Mapping the Knowledge about the Gender of Company Executives

Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity Review Mapping the Knowledge about the Gender of Company Executives Mercedes Rodríguez-Fernández * , Eva M. Sánchez-Teba and Juan Herrera-Ballesteros   Citation: Rodríguez-Fernández, M.; Sánchez-Teba, E.M.; Herrera-Ballesteros, J. Mapping the Knowledge about the Gender of Company Executives. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7010015 Received: 14 December 2020 Accepted: 31 December 2020 Published: 5 January 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Department of Economics and Business Administration, Universidad de Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; [email protected] (E.M.S.-T.); [email protected] (J.H.-B.) *Correspondence: mmr[email protected] Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to analyze the literature on Gender and Company Executives with the purpose of identifying lines on which future research could be directed in order to eradicate gender differences in the decision-making bodies of companies. A bibliometric study has been carried out on the Web of Science collection, which, after a series of filters, has given rise to a sample of 144 articles from 1992 to 2018. Keywords and bibliographic references were the units of analysis used. With this information, bibliometric maps have been created applying the methodology of co-word and co-cite, clustering, and visualization techniques. The results suggest that this is an emerging scientific area not yet sufficiently developed, hinting at new research related to topics, such as career, gender diversity and performance, gender and leadership, organizational behavior and mobility, and gender and ethics. The emergence of the concept of “glass cliff” has been detected in the literature analyzed as a sign of the risk posed to women by the access to leadership positions. Keywords: gender; company executives; bibliometric study 1. Introduction The current globalization of the economy generates, in the business world, a complex and uncertain environment that has led us to deepen the study of the Executives and their Gender as an adjuvant element that can give light and support the future of organizations. The subject matter of this work has its origin in events in the world of business today that have led to a thorough review of the literature on gender and executives since 1992. As a result of this analysis, we have detected a wide variety of gender-related issues that are not solely confined to the field of business management. Politics, psychology, or ethics are some of the fields that deal with gender without referring to the organization of companies ([ 1 – 5 ]). Amongst all of them, we can highlight ethics as the issue that dominates the majority over the rest. Authors, such as [ 6 ], analyze leadership from a cultural and moral perspective. In general terms, gender is dealt together with other issues, such as ethnicity, religion, socio-economic classes, or exclusion groups, which leads us to think that gender can also be an indicator of discrimination in the working environment. It is the case of [ 7 ], who analyze the subject of obesity and success in the field of business, recognizing that it can become a stigma within the organization, preventing the rise in the hierarchy. We understand that the study of gender in executives should not respond to fashions or the intensity of social demands or public opinion, but rather to the challenges and demands of a balanced and compensated society. Recently, studies focused on business have detected differences in the ways that men and women work at the management level [ 8 ] examine how ambidextrous managers in small and medium enterprises craft their tasks as a strategy for open innovation to enhance business performance providing a novel explanation of the relationship between manager ambidextrous behavior and business performance through the mediation of job crafting among top managers with a global view of gender. Besides, at the board level, numerous authors have examined gender within the J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7010015 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/joitmc J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 2 of 17 diversity that is found in top management teams [ 9 , 10 ], which indicates that it is a theme with total validity. With these ideas in mind, the authors of this paper have set, as an objective, to analyze the literature on gender of the company executives with the purpose of identifying lines on which future research could be directed in order to eradicate gender differences in the decision-making bodies of companies. This work is structured, as follows: firstly, we offer the bibliometric analysis section where we present the analysis performed on co-words and co-quotes. We include the methodological parameters and temporal evolution of the analyzed production. Subsequently, in Section 3, we include literature review, where an analysis of the evolution of the subject on “executives and gender” is performed and the main articles are commented. In Section 4, the results of the work are presented, differentiating between co-word and co-citation analysis and their corresponding mapping. Likewise, the cluster type analysis is presented. Finally, the paper closes with the discussion and conclusions of this study. 