Scientific Approaches in Landscape Architecture – 2025

SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Editors Zeynep PİRSELİMOĞLU BATMAN Elvan ENDER ALTAY Lyon 2025 SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Editors Zeynep PİRSELİMOĞLU BATMAN Elvan ENDER ALTAY Lyon 2025 Scientific Approaches in Landscape Architecture – 2025 Editors • Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zeynep PİRSELİMOĞLU BATMAN • Orcid: 0000-0003-2145-2682 • Prof. Dr. Elvan ENDER ALTAY • Orcid: 0000-0001-5933-1611 Cover Design • Motion Graphics Book Layout • Motion Graphics First Published • November 2025, Lyon e-ISBN: 978-2-38236-957-9 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17646168 copyright © 2025 by Livre de Lyon All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the Publisher. The author or authors of the relevant section are responsible for any copyright infringement that may occur due to the images and graphics used in the book. The editor or publisher does not assume responsibility in this regard. Publisher • Livre de Lyon Address • 37 rue marietton, 69009, Lyon France website • http://www.livredelyon.com e-mail • [email protected] I PREFACE In today’s world, where the global environmental crisis is deepening, the fields of landscape architecture, urban design, and ecological planning have become more significant than ever before. Rapid urbanization, the loss of biodiversity, and the escalating impacts of climate change compel us to rethink how we shape, perceive, and inhabit our environment. This book continues our ongoing research on sustainable and ecological design approaches and aims to deepen the dialogue between nature, culture, and technology. The chapters in this volume reflect diverse perspectives and methodologies that converge around a shared goal: creating liveable, resilient, and aesthetically meaningful environments. The studies address topics such as formal and functional approaches in spatial design, concepts of accessibility and inclusivity, biomorphic and digital design paradigms, the ecological and aesthetic values of native plant species, the preservation of cultural heritage, and contemporary design processes. Furthermore, innovative examples of sustainable landscape planning are discussed through the opportunities offered by digital technologies and geodesign. By bringing together approaches developed within the discipline of landscape architecture across different scales and contexts, this book aims to contribute to the literature with a sustainability-oriented, innovative, and environmentally and socially responsive design perspective. We extend our sincere gratitude to all contributing authors and express our appreciation to all readers whose interest and engagement continue to enrich the field of design. We hope this book provides valuable insights and inspiration for its readers. Zeynep PİRSELİMOĞLU BATMAN Elvan ENDER ALTAY III CONTENTS PREFACE I CHAPTER I. SPACE DESIGN WITH GEOMETRIC FORMS: ENTRANCE SPACES 1  BanuKARAŞAH&EmineTARAKCİEREN CHAPTER II. EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC PARK IN TERMS OF ACCESSIBILITY AND USABILITY FOR PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES 13  BUKETÖZDEMİRIŞIK&SÜMEYYEÜNLÜ CHAPTER III. BIOMORPHIC PATTERNS DRIVEN URBAN LANDSCAPE FURNITURE DESIGN 41 DeryaSARI CHAPTER IV. THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN 57 MerveTANFER&Ş.DoğanayYENER CHAPTER V. FROM NATURAL FORMS TO DIGITAL DESIGN: THE SPATIAL FICTION PROCESS AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO DESIGN EDUCATION 85 ElvanENDERALTAY CHAPTER VI. THINKING OVER THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HISTORIC URBAN LANDSCAPE: ISTANBUL SADABAD CASE 101 NilüferKARTAKTAŞ CHAPTER VII. BETWEEN CELEBRATION AND CONSERVATION: RETHINKING THE STORK FESTIVAL IN ESKIKARAAĞAÇ VILLAGE 115 OsmanZEYBEK CHAPTER VIII. FROM NATURE TO DIGITAL: THE TRANSFORMATIVE PARADIGM OF INNOVATIVE LANDSCAPES 129 SaraDEMIR IV   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 CHAPTER IX. HYDRIC, MESIC, AND XERIC PLANTS OF KOZCAĞIZ RIVER RECREATION AREA LANDSCAPE DESIGN PROJECT FOR SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT, BARTIN (TURKEY) 149 B. NiyamiNAYİM,YelizSarıNAYİM CHAPTER X. USE OF FURNISHINGS IN RURAL LANDSCAPES THROUGH THE GEODESIGN APPROACH 161 ZeynepPİRSELİMOĞLUBATMAN, SemaMATURandMerveACA SPACE DESIGN WITH GEOMETRIC FORMS: ENTRANCE SPACES   7 Table 4: Entrance space design of fourth student Geometric Form Impact on the Space Triangle Vivid, dynamic, energetic, sculptural appearance Explanation The student chose a triangle form for her work. She selected white for the facade and floor colour, and black for the form colour, using the principle of contrast. Triangular forms were used in different sizes, and depth expression was created through size gradation. She has carried the triangular forms she uses on the ground to the facade as well, achieving a sculptural appearance. By partially covering the triangles used on the floor with transparent material, she has designed semi-open seating and relaxation areas for users. Triangular forms have been combined on the façade to create an effective environment and emphasize the entrance. The form she used has added a vivid, dynamic, and energetic effect to the space. The student has achieved a balance between mass and void in her design. An entrance area has been designed for users that is both aesthetically pleasing and functional. Designer: Rabia Keçeci 8   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Table 5: Entrance space design of fifth student Geometric Form Impact on the Space Triangle Vivid, dynamic, energetic, sculptural appearance Explanation The student chose a triangle form for her work. She chose white for the facade and floor colours and used shades of white and gray for the form colours, applying the principle of harmony. Triangular forms were used in different sizes. She has carried the triangular forms she uses on the ground to the facade as well, achieving a sculptural appearance. She has designed seating and relaxation areas for users using triangles on the floor. Triangular forms have been combined on the façade to create an effective environment and emphasize the entrance. The form she used has added a vivid, dynamic, and energetic effect to the space. She has made a sculptural appearance on the façade. The student has achieved a balance between mass and void in her design. An entrance area has been designed for users that is both aesthetically pleasing and functional. Designer: Miray Okutgen SPACE DESIGN WITH GEOMETRIC FORMS: ENTRANCE SPACES   9 Table 6: Entrance space design of sixth student Geometric Form Impact on the Space Oval Energetic, spacious, dominance, monumental appearance Explanation The student chose an oval form for her work. She selected black for the facade and floor colour, and white for the form colour, using the principle of contrast. She used oval forms in different sizes and created depth expression through size gradation. The entrance area has been designed as a covered space, and the canopy element emphasizes the facade entrance. The oval shape used in the cover element is also continued linearly on the floor. It has been designed as a seating and relaxation area by adding height to these linear forms. The form she used has added a spacious and energetic effect to the space. She also achieves an effect of dominance and monumentality with her designed covering element. The student has completed a balance between mass and void in her design. An entrance area has been designed for users that is both aesthetically pleasing and functional. Designer: Yaren Tekin 4. Conclusion Fundamental design courses can be challenging for students at first because intangible concepts are transformed into tangible products. However, as their creativity develops throughout the process, they become happier and more successful thanks to the designs they produce. Within the scope of the study, the designs made at the end of the Basic Design II course were evaluated. The class was conducted with 30 students, and quite successful designs were achieved; however, the study focused on the six most successful ones created