses. Thus, the effectiveness of experiential learning depends on the participants' ability to reflect on their actions. This aligns with the Experiential Learning Model (ELM), which posits that learning involves experience and reflection on doing. The ultimate goal, therefore, of simulation training is to apply theoretical knowledge in practical contexts, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of future military leaders (Horiacheva & Ryzhykov, 2024). The positive insights gained through simulation activities prepare military personnel for a complex operational environment. Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [50] Article Title Author/Year Country Research Design Participants Brief Description Key Findings 1. Emerging and Disruptive Technology as Multiplier for Military Training: Exploring the Development of a Hybrid Synthetic Training Cosmin Piele, Marin-Marian Coman, Valentin Maniu/2025 Romania Qualitative Research/C onceptual Review Focused on training methodology for Urban Operations (UO) Tactical Training focusing on small unit leadership at the squad and platoon levels. Explores integrating Extended Reality (XR) technologies and Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) solutions (e.g., VBS3/VBS4) into a Hybrid Synthetic Training Environment (HSTE) to modernize military education. Simulation Technologies offers interactive, immersive, and customizable training simulations that enhance tactical, technical and cognitive skills. 2. Integrating Soft Set Theory and Fuzzy Linguistic Model to Evaluate the Performance of Training Simulation Systems Kuei-Hu Chang, Yung-Chia Chang, Kai Chain, Hsiang-Yu Chung/2016 Taiwan Quantitative Research (Methodolo gical/Model ing) Ten experts provided subjective ratings on simulation benefit indicators (evaluation across 15 simulators) Developed a novel approach integrating Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Soft Set Theory, and Fuzzy Linguistic Model to evaluate simulation systems, particularly handling incomplete data from questionnaires Simulators are essential for military forces to lower training costs and prevent unnecessary accidents and casualties. The method accurately predicts the priority of simulators and guides decision-making. 3. The Challenges of Simulation Training of the Troops in the Context of the Emerging Technologies Cristian Tecu, Sorin Pinzaru/2021 Romania Conceptual Review Troops/Military Organizations Discusses the necessity of simulation training due to rapidly evolving operational environments and technologies, focusing on emerging technologies (VR, AR, AI) and interoperability challenges. Emerging technologies like VR, AR, AI, and soldier simulators are essential for improving individual training, collective training, and special skills training. 4. The Use of META (Virtual Simulations) in Canadian Junior Military Leadership Development Rob Elkington, Robyn RuttenbergRozen, Nadia Worthington/202 5 Canada Qualitative Research (Phenomen ological Case Study) 20 Junior Military Leaders who were Officer Candidates undergoing training in the CAF. Explored the efficacy of nonmilitary virtual Artificial Intelligence (AI) leadership role-play simulations for supporting junior military leadership development and fostering culture change through "soft skills" training Virtual role-player simulations are highly useful leadership development tools, acting as a theatre of practice in which mistakes are not detrimental and serve as learning moments. They support culture change through leadership development. 5. Empowering Military in Tactical and Warfare Area with Virtual Reality Technology: A Systematic Literature Review Lonard Steven, Jason Kenneth Hauw, Muhammad Billy Keane, Alexander Agung Santoso Gunawan / 2023 Indonesia Mixed Method (Systematic Literature Review analyzing quantitative and qualitative papers) Military Personnel involved in tactical and warfare applications, Reviewed the implementation and research contributions of Virtual Reality (VR) technology in military applications between 2010 and 2021. VR products serve as a platform for military forces to support personnel in enhancing and maintaining their personal development and skills. VR training systems demonstrated success in shooting accuracy and integrating VR with Body Area Networks (BANs) can support resilience assessment. 6. Workload Analysis of Virtual Simulation for Military Training Jonathan Stevens, Sean C. Mondesire, Crystal S. Maraj, Karla A. BadilloUrquiola, Douglas B. Maxwell / 2016 USA Quantitative Research US Soldiers enrolled in the US Army Warrior Leader Course Examined the training effectiveness of virtual world simulation (VBS3) compared to live training by measuring soldiers’ perceived workload (using NASA-TLX) during collective tasks rehearsal. Virtual world simulation resulted in greater perceived workload than live simulation in five out of six sub-scales, challenging the notion that virtual world simulation cannot approximate the perceived workload of live simulation. 7. Virtual Reality and Its Application in the Military Xinxiong Liu et al/2018 Not Specified Review/Ove rview Trainers/Military Personnel Provides an overview of Virtual Reality (VR) applications in the military, noting that VR provides high fidelity simulation VR can provide high fidelity simulation, allowing trainers to achieve a strong combat skill set under conditions of low danger and low consumption. 8. Military Education and Training Supported by Blended Simulation Pavel and Vladimir Andrassy/ 2017 Czech Republic/ Slovakia Conceptual/ Analytical Units/Staff Members planned for deployment Discusses the crucial role of Blended simulation (LVC implied) in collective training to prepare non-linear units for deployment. Blended simulation supports preparedness for deployment by aligning and synchronizing interoperability. 