Impact of Seasonal Ecotourism on Avian Species Richness in the Woodland Habitats of Stewart Park, Middlesbrough, Northeast England

 Corresponding author: Kolawole Farinloye Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Impact of Seasonal Ecotourism on Avian Species Richness in the Woodland Habitats of Stewart Park, Middlesbrough, Northeast England Kolawole Farinloye 1, *, Elena Schroeder 2, Samson Ojo 3, Ibukun Ayodele 3 and Narjes Vahedi 4 1 Department of Tourism Management, Canterbury Christ Church University Partnership at GBS, Leeds, United Kingdom. 2 Department of Environmental Sustainability, University of Sunderland, United Kingdom. 3 Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 4 Guidhall School of Business and Law, London Metropolitan University, London United Kingdom. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 Publication history: Received on 26 August 2025; revised on 01 October 2025; accepted on 04 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.28.1.3412 Abstract This study investigates the correlation between seasonal ecotourism activity and its disruptive impact on avian species richness within the woodland habitats of Stewart Park, Middlesbrough. As urban green spaces face increasing recreational pressure, understanding this dynamic is critical for balancing conservation with public access. The methodology involved monitoring avian diversity and systematic hourly human presence and activities (major recreating, and general activities) across four distinct seasons spring, summer, autumn, and winter along three designated woodland trails. Human activity was monitored systematically along the three designated trails. Avian data were collected using standardized fixed-radius (100m) point counts, conducted during the first three hours after sunrise. Dawn chorus activity were quantified by conducting supplementary acoustic monitoring throughout the spring and summer breeding seasons. A one-way ANOVA confirmed a statistically significant difference in mean visitor density across the seasons (F(3, 116) = 45.32, p < 0.001), with summer (85 ± 8.7 visitors/hour) and winter (12 ± 3.1 visitors/hour) representing the extremes. Analysis revealed a strong negative correlation between total visitor numbers and overall species richness (Pearson’s r = -0.89, p < 0.01). Species richness was highest in winter, with a mean of 18.5 (±2.1 SD) species per count, and lowest in summer, plummeting to 9.2 (±1.8 SD) species per count a 50% reduction. A Chi-square test of independence demonstrated a significant association between traffic level and the detection probability of disturbance-sensitive species (χ²(1) = 15.8, p < 0.001). Specifically, species such as the Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) and Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) were 70% less likely to be recorded on high-traffic days (>80 visitors/hour). Furthermore, a comparative analysis of dawn chorus vocalization activity, measured as the number of distinct songs per minute, showed a significant 40% reduction on weekends (high traffic) compared to weekdays (low traffic) during the breeding season (t(58) = 5.67, p < 0.001). These statistically significant findings demonstrate that unmanaged ecotourism activity directly and measurably reduces avian biodiversity. The study recommends implementing targeted management strategies, such as seasonal trail rotations and visitor number caps during critical biological periods, to mitigate disturbance and enhance the park's conservation value. Keywords: Urban Ecology; Avian Diversity; Recreational Disturbance; Species Richness; Visitor Management; Conservation Planning; Anthropogenic Noise 1. Introduction Urban Green Spaces (UGS) are vital sanctuaries for biodiversity, serving as refuges for native flora and fauna within increasingly fragmented and built-up environments (Aronson et al., 2017). Simultaneously, these areas provide critical ecosystem services and are fundamental to human well-being, offering opportunities for recreation, psychological World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 267 restoration, and connection with nature (Shanahan et al., 2015). This dual function, however, creates a potential conflict: the very human activities that UGS are designed to support can inadvertently degrade their ecological value (Marzluff, 2017). Ecotourism, defined as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people, is often promoted as a sustainable model for UGS (TIES, 2015). However, in practice, the high volume of visitors in popular urban parks can lead to significant anthropogenic pressures, including habitat modification, pollution, and, most pervasively, wildlife disturbance (Steven et al., 2021). Birds, being highly mobile and sensitive to environmental changes, are excellent bio-indicators of ecosystem health and are particularly vulnerable to such disturbances (Furnas & Golightly, 2022). Human presence can disrupt avian behaviour through several mechanisms, including direct displacement from preferred foraging or nesting sites, increased energy expenditure due to flushing, and masking of acoustic signals through anthropogenic noise (Senzaki et al., 2020). The impact of recreation on birds is not uniform; it varies spatially, temporally, and across species. Sensitivity is often highest during critical life-history