using geometric forms. As indicated in the evaluated examples, students 10   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 transformed the design elements and principles they learned in introductory design courses into spaces, contributing to the spaces they designed with the forms they used, thereby creating a vivid, dynamic, spacious, monumental, and sculptural appearance. Entrance spaces serve as interaction hubs where various user groups converge. The fact that students develop solutions to this issue while still in their first year allows them to gain experience, as it is a topic they may encounter in their professional lives. Selecting topics that students may encounter in their professional lives during their education will enable them to produce more effective and creative solutions to design problems by providing feedback in their future professional lives. It is thought that the entrance space designs evaluated in this study will serve as a source of inspiration for landscape architecture students and designers. References Aklıbaşında, M., Atabeyoğlu, Ö., Bulut, Y. (2011). Peyzaj mimarlığında cinsiyete bağlı tasarım tercihleri. İnönü Üniversitesi Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 2: 947–953. Arcan, E. F. ve Evci, F. (1987). Mimari Tasarıma Yaklaşım 1 Bina Bilgisi Çalışmaları. İstanbul: İstanbul Yıldız Üniversitesi Yayınları. Booth, N.K. (2012). Foundations of landscape architecture: Integrating form and space using the language of site design. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Ching, F.D.K. (2007). Architecture: Form, Space, & Order. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Erbay, M., Ulusoy, S. (2021). Senses in the interiors: An example of entrance spaces at hospitals. Journal of Interior Design and Academy, 1(2): 62-81. Ertek, H. (1994). İç Mekân Temel Tasarım İlkelerine Bir Yaklaşım. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. 211s. Hasol, D. (2012). Ansiklopedik Mimarlık Sözlüğü (12. b.). İstanbul: Yem Yayın. Kandemir, Ö., Acırlı, Z. (2021). The concept of accessibility and it’s dimensions for spatial design. GRID Architecture, Planning and Design Journal, 4(2): 225–248. SPACE DESIGN WITH GEOMETRIC FORMS: ENTRANCE SPACES   11 Karaşah, B., Sarı. D. (2022). Distance design studio education in the covıd-19 process and the effect of modeling on development of space concept. International Refereed Journal of Design and Architecture, 25: 214-237. Krippendorff, K. (2007). Design Research, an Oxymoron?. Ralf M. (Ed). Design Research Now Essays and Selected Projects (p.67-80). Basel:Birkhauser. Norman, D. (2017). Gündelik Şeylerin Tasarımı (çev. A. M. Şengel). Ankara: Tübitak Popüler Bilim Yayınları. Pile, J.L. (2005). A History of Interior Design. London: Laurence King Publishing. Rayfield, J.K. (1997). The Office Interior Design Guide: An Introduction for Facility and Design Professionals. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Sarı, D. (2019). İhtiyaç-etkinlik-mekân ilişkisinin kent parkları örneğinde irdelenmesi. Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 20(2): 181192. Smithers, T. (1992). Design as Exploration: Puzzle-Making and PuzzleSolving. Notes for theWorkshop on Explorationbased models of design and search-based models of design, held as part of AI in Design ’92 (p.1-30), Pittsburgh: Carneige Mellon University. Tanrıkut, B. 2019. Mekansal Algıyı Etkileyen Tasarım Parametreleri ve Marka Kimliği İlişkisi. İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. 141s. Taşçı, H. (2014). Bir Hayat Tarzı Olarak Şehir, Mekân, Meydan (1.b.). İstanbul: Kaknüs Yayınları. Tırnakçı, A. (2020). Kentsel peyzaj tasarımı açısından tarihi Kayseri kent meydanının (cumhuriyet meydanının) irdelenmesi. Turkish Journal of Forest Science, 4(2):314-332. Tırnakçı, A., Aklıbaşında, M. (2024). Landscape design process in historical environments: The case of Hacı Bektaş Veli Shrine. In Ö. Atabeyoğlu & A. E. Metin (Eds.), The past, present, and future of urban design in architectural sciences (pp. 175–193). Türkiye: Iksad Publications. Türk, S.A., Midilli Sarı, R. (2025). Mimari tasarımda kullanıcı-tasarımcı iş birliğine dayalı bir yaklaşım: Bilim ve sanat merkezleri örneği. BAUN Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 27(2): 780-801. Usta, G. (2020). Mekân ve yer kavramlarının anlamsal açıdan irdelenmesi. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication – TOJDAC, 10(1): 25-30. 12   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Yazıcıoğlu, D.A. Meral, P.S. (2011). İç mekân tasarımının kurum kimliğine uygunluğunun ölçülmesine yönelik yöntem önerisi. Yalova Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1(1):111-131. 13 CHAPTER II EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC PARK IN TERMS OF ACCESSIBILITY AND USABILITY FOR PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES BUKET ÖZDEMİR IŞIK1 & SÜMEYYE ÜNLÜ2 1 (Prof. Dr.) Trabzon University, e-mail: [email protected] ORCID:0000-0003-1617-8084 2 (Recreation student) Trabzon University, e-mail:[email protected] ORCID:0009-0004-9646-3903 1. Introduction The durability of fixtures is evaluated based on fundamental criteria, including safety and robustness, UV resistance, corrosion resistance, ease of maintenance, the use of non-toxic materials, and accessibility. Within the scope of the research, Millet Park in the Akçaabat district of Trabzon Province was selected as a sample area, and the suitability of design elements for access and use by individuals with disabilities was analyzed within this area. In the study, park entrances, stairs, ramps, urban furniture, and pedestrian paths were measured on-site in accordance with national standards and the “Universal Standards Guide for Persons with Disabilities” to determine their level of compliance with these standards. The analysis results revealed various inadequacies in the study area that restrict the independent movement of individuals with disabilities and jeopardize their safe use. The main problems identified were the non-compliant slopes of ramps, the inadequate accessibility of bridge ramps, the stony and uneven surface structure of pedestrian paths, the 14   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 lack of designated areas for individuals with disabilities on viewing platforms, and the inaccessible design of seating elements. Based on these findings, it is recommended that the slopes of ramps be reduced to less than 6%, ground surfaces be made suitable for wheelchair access, bridge ramps and viewing areas be redesigned in accordance with standards, and urban furniture be designed in accordance with the ergonomic requirements of disabled users. The implementation of these regulations will enhance the accessibility and usability of Akçaabat Millet Park for individuals with disabilities, thereby facilitating their independent and equal participation in social life. Public gardens are open-air spaces in urban areas across Turkey where people can spend time surrounded by nature, relax, and engage in sports. These projects are designed to reduce urban density, help people de-stress, and enhance the overall well-being of society. These gardens typically feature infrastructure that supports various activities, such as green spaces, children’s play areas, sports facilities, walking paths, and relaxation areas. The government supports such projects to increase green spaces in urban areas and encourage the public to interact more with nature. When evaluated from the user’s perspective, public gardens should be planned to appeal to people of all ages. In this context, the importance of design decisions in open spaces is even greater for individuals with disabilities. Societal behaviors that respond to individuals based on their disability status may be related to the culture and social structure of the society (Burcu, 2002; Fazlıoğlu and Çorapçıoğlu, 2020). The proportion of individuals with disabilities in the total population worldwide is 12.29%. This disabled population corresponds to approximately 8.4 million people in the total population, of which 1.25% are orthopedic, 0.48% are mental, 0.38% are speech and language, 0.37% are hearing, and 0.6% are visually impaired (Özcan, 2008; Öztürk, 2011). To make life easier for individuals with disabilities, society as a whole needs to be more aware and inclusive. The aim is to enable individuals with disabilities to participate fully and equally in society, helping them to live more independently. Designs for open-air parking areas to facilitate the lives of individuals with disabilities should be based on universal design principles, and special arrangements should be made to ensure that individuals with disabilities can use the parking area comfortably. These designs should take into account not only physical barriers but also cognitive, sensory, and communication needs. Accessibility is a concept that refers to the ability to reach the economic, social, and cultural environment, primarily the artificial and natural physical environment, and to benefit from and contribute to the services provided in these environments. For persons with disabilities, accessibility is not only a EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC . . .   15 means of exercising their rights, but also a prerequisite for independent living and full participation in all areas of social life. For persons with disabilities to live independently with dignity, they must have equal access to the physical environment, transportation, information and communication technology, and other public facilities and services, just like other members of society (Çağlar, 2012; Pirselimoğlu Batman et al., 2024b). Universal design was introduced by American architect Ronald L. Mace in 1986 (Sirel and Sirel, 2017) and is defined as “enhancing quality of life by providing users with the opportunity to choose equal, liberating, safe, effective, and comfortable use” (Tutal, 2018; Zeyrek Çepehan and Güler, 2020). Different countries use terms such as “designforall” (design for everyone), “barrier-freedesign” (barrier-free design), “inclusivedesign” (inclusive design), “username design” (user-centered design), “real life design” (design for real life), “lifespan design” (lifelong design), and “transgenerational design” (intergenerational design). The universal design approach involves designing spaces and products that serve all users equally, including young people, older people, and those with or without physical and mental limitations. This approach is a necessity in contemporary living conditions, encompassing various design fields such as architecture, urban design, information technology, communication, and transportation technologies. When evaluated globally, it is observed that the growing disabled population plays a significant role in the more effective design of products, environments, and services to be usable and accessible (Zeyrek Çepehan and Güler, 2020). A person with a disability can be defined as an individual who, either from birth or later in life due to illness or accident, has lost their physical, mental, psychological, sensory, and social abilities to varying degrees and is unable to fulfill the requirements of everyday life (Goffman, 1968). An individual’s physical condition should not be a reason for their exclusion from the society in which they live. The historical course of disability shows that, despite setbacks in the past, there has been a positive and progressive process in human history regarding the rights of persons with disabilities. The point reached in the 21st century evaluates the historical situation regarding disability from the perspective of “human rights of persons with disabilities.” According to Engençder’s 2020 study, this perspective should be a decisive factor in future work. 1.1.PhysicalDisability Physical disability is a type of disability that limits an individual’s mobility and functionality in physical activities due to congenital or acquired damage 16   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 to the muscles, skeleton, or nervous system. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2011), physical disability is not limited to the restriction of physical movement. Still, it is a condition that also affects an individual’s participation in daily life activities, social interactions, and independent living skills. Individuals with this type of disability may require wheelchairs, orthotics, prosthetics, or various technological support devices due to deficiencies in their motor skills. As emphasized by UNESCO (2009), rehabilitation services, special education practices, and social support programs are crucial for enhancing the quality of life and promoting the social integration of individuals with physical disabilities. The use of assistive devices and orthotics in rehabilitation processes enables individuals to perform their daily living activities more independently, contributing to the preservation of their physical functions (Çankaya et al., 2020). In addition, social activities such as sports and theater strengthen the communication, interaction, and expression skills of individuals with physical disabilities, supporting their social adaptation (Gün and Akel, 2018). Indeed, participation in sports and physical activities by individuals with physical disabilities increases their level of social interaction, develops their selfconfidence, and improves their overall quality of life (Demir et al., 2018). Figure 2. General measurements of individuals with disabilities (Orhan Koç, 2020). According to architectural measures, individuals with disabilities can be classified into two categories: individuals with walking disabilities and individuals with wheelchair-bound disabilities. Potential distinctions among individuals with walking disabilities can also be categorized by the assistive devices used, the type of disability, or the degree of disability. Wheelchair users include individuals who have difficulty walking or using their legs. These individuals are people who feel the need to move around their environment using a wheelchair, either independently or with assistance. Wheelchairs are an important tool for these individuals to maintain their EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC . . .   23 the independent movement of individuals with disabilities while also increasing their participation in social life (Kasapoğlu, 2022). Urban furniture design for individuals with disabilities is of great importance in terms of accessibility and social participation. Urban furniture stands out as aesthetic and functional elements that facilitate people’s daily lives in public spaces in cities. In this context, certain criteria must be taken into account in the design of urban furniture to meet the needs of individuals with disabilities. Adopting an interdisciplinary approach in the design process is considered a critical factor in better understanding and meeting the needs of individuals with disabilities (Kaya et al., 2022). The difficulties faced by individuals with disabilities in urban areas mostly stem from inadequate design practices. Therefore, in addition to social, cultural, and economic factors, the daily living needs of individuals with disabilities must also be taken into account in the design of urban furniture (Bolkaner et al., 2019). For example, fixtures such as seating areas, rest areas, and guidance systems should be designed to enable individuals with disabilities to use public spaces more comfortably and safely (Liu et al., 2021). These design elements, shaped in line with accessibility principles, encourage the active participation of individuals with disabilities in public spaces, contributing to the creation of a more inclusive urban environment in all areas of social life. 3. Findings And Discussion The physical characteristics of the fixtures used in the study, such as their dimensions, heights, and widths, were measured and evaluated for compliance with relevant standards. There are studies in the literature that support this work conducted for individuals with disabilities (Çelik, et al., Olgun, 2019, Gür and Kahraman, 2024, Gülgün and Ünal Ankaya, 2020, Akgün Piskin and Seyidoglu Akdeniz 2023). During this process, the extent to which the fittings met accessibility and usability criteria was analyzed, taking into account the usage requirements of individuals with disabilities (Table 2). The quality and durability characteristics of the materials used in the fittings were examined, and potential safety risks that could arise during use were evaluated. The quality of the materials used for the fixtures is adequate, but their use has been misjudged in some areas. In particular, the variety of paving stones has limited accessibility standards. In order to document compliance with standards, the application in the field was analyzed with visuals, and it was examined how comfortably an able-bodied individual could move around the area as if they were a person with disabilities. 