2. Bibliometric Analysis The use of the bibliometric technique is justified for two main reasons: firstly, we consider that it is a scientifically endorsed wide range technique and, secondly, due to its objective nature, the aim has been to eliminate the possible partiality that is inherent to the “Executives and Gender” theme. Consequently, the result of the research work does not respond to a temporary fashion, but to the challenge that is imposed by today’s society. This investigation began in June 2018. A first search was made of the main collection of Web of Science (WOS). The word search included the terms *gender and *executives without limiting it to a certain period of time. Only scientific articles were taken into account, discarding any other type of publication. Those journals indexed in listings, such as Journal Citation Reports (JCR), Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR), and Scopus, were considered. In addition, it was refined by three main categories: Business, Management, and Woman Studies. That search gave us a result of 199 articles with which we began to work. Figure 1. Outline of the methodology followed. * The Web of Science search included these terms. Subsequently, it was decided to make a new filter in WOS, this time limiting the results to the editions of Social Science Index (SCI) and Social Science Citation Index (SSCI), focusing even more on the economic field. After this second search, the final number of articles remained at 158. Throughout the investigation we detected that of these, 14 of them indicated “gender” as a keyword in the additional keywords and not in the main ones; exploring the content of these articles. it was observed that, in no case, did they deal with this subject matter, so it was finally decided to limit the analysis to 144 papers (Figure 1). Initially, in the bibliometric study, 144 articles were analyzed, classified by article J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 3 of 17 types (theoretical/empirical), data sources (survey, database, interview, others), sample size, analysis techniques, and type of research (qualitative/quantitative). As the Table 1 in Methodological Parameters shows, most of the studies are theoretical and the type of research is quantitative. The main source of the data is the survey, with 44.92%. The samples used in the literature reviewed were below 1000 cases in 75.66%. The most commonly used technique is regression with 46.55%, followed by other quantitative techniques. Table 1. Methodological parameters. Type of Research % Sample % Analysis Technique % Quantitative 74.6 <100 27 Qualitative 22.9 <1000 48.7 Regression 46.6 Quantitative/qualitative 2.55 >1000 24.3 Correlation 9.48 Total 100 Total 100 Descriptive 6.03 Type of Article % Source % Factor analysis 5.17 Theoretical study 89 Survey 44.9 Anova 4.31 Databases 33.9 Manova 2.59 Empirical study 11 Interview 14.4 Other quantitative techniques 25.9 Other 6.77 Total 100 Total 100 Total 100 Source: Prepared by the authors. Temporal evolution of the analyzed production is increasing, as can be seen in Figure 2 . From 1992 to 2018, the number of articles per year has suffered significant ups and downs, although, if the trend line is traced, it progresses steadily. Thus, the first article was registered during 1992, ending in 2018, with 14 articles. It is necessary to emphasize peaks in the ascending line as those of the year 1997 with five articles or 2008 with 10 articles. Descending peaks included one article in 1999, three articles in 2006, four articles in 2012, and seven articles in 2017. There has been a sharp change between 2017 and 2018, as the number of articles on “Executives and Gender” has doubled. Figure 2. Number of articles published per year. Source: Prepared by the authors. In the search for the causes that may have provoked this significant increase, the world press has been explored in order to find economic, legal, or social explanations. Globally, the appearance of the “me too” movement in October 2017 in the USA may have led to a boom in research interest about gender issues. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 4 of 17 Analysis of Co-Words and Co-Cites The bibliometric technique has been completed with an analysis of co-words and co-cites. Co-words analysis measures documentary similarity through word analysis; basically, this method consists of detecting words that represent concepts of documents in a scientific domain and relates the documents in which they appear, according to their degree of co-occurrence. This procedure aims to study the thematic, semantic, conceptual, and cognitive structures within a research area ([11,12]). The analysis of co-citas measures the similarity between documents based on the bibliographical references of the same, is directed fundamentally to the study of the aspects of the intellectual structure or knowledge base of a research area ([ 13 , 14 ]). This analysis helps us to determine the evolution of trends in the study of the subject matter under analysis. In addition, the VOSviewer software allows for the representation of the conceptual structure of a research field while using bibliometric maps. Because of the multidisciplinary character in which the theme “Executives and Gender” can be found, such a representation improves the global understanding of the object under investigation. 3. Literature Review Some recent publications that are considered to be of relevance, both in terms of their subject matter and the number of citations received, stand out from the body of research. The first of the analyzed researches dates from 1992, it is the publication of [ 15 ], where it looks for the causes that originate the resignations in the work environment. This article is published by Journal of Organizational Behaviour; although, this journal does not continue in this same line, since it only has 2% of the total production analyzed. Among the latest publications, we include [ 16 ] on the gender pay gap amongst executives. These authors study the case of Australian companies and conclude that, in order to achieve gender equality, the proportion of women at executive levels and the wage gap must be controlled. In this line, Chaudhary [ 17 ] recently analyzed the impact of employees’ perception of their employer’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) on their in-role and extra-role behaviors, including gender as an important variable in India. Similarly, [ 18 ] highlight the successful ascent of female leaders in the pharmaceutical industry. Two articles from The Leadership Quarterly stand out throughout the scientific production, extending the analysis of the phenomenon known as “glass cliffs”. On the one hand, there is the work of [ 19 ] entitled “Leading at the top: Understanding women’s challenges above the glass”, which analyzes the conditions under which women are promoted to leadership positions. Until this work, very few researchers addressed the context of women’s promotion to leadership positions. On the other hand, we highlight the study by [ 20 ], where a review of a decade of research on the same phenomenon is carried out, reaching the conclusion that it is a complex issue, which is closely related to the context, robust, and generalized, in addition to being a notable characteristic in the organizational panorama of companies. Academy of Management publishes the work of [ 21 ], where he explains the differences between men and women in terms of performance and perceived rewards. The theme of work-family balance is recognized by the Harvard Business Review with the publication of [ 22 ] “Manage Your Work, Manage Your Life”, where they extract gender differences in terms of professional success. In the time interval 1997 to 2008, some articles stand out due to their subject matter, such as [ 23 ], which gathers the motivations that guide enterprising women to establish themselves as entrepreneurs and abandon their jobs in large companies; among them, balancing their work and family life, as well as the desire to fulfil a challenge. In the case of [ 24 ], compare the careers of 69 executives of both genders, concluding that the probability of success for women was lower than for men. On the other hand [ 25 ] address the gender pay gap on boards of directors in the case of British listed companies, even corroborating this inequity. The case of [ 26 ] draws attention to the Swedish case and points out that, despite the apparent equality at senior management levels, only one woman per company is given in Sweden, while in non-Swedish companies J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 5 of 17 this value is doubled. Additionally, ref [ 27 ] suggest that improving financial performance for companies with more female executives does not occur through revenue management, but is positively associated with ethics in the way that women executives act. The last of the articles in the sample analyzed was published in 2018 by [ 28 ] and it deals with the relationship between the profit measured in terms of ROA (Returns on Assets) and the demographic characteristics of CEOs (Chief Executive Officers). It has been published by the Journal of Small Business Management, which does not usually include this topic among the usual ones, since it only has two articles in the total of the studied production, the first of them in 1997. 