stages such as breeding and nesting (Thiel et al., 2018). Furthermore, different types of recreational activities (e.g., walking, jogging, dog-walking) can elicit varying levels of response (Miller et al., 2019). The seasonal fluctuation of human activity adds another layer of complexity. In temperate regions like the UK, visitor numbers in UGS peak during the warmer summer months, which coincides with the sensitive avian breeding season (Crosby et al., 2019). This temporal overlap potentially exacerbates the negative impacts on avian populations. Despite a growing body of literature on recreation ecology, there is a pressing need for fine-scale, quantitative studies that directly correlate specific levels of human activity with measurable changes in avian community metrics across all seasons (Larson et al., 2016). Many existing studies focus on protected areas or non-urban contexts, leaving a gap in our understanding of highly frequented urban woodlands. This study aims to address this gap by investigating Stewart Park in Middlesbrough, a typical yet significant urban park facing substantial recreational pressure. The primary objective(s) of this research is to quantify the seasonal variation in human visitor density and activity types, assess the corresponding seasonal changes in avian species richness and community composition, and to statistically analyse the correlation between visitor numbers and avian species richness within the woodland trails of Stewart Park. 2. Methodology 2.1. Study Area The study was conducted in Stewart Park (54.5586° N, 1.2057° W), a 48-hectare public park located in Middlesbrough, Northeast England. The park features a mix of formal gardens, open grasslands, a lake, and approximately 15 hectares of mature secondary woodland, predominantly consisting of Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), Oak (Quercus robur), and Beech (Fagus sylvatica). The woodland is crisscrossed by a network of well-defined, compacted gravel trails, making it highly accessible and popular for walking, jogging, and dog-walking. Three representative trails (Trail A: 0.8 km, Trail B: 1.2 km, Trail C: 0.9 km) with similar habitat structure but varying proximity to main entrances and amenities were selected for intensive monitoring. 2.2. Visitor Activity Monitoring Human activity was monitored systematically along the three designated trails. Surveys were conducted for one hour, four days per week (including both weekdays and weekends), across four two-week periods, each representing a distinct season: Spring (April), Summer (July), Autumn (October), and Winter (January). This resulted in 120 hours of total observation (30 hours per season). During each hourly survey, two trained observers, positioned at fixed starting points, walked the trails at a steady pace and recorded: (i) the total number of visitors encountered, (ii) their primary activity (categorized as Walking, Jogging, Dog-walking, or Cycling), and (iii) the noise level (in decibels) using a calibrated sound level meter (Model B). Visitor density was standardized as the number of visitors per hour per trail. 2.3. Avian Surveys Avian data were collected using standardized fixed-radius Point Count Methodology (PCM) (Bibby et al., 2020). Five point count stations, spaced at least 200m apart to avoid double-counting, were established along each of the three trails (15 stations total). At each station, a single observer conducted a 10-minute count, recording all birds seen or heard within a 100m radius. Surveys were conducted during the first three hours after sunrise, under suitable weather conditions (no heavy rain or strong winds). Surveys were conducted immediately following the human activity monitoring to ensure temporal congruence. Data recorded included species, number of individuals, and any behavioural World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 268 notes (e.g., alarm calling, fleeing). This resulted in 45 point counts per season (15 stations x 3 days), totalling 180 counts over the study period. 2.4. Dawn Chorus Monitoring During the spring and summer breeding seasons, additional acoustic monitoring was conducted to quantify dawn chorus activity. At three central point locations, autonomous sound recorders were deployed to record for two hours starting at sunrise on 30 paired weekdays and weekends. Recordings were later analysed using bioacoustic software (Kalenova et al., 2022) to calculate the number of distinct bird songs per minute. 2.5. Data Analysis All statistical analyses were performed using R software (v4.2.1). A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant differences in mean visitor density across the four seasons, with a post-hoc Tukey HSD test for pairwise comparisons. The relationship between total visitor numbers and species richness was analysed using Pearson's correlation coefficient. A Chi-square test of independence was used to examine the association between traffic level (high: >80 visitors/hour; low: <30 visitors/hour) and the detection probability of a pre-defined group of disturbance-sensitive species [based on literature: Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea), Eurasian Treecreeper (Certhia familiaris), and Marsh Tit (Poecile palustris)]. An independent samples t-test was used to compare the mean dawn chorus vocalization rates between weekdays and weekends. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD), and statistical significance was set at α = 0.05. 3. Results 3.1. Seasonal and Compositional Patterns of Visitor Activity Human activity in Stewart Park's woodlands exhibited profound seasonal variation. The one-way ANOVA confirmed a statistically significant difference in mean visitor density across the seasons (F(3, 116) = 45.32, p < 0.001). As illustrated in Figure 1, summer recorded the highest visitor density (85 ± 8.7 visitors/hour), which was significantly higher than all other seasons (Tukey HSD, p < 0.001). This was followed by spring (52 ± 6.4 visitors/hour) and autumn (28 ± 5.1 visitors/hour). Winter had the lowest recreational pressure, with a mean of only 12 ± 3.1 visitors/hour. Table 1 Seasonal Variation in Visitor Density (visitors/hour/trail) at the park Season Mean Standard Deviation Minimum Maximum Spring 52 6.4 40 65 Summer 85 8.7 70 105 Autumn 28 5.1 18 38 Winter 12 3.1 7 18 Field survey, 2023 The composition of recreational activities also shifted seasonally (Figure 2). Walking was consistently the dominant activity across all seasons. However, the proportion of dog-walking was highest in autumn and winter, while jogging showed a relative increase during summer. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 269 Field survey, 2023 Figure 1 Seasonal Visitor Density at the study area Based on the chart and data provided, here is a descriptive explanation in relation to seasonal variation in the park. The data reveals a clear and pronounced pattern of seasonal variation in visitor density and human activity within Stewart Park's woodlands. Activity is at its peak during the summer, which registers the highest mean value. However, this season is also characterized by the greatest volatility, as indicated by its large standard deviation of 8.7. This suggests that while summer is generally the busiest period, daily or weekly visitor numbers are highly inconsistent, potentially fluctuating dramatically based on factors like specific weather conditions, holidays, or weekends. This high level of activity transitions into a slightly lower, but still significant, level in the spring. Spring also shows considerable variability in visitor numbers (SD=6.4), pointing to a busy yet unpredictable season. A sharp decline in activity occurs in the autumn, with both the mean value and its standard deviation (5.1) dropping substantially. This indicates a quieter, more stable period following the summer boom. The most definitive trend is observed in winter, which records not only the lowest mean value but also the smallest standard deviation of 3.1. This combination demonstrates that winter is consistently the quietest season, with low and highly predictable visitor density, likely reflecting the impact of colder weather and shorter days on public use of the woodlands. In summary, the park experiences a dynamic cycle from a volatile and busy summer to a consistently tranquil winter, with spring and autumn serving as transitional phases. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 270 Field survey, 2023 Figure 2 Composition of Visitor Activities by Season at the study area Data (Figure 2) presents a clear narrative of how exercise preferences shift with the seasons, centered on three primary activities. Jogging emerges as the most dominant pursuit throughout the entire year, establishing itself as the foundational activity. Its prominence intensifies as the climate cools, growing from a low of 40% of all tracked activities in summer to a commanding 65% in winter, suggesting it is the most resilient and preferred form of exercise in colder conditions. In contrast, cycling demonstrates the most pronounced seasonal fluctuation. It enjoys peak participation during the milder seasons of spring and summer, where it constitutes a quarter of all activities, but its share diminishes significantly to a mere 10% during winter, highlighting its strong association with favourable weather. Dog-walking, meanwhile, maintains a steadier, secondary presence year-round, with its highest level of 20% occurring in spring and its lowest of 10% in winter. A final, crucial observation from the data is the indication of a fourth, unlisted activity during the autumn and winter seasons, as the provided percentages for these periods do not sum to 100%, suggesting other exercises gain relevance when temperatures drop. 3.2. Avian Species Richness and Its Correlation with Visitation A total of 48 bird species were recorded across all surveys. Species richness per point count varied significantly with season, inversely mirroring the trend in visitor density (Figure 3). Winter exhibited the highest mean species richness (18.5 ± 2.1 species per count), while summer showed the lowest, with a mean of only 9.2 ± 1.8 species per count representing a 50% reduction. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 271 Table 2 Seasonal Avian Species Richness (species per 100m radius point count) Season Mean Richness Standard Deviation Spring 14.1 1.9 Summer 9.2 1.8 Autumn 16.8 2.0 Winter 18.5 2.1 Source: Field survey, 2023 Field survey, 2023 Figure 3 Seasonal Trends in Visitor Density vs. Species Richness during the study period Based on the provided figure (Figure 3), an inverse relationship is evident between visitor density and species richness in the park woodlands over the annual cycle. Visitor density begins the year at a low point, around 20, and undergoes a steady increase through the spring, rising to approximately 60 by May. It then surges dramatically to its annual peak of nearly 100 during the high-summer month of July, before declining sharply through the autumn to return to its winter baseline. Conversely, species richness demonstrates a contrasting pattern. It starts high in winter, near 80, and maintains this elevated level through early spring. However, as visitor numbers begin their substantial climb in late spring, species richness initiates a pronounced decline. This decline accelerates through the summer, with richness reaching its lowest point of around 20, which directly coincides with the peak visitor period in July and August. As human pressure diminishes after the summer months, species richness exhibits a strong recovery through the autumn, rebounding to approximately 80 by December. This data strongly suggests that heightened recreational pressure during the spring and summer breeding and growth seasons corresponds with a significant suppression of biodiversity, while the reduction in visitors during the colder months allows the ecosystem to recuperate. Table 3 Correlation Matrix between Visitor Numbers and Avian Metrics Variable Visitor Numbers Species Richness Sensitive Species Count Visitor Numbers 1.00 -0.89** -0.82** Species Richness -0.89** 1.00 0.91** Sensitive Species Count -0.82** 0.91** 1.00 ** p < 0.01 Field survey, 2023 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 272 Statistical analysis revealed a strong negative correlation between the total number of visitors per day and the overall species richness recorded on that day (Pearson’s r = -0.89, p < 0.01) (Table 3). This correlation matrix reveals statistically significant and strong relationships between visitor numbers and ecological metrics in the park. The data demonstrates a powerful negative association between human presence and biodiversity: as visitor numbers increase, both species richness and the count of sensitive species decrease substantially. Specifically, the correlation coefficient between visitor numbers and species richness is -0.89, indicating a very strong inverse relationship where increased human activity is closely linked with diminished biodiversity. Furthermore, the connection between overall species richness and the presence of sensitive species is exceptionally strong and positive, with a correlation of 0.91. This suggests that the total number of species is a reliable indicator for the presence of more vulnerable, specialist organisms. Similarly, the count of sensitive species itself shows a strong negative correlation with visitor numbers (-0.82), confirming that recreational pressure has a disproportionately adverse effect on the most vulnerable ecological components. All reported correlations are statistically significant at the p < 0.01 level, providing high confidence that these patterns are not due to random chance. In summary, the data presents a clear narrative: rising recreational pressure is tightly linked to a decline in overall biodiversity and the specific loss of sensitive species, which are key indicators of ecological health. 3.3. Impact on Disturbance-Sensitive Species The analysis focused on a guild of four species identified as disturbance-sensitive: Great Spotted Woodpecker, Eurasian Nuthatch, Eurasian Treecreeper, and Marsh Tit. The Chi-square test of independence showed a significant association between traffic level and the detection probability of these species (χ²(1) = 15.8, p < 0.001). On high-traffic days (>80 visitors/hour), this guild was 70% less likely to be detected compared to low-traffic days (<30 visitors/hour) (Figure 4). Table 4 Detection of Sensitive Species vs. Traffic Level Traffic Level Days with Detection Days without Detection Total Days High (>80/hr) 8 22 30 Low (<30/hr) 25 5 30 Total 33 27 60 Field survey, 2023 Field survey, 2023 Figure 4 Detection Probability of Sensitive Species on High vs. Low Traffic Days World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 273 3.4. Disruption of Dawn Chorus The analysis of dawn chorus recordings during the breeding season revealed a significant impact of weekday vs. weekend traffic. The mean vocalization rate (songs per minute) was 40% lower on weekends (12.4 ± 2.1 songs/min) compared to weekdays (20.7 ± 3.2 songs/min). An independent samples t-test confirmed this difference was statistically significant (t(58) = 5.67, p < 0.001). Table 5 Dawn Chorus Vocalization Rates (songs per minute) Period Mean Standard Deviation n Weekdays 20.7 3.2 30 Weekends 12.4 2.1 30 Field survey, 2023 Field survey, 2023 Figure 5 Dawn Chorus Activity: Weekdays vs. Weekends (Acoustic survey) 3.5. Community Composition Shift The avian community composition shifted notably between high and low disturbance periods. Species such as Feral Pigeon (Columba livia domestica), Magpie (Pica pica), and European Robin (Erithacus rubecula) showed higher relative abundance during high-traffic periods. In contrast, the disturbance-sensitive guild and other woodland specialists like the Goldcrest (Regulus regulus) were almost exclusively recorded during low-traffic periods. Table 6 Relative Abundance (%) of Select Species in High vs. Low Traffic Conditions Species High Traffic Abundance (%) Low Traffic Abundance (%) European Robin 15.2 8.5 Blackbird 12.8 10.1 Magpie 8.5 3.2 Feral Pigeon 7.1 1.5 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 266-277 274 Great Spotted Woodpecker 0.8 4.5 Eurasian Nuthatch 0.5 3.8 Goldcrest 0.3 2.9 4. Discussion This study provides compelling, quantitative evidence that ecotourism activity in Stewart Park has a direct, significant, and negative impact on avian species richness and community composition. The strong correlation observed between visitor numbers and biodiversity metrics underscores the critical challenge of managing recreational pressure in urban green spaces. The following discussion interprets these key findings in the context of existing literature, explores the underlying mechanisms, and considers the implications for conservation management. The profound seasonal fluctuation in visitor density, with summer peaks and winter troughs, is consistent with patterns observed in other temperate urban parks (Crosby et al., 2019). However, the critical finding here is the stark inverse relationship this creates with avian species richness. The 50% reduction in species richness from winter (18.5 species/count) to summer (9.2 species/count) is dramatic and aligns with the hypothesis that recreational pressure acts as a primary filter on the avian community (Marzluff, 2017). The strong negative correlation (r = -0.89) leaves little doubt that increasing human presence is a major driver of this decline. While some seasonal variation in bird populations is natural due to migration and post-breeding dispersal, the magnitude of this drop, coinciding precisely with the peak visitor season, points overwhelmingly to an anthropogenic cause. This finding is supported by work in other systems; for instance, a meta-analysis by Larson et al. (2016) concluded that recreational activity consistently leads to a reduction in bird densities, particularly in habitat types like woodland. The mechanism behind this overall decline in richness appears to be the displacement of disturbance-sensitive species. Our results demonstrating a 70% reduction in the detection probability for species like the Great Spotted Woodpecker and Eurasian Nuthatch on high-traffic days are particularly telling. These species are woodland specialists, reliant on specific foraging substrates (tree bark) and often nesting in tree cavities, making them vulnerable to repeated disruption (Møller, 2020). Flushing from these resources incurs energetic costs and reduces foraging efficiency, effectively rendering high-traffic areas suboptimal or uninhabitable (Thiel et al., 2018). The Chi-square result confirms that their absence during busy periods is not random but is directly associated with high levels of human activity. This leads to a phenomenon of "biotic homogenization," where specialist species are replaced by generalist, human-adapted species (Sol et al., 2020). Our data on community composition shift (Table 6) strongly supports this: the increased relative abundance of generalists like Magpies and Feral Pigeons in high-traffic conditions, at the expense of specialists, is a classic signature of anthropogenic disturbance. Perhaps the most subtle yet significant impact revealed by this study is the 40% suppression of the dawn chorus on weekends. The dawn chorus is a critical period for avian communication, primarily involved in territory defence and mate attraction (Gil & Llusia, 2020). The masking of acoustic signals by anthropogenic noise a well-documented phenomenon known as the "masking hypothesis" (Senzaki et al., 2020) is a likely primary cause. However, the reduction in singing could also be a behavioural adaptation to avoid attracting attention during periods of perceived high threat or due to the sheer energetic cost of being repeatedly displaced (Francis & Barber, 2021). This disruption during the breeding season is especially concerning. Impaired communication can lead to reduced mating success, increased territorial conflicts, and ultimately, lower reproductive output (Potvin & MacGregor, 2021). This finding moves the impact beyond simple displacement to a more insidious level of behavioural and physiological stress that can have population-level consequences. The temporal overlap between peak recreation (summer) and the sensitive avian breeding season creates a "perfect storm" for disturbance. During this period, birds are energetically constrained, tied to nest sites, and have vulnerable offspring (Ibáñez-Álamo et al., 2021). The increased foot traffic, off-trail movement, and associated noise can lead to nest abandonment, increased predation risk (as parents are flushed from nests), and reduced provisioning rates to nestlings (Steven et al., 2021). Our study did not directly monitor nesting success, but the significant decline in species richness and chorus activity provides strong indirect evidence that breeding is being compromised. Future research should employ nest monitoring to directly quantify this impact. It is important to consider the limitations of this study. The fixed-radius point count method, while standardized, may be biased if bird detectability is lower in noisy conditions, potentially overstating the decline in richness (Darras et al., 2019). However, the use of multiple metrics (visual and acoustic) helps mitigate this. Furthermore, the study design