24   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Table 2: Akçaabat Millet Garden fixtures, stair and walkway widths Location in the area Location in the area Overall evaluation Stairs The staircases in Akçaabat Public Garden were evaluated for compliance with architectural standards. Measurements revealed that the staircase width is 450 cm, the step width is 32 cm, and the riser height is 17 cm. The data obtained shows that the stairs comply with relevant national and international accessibility and construction standards. These measurements were taken to determine whether the area is safe and functional for use by disabled individuals and general user groups. Trash Can The accessibility of the trash cans located in Akçaabat Millet Park was evaluated, and it was determined that the height of the trash cans is 83 cm. This finding indicates that the aforementioned fixture is positioned in accordance with the relevant accessibility and urban furniture standards. This reveals that waste management in the area has been planned and implemented in line with the specified ergonomic and functional criteria. EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC . . .   25 Benches Measurements taken of the seating units located in Akçaabat Millet Park revealed that the height of the benches from the ground is 45 cm and the height of the backrest is 75 cm. The data obtained shows that the seating elements in question have been designed in accordance with the relevant ergonomic and public facility standards. This reveals that the seating areas in the public garden have been planned with user comfort and accessibility in mind. Walking Paths Within the scope of the research, the width of the walking paths in Akçaabat Public Garden was measured as 152 cm. As a result of the evaluation, it was determined that this measurement complies with the relevant accessibility and pedestrian path standards. This finding shows that the walking paths were created with an approach that considers user needs and standard measurement criteria in the planning and design processes. The study observed that the structural elements comply with the “Universal Standards for Persons with Disabilities” guidelines, but partially fail to comply with walkways and ramp paths. A two-stage method was applied to assess the accessibility of Akçaabat Millet Park for persons with disabilities. In the first stage, a healthy individual visited the park under normal conditions and observed the general accessibility of the park. In the second stage, the same healthy individual used a wheelchair and moved around the park for 45 minutes as if they were a person with disabilities (Table 3). This stage allowed for 26   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 direct observation of the mobility of persons with disabilities in the park and the difficulties they may encounter. This observation using a wheelchair was critical in determining the extent to which accessibility standards were met in practice. This two-stage approach ensured a more comprehensive and objective assessment of the park’s accessibility level. In the first phase of the study, observations were made by a healthy individual regarding the general condition of the park, its accessibility features, and potential barriers. These observations formed the basis for evaluating whether the park’s existing structural and design arrangements were suitable for individuals with disabilities. In the second phase, the healthy individual experienced the park using a wheelchair. The potential difficulties experienced by individuals with disabilities provided detailed information about how easy or difficult access was with a wheelchair. The healthy individual answered questions after spending 45 minutes navigating the park area in a wheelchair. The answers to the questions; In Q1, it was noted that the buildings located in the public garden complex have significant accessibility deficiencies, creating serious problems for individuals with disabilities. This data serves as an important indicator of the need to improve accessibility standards and make adjustments appropriate to the needs of individuals with disabilities. Q2 Emphasizes that the doors at the building entrances do not comply with accessibility and universal design standards. The slopes of the ramps added to the project do not meet the standards. This situation highlights the importance of reassessing building designs to take into account the needs of individuals with disabilities and making the necessary improvements. Ensuring accessibility standards will increase the participation of individuals with disabilities in daily life activities and support their social integration. Q3 Revealed that the needs of individuals with disabilities were not sufficiently taken into account in the social spaces within the campus and that these spaces were not accessible to individuals with disabilities. Physical or structural barriers encountered by individuals with disabilities in social areas such as cafes and canteens can lead to their exclusion from social life and limit their social interaction. This indicates that accessibility improvements should be made on campus and arrangements should be developed to increase the participation of individuals with disabilities in social life. Q4 The inaccessibility of sports areas within the campus for individuals with disabilities negatively affects their physical health and social interactions, limiting their full and equal participation in social life. This situation highlights the need to bring sports areas into compliance with accessibility standards and to ensure that individuals with disabilities can easily access these areas. EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC . . .   27 Q5 Found that the seating and rest areas within the settlement comply with standards but have significant shortcomings in terms of usability. The difficulties encountered by individuals with disabilities in accessing these areas limit their participation in social life and their use of these spaces. Therefore, it is necessary to make the necessary arrangements to ensure that seating and recreation areas comply with accessibility standards and that individuals with disabilities can benefit equally from these areas. It was determined that the ramps used in Q6 to provide access to different functional areas within the campus were not designed or implemented in accordance with accessibility standards and universal design principles in some areas. The difficulties encountered by individuals with disabilities when using these ramps negatively affect their independent mobility and their ability to benefit from these areas. Accordingly, it is necessary to make the ramps compliant with accessibility standards and to implement the necessary arrangements to ensure safe and independent access for individuals with disabilities. In Q7, access to different activity areas in the field is partially provided. Individuals with disabilities are brought to activity areas where group activities can be held, especially with the help of a healthy individual. Since the flooring materials in the project make it difficult for individuals with disabilities to reach common activity areas, areas that do not allow passage need to be redesigned. Table 3: Application showing the accessibility of the park for individuals with disabilities Park entrance ramp The slope in the application work carried out in the public garden should be 6%. However, it was found that the slope in the application was above 6%. Disabled individuals accelerate too much when descending this ramp. There is also a car park at the bottom, and cars are constantly passing by, which is dangerous for disabled individuals. 