9. A Virtual Reality Soldier Simulator with Body Area Networks for Team Training Yun-Chieh Fan, Chih-Yu Wen/20119 Taiwan Quantitative Research (Experiment al/Develop ment) Soldiers/Leaers, comparing experienced vs unexperienced participants Proposes an efficient soldierbased training strategy integrating VR simulation with a Body Area Network (BAN) to capture detailed physical actions in an immersive environment. In the immersive virtual environment, soldiers and leaders improve themselves with respect to situational awareness, decision-making, and coordination skills. The system includes an AfterAction Review (AAR) function for improving actions. 10. Virtual Reality Applications for Stress Management in the Military Pallavicini F, Argenton L, Toniazzi N, Aceti L, Mantovani F / 2016 Not Specified Review/Syn thesis of Quantitative Research Military Personnel, including soldiers, pilots, and aircrew professionals. Reviewed experimental studies testing VR applications for Stress Management Training (SMT) focused on resilience and primary stress prevention. Virtual reality provides interactive SMT to decrease levels of perceived stress. VR is a promising tool for assessing individuals’ resilience to stress and its impact on performance. 11. ASA: A Simulation Environment for Evaluating Military Operational Scenarios Joao P.A. Dantas et al./2025 Brazil Conceptual Developme nt Technical Paper focusing on air combat modelling Describes a simulation environment (ASA) designed for evaluating complex operational scenarios, Integrating ML and deep reinforcement learning in simulation systems enables the development of capabilities Volume-09 Issue 12, December -2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [51] emphasizing the integration of AI/Machine Learning (ML) to advance digital transformation. such as autonomous agents and improves situational awareness in air combat. 12 Training Operational Military Organizations in a Cyber-Active Environment Using C2-Simulation Interoperation J. Pullen, B. Patel, L. Khimeche/2016 Romania Technical/C onceptual Military Operational Organizations/Comman d and Control Users Discusses the necessity of Command and Control (C2) and simulation interoperability for operational hybrid environments and LiveVirtual-Constructive (LVC) training. Simulation is crucial for LVC training simulations to support interoperability services. 13. Useful Approaches in Training and Developing the Professional Conduct of Land Forces Tactical Operational Leaders Gheorghe Minculete, Constantin Grigoras/2022 Romania Conceptual/ Analytical Land Forces Tactical Operational Leaders/Commanders Highlights the necessary attributes and competencies (moral, ethical, technical) required for tactical military leaders navigating an unpredictable and unstable world (VUCA-like environment). Tactical leaders must master decision-making, strategic awareness, and proactive risk management in complex environments. 14. Military Leadership Development Strategies: Implications for Training in Non-Military Organizations Michael Kirchner and Mesut Akdere/2017 USA Conceptual Review US military members/service members Analyzes US military leadership development programs (institutional, operational, self-development) to identify strategies applicable to civilian organizations, especially in the Volatile, Uncertain, Complex, and Ambiguous (VUCA) environment. Military leader development is a deliberate, continuous, sequential, and progressive process. Technological advancements, such as elearning, present opportunities for examining leadership development methods. 15. The Changing Face of Military Learning Sae Schatz, David Fautua, Julian Stodd, Emilie Reitz/2017 USA Conceptual/ Analytical Military Personnel/forces Asserts that military personnel must acquire an expanded set of competencies and nuanced skills (like emotional intelligence and critical thinking) to operate effectively in a complex, rapidly changing global environment. Personnel must possess independent decision-making skills. Ongoing improvement in instructional delivery includes understanding how gamification can contribute to outcomes. 16. Leveraging of Role-Play Games in Military Training Cadets within the ongoing Conflict in Ukraine Kira Horiacheva, Vadym Ryzhykov/2024 Ukraine Conceptual/ Analytical Cadets/Ukrainian Defense and Security Sector Explores the integration of role-play games in professional military education as a dynamic, immersive method for experiential learning. Role-play games are pivotal for fostering strategic thinking and adaptive leadership qualities. They enhance decision-making and collaborative problem-solving under realistic conditions. 17. Learning through Strategic Computer Games in Military Training Ioan Mitrea/2013 Romania Conceptual/ Review Military Personnel Discusses the use of simulation strategic gaming in continuous military training, introducing the concept of "learning by doing". Strategic computer games are used to increase the capacity of military personnel to assume functions or leadership roles. Simulation strategic gaming provides the pedagogy of "learning by doing". 18. A Case Study on Experiential Learning and Character Development at One Preparatory Military Academy Nancy Lee Wade/2016 USA Qualitative Research (Case Study/Actio n Research) 26 cadets enrolled in a character leadership program Explored how cadets developed character during an outdoor ropes course program using experiential learning methods, focusing on the process of transferring learning to their inner lives. Experiential learning programs (like ropes courses) can improve self-efficacy, which is linked to leadership development. Action-oriented reflection activities are crucial processes for cadets to transfer character learning (e.g., overcoming fear or low selfesteem). 19. Experiential Learning with Sansar Platform: A concept of Military Training Malgorzata GawlikKobylinska and Pawel Maciejewski/201 9 Poland Conceptual Developme nt Learners/Military Personnel Proposes a concept for military training utilizing the Sansar three-dimensional virtual world platform, emphasizing safe practice through simulations and gamified activities. Simulations and gamified activities provide opportunities for experiential learning when performing dangerous tasks in a completely safe, virtual environment. Table 5. Summary of SLR on Simulation Training and Its Impact on Military Leadership Development