4. Results Of the total of the analyzed production, 144 articles, we emphasize, in first place, that 132 of them are written by first authors who have only published one investigation. This gives us a first idea of the wide dispersion amongst authors that exists in this matter. Another result of interest is the number of articles per author and its corresponding index H, according to the Web of Science, which indicates to us, as can be seen in Table 2, that Lyness, with four articles, is the most prolific author in this field. It also has a high H index that is equal to 16, only being surpassed by Ryan, with 22, who has only published two articles on this subject. Table 2. Number of articles by author and author’s index H. Author I. H. Item No. Lyness, K.S. 16 4 De Anca, C. 3 2 Ryan, M.K. 22 2 Baixauli-Soler, J.S. 1 2 Gould, J.A. 1 2 Other authors - 132 Source: Prepared by the authors. It has been possible to verify, with this information, the extent to which the Lotka law that is applicable to studies of this type is complied with. Thus, the formula that predicts production by author is expressed as Y = K/Xn, where K is the total of authors, X is the largest number of articles published by author, Y is the number of authors who publish articles on that subject, and n is a constant with a value equal to 2. In our case, K is equal to 137 authors and X is four articles, from which it is obtained that the prediction of Lotka for Y is 8.6. As noted in Table 2, we have only found five authors that publish more than one article, suggesting that we are dealing with an emerging area not yet developed by a sufficient number of authors. Another result of interest is the categorization of all scientific production based on topics that are frequently repeated (see Table 3). They stand out from the rest “Gender diversity”, “Ethics”, “Work-life balance”, or “Gender and HR”. Specifically, “Gender and Promotion” appears in 14 articles and mostly in the period 2000 to 2009. It is followed by “Gender diversity” 11 times. With respect to the journals that are interested in the production object of this study, we highlight the Journal of Business Ethics (2nd quartile JCR), with 13% of it and 18 of the 144 articles. The remainder are very atomized, which indicates that none of the journals specialized in this subject as can be seen in Table 4. The bibliographic production by country (Table 5) indicates that the USA leads the research in this field, with a total of 81 articles, which represents 56.25% of the total. England follows at a great distance with 12 articles. Spain ranks fourth with six articles, five of which have been written between 2010–2018. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 6 of 17 Table 3. Evolution of the relevance of the subjects dealt with in the literature on gender and executives. Topics Total 1992–1999 2000–2009 2010–2019 TOTAL 144 13 46 85 Gender and promotion 14 2 7 5 Gender diversity 11 4 7 Ethics 11 1 7 3 Work-life balance 10 4 6 Gender and HR 10 2 8 gender pay gap 9 4 5 Gender leadership 8 1 3 4 Earnings 7 1 6 Reward systems/compensation 5 5 Gender and risks 5 5 Gender and policy 4 4 Gender gap 4 4 Glass Cliff 4 1 3 Demographic factors 3 3 Gender, ethnicity and race 3 1 2 Gender and organizational factors 3 2 1 CSR 2 1 1 Gender and stereotype 2 1 1 Glass Ceiling 2 1 1 Gender and training 2 2 Gender and communication 2 2 Gender and values 2 2 Gender and performance 2 2 Exclusion barriers 2 2 Gender and resignation from the position 2 1 1 Other 15 3 6 6 Source: Prepared by the authors. Extracted from Web Of Science. Table 4. JCR Listed Journals by Quartile. Journals Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Tot Art. % Journal of Business Ethics x 18 13% Human resource management x x 5 3% Corporate governance-an international review x x 5 3% International Journal of Manpower x 5 3% Strategic management journal x 4 3% International Journal of Human Resource Management x 4 3% Journal of management x 3 2% Human relations x 3 2% Journal of women politics & policy x x 3 2% British Journal of Management x 3 2% Journal of Business Research x 3 2% Academy of Management Executive x 3 2% Journal of Organizational Behavior x 3 2% Gender Work and Organization x 3 2% Leadership quarterly x 3 2% Harvard business review x 3 2% Administrative science quarterly x 3 2% Source: Prepared by the authors. Table 6shows the evolution of bibliographic production by country, relating it to the quartile in which the journals are indexed. USA, England, and Australia have their highest production in quartile Q2. Spain, for instance, has it divided 50% between Q2 and Q3. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 7 of 17 Table 5. Bibliographic production by country and period. Country Total 1992–1999 2000–2009 2010–2018 TOTAL 144 13 46 85 USA 81 10 27 44 England 12 1 6 5 Australia 7 3 4 Spain 6 1 5 China 5 5 Canada 3 2 1 France 3 1 2 Switzerland 2 2 Italy 2 1 1 Denmark 2 2 Germany 2 1 1 Ireland 2 1 1 New Zealand 2 2 Scotland 1 1 Sweden 1 1 South Africa 1 1 Taiwan 1 1 Finland 1 1 Brazil 1 1 Singapore 1 1 Nigeria 1 1 Israel 1 1 Oman 1 1 Hong Kong 1 1 Pakistan 1 1 Poland 1 1 Netherlands 1 1 Malaysia 1 1 Source: Prepared by the authors. Extracted from Web Of Science. 4.1. Co-Word Analysis Results VOSviewer is the program used, which focuses on the visualization of distance-based bibliometric networks that supports a large number of metadata. In order to visualize the bibliometric network, the program works with different units of analysis (authors, organizations, countries, documents, source-journals, keywords, cited references, cited author, or cited source-journals) and units of measurement (co-authorship, co-occurrence, citation). In order to obtain a visualization, VOSviewer applies the association force normalization technique, the VOS mapping technique (visualization of similarities), and, finally, the grouping technique. A cluster is a set of closely related nodes according to the type of linkage being analyzed; each node is assigned to exactly one cluster. For this type of analysis, the keywords of the published articles are used as the unit. As a result, we obtain two types of maps: one that describes the network of links between keywords (Figure 3) and another, called density map, where we can see the intensity of use of the different keywords (Figure 5). For the network map, a minimum of five occurrences per keyword was chosen and resulted in 59 keywords out of a total of 963. For each of the keywords, the total strength of the co-occurrence links with other keywords was calculated. The keywords were selected with the highest total link strength. A hierarchical grouping using an average link has been used in order to identify groups of strong cohesive links between words. In Figure 3, we can visually see the network of links between the main keywords defined by curved lines of different colors that converge in nodes. Each node is one of the 59 keywords and each color corresponds to the same group or cluster. The size of the keywords determines a greater or lesser number of apparitions. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 8 of 17 Table 6. The evolution of the relevance of the subjects dealt with in the literature on gender and executives. Country Total Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 TOTAL 144 Total 40 Country 66 Country 18 Country 20 Country USA 81 56% 31 38% 37 46% 7 9% 6 7% England 12 8% 3 25% 6 50% 3 25% Australia 7 5% 6 86% 1 14% Spain 6 4% 3 3 China 5 3% 2 40% 1 20% 1 20% 1 20% Canada 3 2% 1 33% 2 67% France 3 2% 2 67% 1 33% Switzerland 2 1% 1 50% 1 50% Italy 2 1% 2 100% Denmark 2 1% 1 50% 1 50% Germany 2 1% 2 100% Ireland 2 1% 2 100% New Zealand 2 1% 2 100% Scotland 1 1% 1 100% Sweden 1 1% 1 100% South Africa 1 1% 1 100% Taiwan 1 1% 1 100% Finland 1 1% 1 100% Brazil 1 1% 1 100% Singapore 1 1% 1 100% Nigeria 1 1% 1 100% Israel 1 1% 1 100% Oman 1 1% 1 100% Hong Kong 1 1% 1 100% Pakistan 1 1% 1 100% Poland 1 1% 1 100% Netherlands 1 1% 1 100% Malaysia 1 1% 1 100% Source: Prepared by the authors. Extracted from Web Of Science. Figure 4has been elaborated in order to better clarify the relationship of all the selected keywords, where the color assigned to each cluster has been specified with the intention of being able to appreciate the themes that intertwine with each other, giving rise to a relationship of concepts that point us to a series of ideas on which we are researching. Thus, cluster 1 focuses on research regarding diversity and its impact on corporations, cluster 2 is more oriented to research about power and gender leadership in organizations, while cluster 3 is involved in issues of wage discrimination, compensation, and mobility within organizations, and, finally, cluster 4 is focused on issues related to cultural, value or ethical aspects. Table 7has been prepared in order to identify the keywords that have a greater occurrence. It can be observed that “gender” and “women” are the first of their clusters (cluster 4 and cluster 3, respectively) and they have the greatest number of occurrences, later followed by “management” and “executives” that also belong to these clusters. In position 6 and 7 are leadership and performance, which are part of clusters 2 and 1, respectively. These data are corroborated by the bibliometric density map. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 9 of 17 Figure 3. Network of links between keywords. Source: Prepared by the authors. Figure 4. Keywords grouped by clusters. Source: Prepared by the authors. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2021,7, 15 16 of 17 References 1. Thomas, K.W.; Thomas, G.F.; Schaubhut, N. Conflict styles of men and women at six organization levels. Int. J. Confl. Manag. 2008,19, 148–166. [CrossRef] 2. Bauer, G.; Burnet, J.E. 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