28   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Park area bridge ramp The implementation study conducted in the public garden revealed that disabled individuals cannot cross this bridge on their own, but can do so with the help of another person. It was observed that the slope of this bridge ramp does not comply with universal standard measurements. Park area restaurant entrance ramp It was observed that the width and slope of the restaurant entrance ramp in the area comply with disability standards. Disabled individuals do not experience difficulty entering the restaurant. However, it is difficult for a healthy individual to enter this area without assistance. It was observed that the floor coverings applied to the area for entry are not suitable for wheelchairs. EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC . . .   29 Parking area upper entrance ramp The slope for this area in the landscaping project for the public garden should be 6%. However, the application work carried out in the area revealed that the slope is above 6%. Disabled individuals cannot use the area alone. They accelerate due to the high slope of the ramp. The slope needs to be reduced to below 6% more carefully. The road length must be extended to reduce the slope to below 6%. Looking at the project implementation in the area, it has been observed that due to the high slope, the road length differs from the road length drawn in the project and has been extended to meet the standard ramp slope by being revised. Parking area canopy ramp entrance The slope for this area must be 6%. However, the application work carried out in the area revealed that the hill exceeded 6%. Individuals with disabilities cannot use the location independently. The wooden bridge crossings within the area were not built according to universal standard measurements. 30   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Park area rear entrance ramp In the implementation study conducted in the public garden, it was observed that the width and slope of this ramp entrance comply with disability standards. However, additions were made to this area outside the project to try to meet universal standard measurements. Park area walking path During the application work carried out in the Millet Garden, it was observed that both the ground and the measurements of this path comply with the standards for disabled access. Disabled individuals can easily pass through here on their own. As seen in the measurements taken in the application work carried out in the Millet Garden and in the picture, disabled individuals and individuals passing by can easily pass through. EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC . . .   31 Park area paved walking path. It was observed that individuals with disabilities cannot pass through this path. The path is paved with stones and is uneven, making it difficult for individuals with disabilities to pass through with a wheelchair. Park area running/walking path In this area, it was observed that individuals with disabilities using wheelchairs were unable to pass through the path due to the placement of trash cans along the route. Although the width of the path complies with accessibility standards, the incorrect placement of fixtures has limited accessibility. 32   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Park area paved walking path. The cobblestone nature of the path in this area indicates that individuals with disabilities cannot move independently in this area using a wheelchair. Park area trash can The application study conducted in the public park showed that the height of the trash cans complies with disability standards. Individuals with disabilities can easily access the trash cans when disposing of waste. EVALUATION OF THE DESIGN AND FURNISHINGS OF AKÇAABAT PUBLIC . . .   39 Pirselimoğlu Batman, Z., Vardar, Ö. E., Ender Altay, E., (2024b). Ulaşım Akslarının Yeterliliğinin Bursa Görükle Mahallesi’nde Araştırılması. Bursa Uludağ Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 38. Pirselimoğlu Batman, Z., Altay, E., Şengül, S., (2024c). The relationship between walkability and landscape values in transportation. Examination of landscape values in urban area transportation axes. TEMA - Journal of Land Use Mobılıty And Envıronment, 17, 2. Sirel, A., Sirel, O. Ü. (2017), The “Universal Design” Approach in the Participation of Physically Disabled Individuals in Urban Life. IV. IBANESS Conference Series – Russe / Bulgaria, 564-575. Tuğluer, M. (2019). Evaluation of Urban Open-Green Spaces in Terms of Universal Design Standards: The Case of Isparta Historical Ayazmana Picnic Area. Research and Evaluations in the Field of Architecture (pp.119-131). Gece Akademi, Ankara, Turkey. Tuğluer, M., Ekren, E. (2022) Evaluation of Urban Open Green Spaces in the Context of Universal Standards for People with Disabilities: The Case of Kahramanmaraş Engelliler Sevgi Parkı, Turkish Journal of Forest Science, 6(2), 588-603. Tutal, O. (2018), University Campuses and Accessibility, International Journal of Research, 2018/6:15, 753-775. UNESCO. (2009). Inclusive education: The way of the future. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. World Health Organization. (2011). World report on disability. World Health Organization. Yavuz, E., Tüccar, E. (2023). Examining the level of hopelessness in individuals with disabilities from a social work perspective. ESAM Journal of Economic and Social Research, 4(2), 160-187. Yıldız, N. (2018). Evaluation of the Concept of Accessibility for Persons with Disabilities in the Context of Urban Ergonomics, ISAS 2018-Winter 2nd International Symposium on Innovative Approaches in Scientific Studies, SETSCI Conference Indexing System, Volume 3, 416-424. Yıldız, T. (2018). Accessibility Criteria in Urban Spaces: The Case of Turkey. Journal of City and Society, 6(1), 41–58. Zeyrek Çepehan, I., Güller, E. (2020). Accessible Design for Everyone in the Context of Universal Design. Journal of Social Policy Studies, 383-410. 41 CHAPTER III BIOMORPHIC PATTERNS DRIVEN URBAN LANDSCAPE FURNITURE DESIGN Derya SARI (Prof. Dr.) Artvin Çoruh University, e-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0001-9440-7343 1. Introduction Throughout human history, our efforts to understand the nature in which we live have required us to continue the process of learning to live in harmony with it, rather than seeking to control it. Designs inspired by nature can enable integration into the system without disrupting the cycles within the ecosystem (Gönen et al., 2023). Biomorphic design, an approach inspired by living forms, organic patterns, and ecological processes in nature, has long been discussed in the disciplines of art, architecture, and landscape architecture. The formal and structural patterns found in nature are reflected in designs at both aesthetic and functional levels, thereby creating spaces that are in harmony with nature and integrate the user into it (Jencks, 1995; Kellert et al., 2008). This design method has been frequently used in architectural design, both for form creation and to ensure the resulting structure is in harmony with nature and more sustainable. The living organisms that biomorphism deals with can be human, plant, or animal organisms, as well as living organisms that can only be seen under a microscope. The discipline of biomorphology consists of four subheadings in this context. These are: Anthropomorphism, Phytomorphism, Zoomorphism, and Micromorphism (Eser, 2021). The use of biomorphic forms in the design process is highlighted in three main stages: observation, abstraction, and reproduction. The morphological characteristics are analyzed by observing leaf veins, cellular structures, branch formations, or the fluid movements of water in nature. The formal data obtained from these natural patterns is abstracted and transferred to the spatial and 42   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 aesthetic conception of the design (Ball, 2009). This process is also related to fractal geometry and self-repeating patterns in nature. For example, the concept of fractals, introduced by Mandelbrot (1983), demonstrates that complex structures in nature can be reproduced mathematically and visually. In the context of landscape architecture and urban design, biomorphic forms provide not only visual richness but also ecological functionality. Sloped surfaces are effective in directing water, shaded structures in regulating microclimates, and the use of permeable materials in rainwater management (Beatley, 2011). In this respect, the biomorphic design approach aligns with the goals of sustainable urbanization. Examples from around the world demonstrate the practical value of this approach. Gaudí’s Park Güell in Barcelona is an early example of biomorphic design, characterized by its sinuous forms inspired by nature (Curtis, 1996). More recent examples include the “Supertree Grove” structures in Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay project, which combine biomorphic forms with both aesthetic and ecological functions (Newman, 2014). Similarly, Zaha Hadid’s fluid architectural approach demonstrates how organic forms found in nature can be reproduced on an urban scale (Kolarevic, 2003). In fact, it is believed that people will be happier and healthier thanks to biophilic designs, which have been adopted in the discipline of Landscape Architecture since ancient times, but are conceptually a new approach. (Karaşah, 2021) Biomorphic forms and patterns represent a multidimensional approach in design processes that emphasizes not only formal aesthetics but also integration with nature, sustainability, and user experience. In landscape architecture, this approach enables learning from natural ecosystems and reestablishing the human-nature relationship within space. This study examines the process of designing urban landscape furniture through the biomorphic design approach in landscape architecture undergraduate education. 2. Materials and Method Biomorphic design is an approach to creating designs inspired by living forms in nature, growth patterns, organic patterns, and ecological processes. The term “biomorphism” refers specifically to non-geometric, curved, organic, fluid, and life-like forms in the fields of art, architecture, and design. In landscape architecture, biomorphic forms are not only an aesthetic approach but also a method used to develop designs that are compatible with natural systems, sustainable, and establish a connection between the user and nature. BIOMORPHIC PATTERNS DRIVEN URBAN LANDSCAPE FURNITURE DESIGN   43 Biomorphic designs, also referred to as organic from an architectural perspective, are a product of biophilic design and involve forms and patterns inspired by nature (Agkathidis, 2017). Biomorphic forms and patterns are a design parameter used within the scope of natural analogues (similarities), which are one of the categories of biophilic design. Natural analogues address the organic, inanimate, and indirect associations of nature. This parameter aims to achieve creative results that mimic natural elements by reflecting materials, colors, shapes, patterns, and designs found in nature in the built environment, ranging from buildings to works of art, urban furniture, and various other designs (Tezgör et al., 2022). This study was developed based on the “Natural Analogues” category, one of the 14 biophilic design parameters identified in the literature (Kellert and Calabrese, 2015; Ghaziani et al., 2021). Natural Analogues encompasses three biophilic design parameters (Table 1) (Ertin Tezgör and Karakaya Aytin, 2022). Table 1: Natural Analogs and Design Parameters Category Design parameter Definition Natural Analogues (Similarities) Biomorphic forms and patterns It expresses the forms, patterns, and textures found in nature. It involves arrangements that symbolize nature, utilizing forms and patterns reminiscent of natural elements. Tangible connections with nature It refers to materials and elements from nature that reflect the local ecology or geology with minimal intervention, creating a distinct sense of place. Complexity and order It is the perception of sensory information within the natural hierarchy. Patterns are forms, shapes, and structures that repeat themselves, albeit with minor differences in each instance; they are the concrete manifestations of nature’s fundamental operating principles. The concept of pattern has been assigned different meanings based on the diversity of its characteristics. Therefore, attempts have been made to define the concept of “pattern” using various expressions (Aslan, 2011; Düzenli et al., 2018). To establish a creative system, it is necessary to relate things to each other and to construct based on this relationship. For design students, drawing inspiration from nature and imitating patterns means ready-made solutions for an infinite variety of combinations of 44   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 form, color, texture, and material, both formally and functionally. Therefore, it is essential to equip students with the ability to design with patterns in landscape architecture education (Düzenli et al., 2018). Biomorphic forms and patterns enable designers to reinterpret objects perceived in nature through a different design approach by imitating forms derived from nature using the analogy method. There is a wealth of literature evaluating some designs produced using the biomorphic approach and student work produced in licensing courses (e.g., Tarakci Eren et al., 2018; Ertin Tezgör and Karakaya Aytin, 2022; Jović and Mitić, 2020; Karaşah and Tarakcı Eren, 2024). The material for this study consists of urban landscape furniture designed by fourth-year students in the Landscape Architecture Department of the Faculty of Art and Design at Artvin Çoruh University, as part of their “Design with Natural Elements” course. During the spring 2024 semester, students were asked to design landscape furniture for use in urban spaces using a biomorphic design approach. The design process began with a research and inspiration phase, followed by two-dimensional drawings of the biomorphic patterns of the selected examples. In the final stage of the design, three-dimensional images of the design were created using digital software (AutoCAD, SketchUp, Lumion, and Photoshop) commonly used by undergraduate students. 3. Findings As part of the Design with Natural Elements course, students were asked to prepare a final assignment. The approach of drawing inspiration from biomorphic patterns enabled students to explore a wide range of options. Students researched all types of organic forms according to their areas of interest and ultimately focused on one example, abstracting the pattern model of their chosen example. After weeks of studio work, they successfully transformed the abstract model into a realistic urban landscape feature. This section details eight student projects. 3.1.Openlibraryandshadefurnituredesign A snail shell is a shell that grows in a spiral shape over time. The snail’s shell is actually an exoskeleton, a part that protects the body from the outside. The design was inspired by the shell tissue that encompasses the entire body and the shape formed by its oscillating movement over time. The skeleton of the design was determined based on the lines formed by this rotational movement. The structural construction and covering section are made of wood and BIOMORPHIC PATTERNS DRIVEN URBAN LANDSCAPE FURNITURE DESIGN   45 shatterproof glass. A library has been designed inside the covering system. The library facilitates social communication among users, adds identity to the space, defines the space, and offers both aesthetic and functional use. This project has created a space where people can escape their daily work, browse and read books, and be shielded from the sun (Table 2). Table 2: Open library and shade furniture design Concept Inspired example Pattern model Concept: Time spiral Designer: Funda Demircan Design Product 3.2.Walkwayandshadestructuredesign Based on the concept of the golden ratio, the spiral aloe plant (Aloe polyphylla) was selected as an example. Native to the mountains of South Africa and rare, this plant is quite popular due to its striking spiral structure. The leaves 46   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 are typically arranged in five different spiral patterns, either to the left or right. It has been observed that the leaves have an angular structure and are arranged in a spiral rosette. This plant was selected for the study due to its leaf form, and a two-dimensional pattern model was drawn. When the pattern model was converted into a three-dimensional form, an arrangement based on the golden ratio was designed. The spiral aloe plant draws the eyes towards the center due to the spiral arrangement of its leaves, making it easier to notice the focal point at the center. Spirals create a sense of movement. This can evoke a feeling of journey or flow. As the viewer’s eyes move along the spiral, the continuity and fluidity of this movement are emphasized. Based on this idea, an urban plastic furniture design with a passage function was created. Table 3: Walkway and shade structure design Concept Inspired example Pattern model Concept: Golden ratio Designer: Derya Ak Design Product BIOMORPHIC PATTERNS DRIVEN URBAN LANDSCAPE FURNITURE DESIGN   47 3.3.Seatinggroupdesign Shaped by the power of nature and the effects of time, metamorphic rocks captivate with their unique beauty and exceptional durability. Inspired by these natural wonders, the seating group offers both an aesthetic and functional design approach. The strip-shaped columns were chosen as a biomorphic form. In the work titled “Resting in the Fabric of Nature,” a periodic pattern was created by placing columns of varying sizes side by side. The volumetric voids between the model’s elements are designed to allow natural light to filter through, creating shadows. The panels on the upper part of the structure are designed to convert light into energy, enabling the production of advertising panels and their own LED lighting. The natural colors and patterns of metamorphic rocks have been a significant source of inspiration for the design of the seating group. Each piece is adorned with these unique patterns taken from nature, adding a natural and sophisticated touch to living spaces. Designed with inspiration from the strength of natural rock, the seating group offers high comfort without compromising on durability. As a product of natural materials and sustainable design, it has an environmentally friendly approach. Table 4: Seating group design Concept Inspired example Pattern model Concept: Timeless elegance Designer: Melike Kaycı Design Product 48   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 3.4.Coverandshadingstructuredesign The design was inspired by the microscopic appearance of the starch contained in the potato plant (Solanum tuberosum). The aim was to produce a durable and flexible urban furnishing element by mimicking the light yet strong natural structural properties of potato cell membranes. When the starch contained in the potato plant is examined under a microscope, it can be seen that its cells have an angular structure. A three-dimensional model called Bioinformatics-sequence was designed based on this pattern model. A dynamic effect was achieved in the product that resulted from aligning sequences in different directions and sizes. Furthermore, the resulting design product, in terms of its form, evokes a regular, airy, and appealing effect in users in terms of aesthetics, functionality, and utility. Table 5: Cover and shading structure design Concept Inspired example Pattern model Concept: Bioinformatics-sequence Designer: Gökhan Kurt Design Product 3.5.Lightingfurnituredesign The net-like veins on the leaf surface have been selected as a biomorphic form. In the work titled “The Dance of Light,” a lighting fixture has been designed based on the net-like forms on the leaf surface. The random formations that come together in the net-like veins depict the rays emitted by a light source. The lighting fixture, which prioritizes aesthetics with its organic form, aims to differentiate the user experience by bringing a different breath to the cityscape. Inspired by nature, the lighting fixture provides a sustainable solution as it works BIOMORPHIC PATTERNS DRIVEN URBAN LANDSCAPE FURNITURE DESIGN   55 Tarakçı Eren, E., Düzenli, T., Akyol, D. (2018). Attitudes of landscape architecture students towards biomorphic and parametric design approaches in environmental Design. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 8(1), 126-143. Tezgör, E., Gözde, D., Karakaya Aytin, B.. (2022). Biyomorfik form ve örüntülerden esinlenen tasarımlar üzerine bir stüdyo deneyimi. Sanat Eğitimi Dergisi, 10/1 s. 33–45. doi: 10.7816/sed-10-01-03 Tırnakçı, A. (2020) Kentsel peyzaj tasarımı açısından tarıhı Kayserı kent meydanının (Cumhurıyet Meydanının) ırdelenmesı, Turkish Journal of Forest Science, 4(2), 314-332. Tırnakçı, A., Aklıbaşında, M. (2018). Tarihi çevrelerde kentsel peyzaj tasarım ilkelerinin KayseriMimar Sinan Parkı (Gevher Nesibe Medresesi) örneğinde incelenmesi. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 34(3), 58-73. 57 CHAPTER IV THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN Merve TANFER1 & Ş.Doğanay YENER2 1(Lecturer) Yalova University, e-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-0966-8368 2(Assoc. Prof. Dr.) Istanbul UniversityCerrahpasa, e-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-9229-3941 1. Introduction Increasing urbanisation on a global scale, climate change, the destruction of natural habitats, and the loss of biodiversity are causing a weakening of ecosystem functions. This situation highlights the importance of sustainability-focused approaches in landscape design (Altan, 2000; Çay, 2010). Landscape design is an interdisciplinary process that aims to produce ecological, aesthetic, and functional values by bringing together natural and cultural elements. Today, the rapid depletion of natural resources makes sustainability principles even more important in landscape design (Sarı and Karaşah, 2018). In landscape design, plant material is a fundamental element in maintaining ecological balance and creating aesthetic value. Landscape design is a discipline situated at the intersection of nature and art. Plants are both the formal and environmental building blocks of this discipline. However, the intensive use of exotic species in modern urban landscapes has led to the loss of natural landscape character and local aesthetics (Zencirkıran et al., 2024). This situation has necessitated a reassessment of the aesthetic value of native plants. Native plants, which are species that have developed in harmony with the climate, soil, 58   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 and geographical characteristics of their region, create both a sense of naturalness and uniqueness (Çimen and Ulus, 2020; Avşar and Çelik, 2024). These plants are a crucial component of sustainable design, as they are well-suited to their geographical location and support local ecological networks. In this context, native plant species are gaining importance both for their support of ecosystem services and for their natural aesthetic contributions (Yazgan et al., 2005). The use of native plants has become a fundamental component of sustainable landscaping practices. Native plants reduce irrigation, fertilisation, and maintenance requirements thanks to their natural adaptation to their ecosystems, and also support ecological functions by creating natural habitats for fauna (Yener and Seyidoğlu Akdeniz, 2019). In addition, they offer visual richness through seasonal changes in color and texture, which enhances the aesthetic perspective and reflects local cultural identity in the space. Turkey is home to approximately 12,000 plant taxa due to its location at the intersection of three different floristic regions (European-Siberian, Mediterranean, and Iranian-Turanian), of which more than 3,000 are endemic species (Özhatay et al., 2005; Güner et al., 2012). This rich biological diversity offers a wide range of species that can be used in landscape design (Yener and Seyidoğlu Akdeniz, 2020). However, the current preference for exotic species in landscape applications leads to both the disruption of ecological balance and the weakening of cultural landscape identity (Çoban et al., 2020). Although our country is among those experiencing water shortages, it is observed that applications prioritising aesthetic features are prevalent in landscape design today. This study aims to reveal the ecological and aesthetic potential of native plant species used in landscape design and to highlight their importance in sustainable landscape design. Native plants play a vital role in urban landscape design due to their ecological benefits (supporting biodiversity, carbon storage, erosion control) and aesthetic values (flowering, leaf colouration, form and texture diversity) in sustainable landscape design. These plants have great potential for integrating sustainability and aesthetic values into landscape design. In this context, the study is based on a qualitative literature review. National and international academic articles, reports, and books on the subject were examined, and studies addressing the ecological and aesthetic dimensions of native plants were evaluated. Sources related to Turkey’s flora were given priority. The data were classified under two main categories, ‘ecological potential’ and ‘aesthetic potential,’ and the findings were evaluated according to these themes. THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   59 2. Results Native plants are species that have developed in ecological balance by adapting to the climate and soil conditions of the geography they have inhabited for many years. These plants are fundamental elements that preserve biological diversity, soil quality, the water cycle, and the overall ecological balance of their ecosystems. With the increase in anthropogenic activities, environmental problems such as habitat loss, species extinction, and a decline in biological diversity have emerged (Peterson et al., 2012). In this context, the ecological potential of native plants has gained importance not only for their aesthetic value but also for their functions in supporting ecosystem integrity. The use of these plants in landscape design, habitat restoration, and climate change adaptation strategies is becoming increasingly important. This study examines the ecological potential of native plants in the context of ecosystem services, environmental adaptation capabilities, and sustainability. 2.1.TheEcologicalPotentialofNativePlants The ecological potential of native plants is evident through their multifaceted ecosystem services (Url-1; Tartaglia and Aronson, 2024; Ulus et al., 2025). Regulatory Services • Soil protection: They prevent erosion thanks to their deep root systems. • Water conservation: Native plants conserve water with low irrigation requirements, facilitating water infiltration into the soil and regulating the microclimate. • Carbon storage: They reduce the effects of climate change by storing atmospheric carbon dioxide in their biomass. • Creation of ecological corridors: The use of native plants strengthens ecological connectivity by creating passageways for fauna. Supporting Services • Supporting biodiversity: Native species maintain the ecosystem’s functioning by establishing symbiotic relationships with region-specific insects, birds, and microorganisms (Aslan and Uslu, 2021). 60   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Cultural Services • Enhances the visual quality of the native landscape, adding local identity and aesthetic value. The use of native plants in landscape planning offers a range of multifaceted ecological benefits. Thanks to their genetic diversity, they can demonstrate resistance to environmental stress factors. They possess high adaptability in challenging conditions such as drought, temperature fluctuations, and soil salinity (Sukkop, 2004). Therefore, the use of native plants stands out as a sustainable approach in climate change adaptation strategies. In this context, sustainable landscape design should be approached not only with aesthetic concerns but also as a system that supports ecological processes and is self-renewing. These plants are also crucial for the continuity of socio-ecological systems. The use of native plants in sustainable landscape design reduces maintenance needs, water consumption, and chemical input use (Tırnakçı and Aklıbaşında, 2023). Furthermore, restoration efforts using native plants in degraded habitats enable the recovery of ecosystem functions. Turkey’s rich flora enables the use of native plants with high ecological potential in landscape design. The use of these species provides numerous ecosystem services, including water conservation, support for biodiversity, and adaptation to climate change. Therefore, the more widespread use of native plants in landscape architecture and ecological planning processes is a fundamental step towards achieving sustainable urbanisation goals. Native plants play an indispensable role in the sustainable management of ecosystems. Their ecological potential ensures the continuity of fundamental environmental processes such as the conservation of biological diversity, the balancing of soil and water resources, and the support of the carbon cycle. For this reason, the use of native plant species should be considered a strategic priority in both landscape architecture and environmental planning studies. The decision adopted in Turkey, ‘Procedures and Principles Regarding Arid Landscape Applications’ (T.C. Resmî Gazete, 18.10.2025, Karar Sayısı: 10502), envisages the protection of natural habitats and the evaluation of native plant species, along with their ecosystem functions. Such decisions can be considered administrative tools that strengthen the ecological foundations of sustainable landscape design. The protection status and usage restrictions specified in the decision are crucial in supporting the environmental adaptation of native species. THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   61 2.2.TheAestheticPotentialofNativePlants Native plants play a crucial role in landscape design, not only due to their ecological potential but also because of their aesthetic qualities. Through aesthetic elements such as colour, texture, form, and seasonal change, native plants enhance environmental identity and visual quality. Aesthetic potential refers to the visual value created by an element in terms of sensory perception, emotional impact, and spatial integrity. The aesthetic characteristics of plants comprise elements such as colour (flower, leaf, and stem tones), texture (roughness and leaf density), form (vertical, horizontal, and spherical shapes), and seasonal variability (Walker, 1991; Leszczynski, 1999; Nelson, 2004; Robinson, 2004). According to the ecological aesthetic understanding, the beauty of a landscape arises not only from visual forms but also from the harmonious functioning of ecosystem processes (Leszczynski, 1999). Therefore, the aesthetic potential of native plants is directly related to the principles of balance, diversity, and continuity inherent in nature. This approach necessitates planning policies that support not only ecological functions but also the preservation of natural aesthetics. Indeed, the decision titled ‘Procedures and Principles Regarding Xeriscape Applications’ (T.C. Resmî Gazete, 18.10.2025, Karar Sayısı: 10502) requires the preservation of the area’s unique landscape character, the protection of the natural forms of native plants, and the restriction of artificial planting practices. In this respect, the decision is an exemplary policy that aims to simultaneously protect aesthetic value and ecological integrity. 2.2.1.ColourandSeasonality Native plants offer different colour compositions with seasonal changes. For example, Acer campestre (field maple), one of our country’s native woody plants, turns yellow in autumn, creating visual dynamism. Papaver rhoeas (corn poppy), one of our country’s native herbaceous plant species, brings vitality to natural areas in spring with its red flowers. This temporary and variable aesthetic reflects the cyclical nature of nature, establishing an emotional connection with the user (Robinson, 2004). 2.2.2.Texture The leaf structure, surface characteristics and stem shapes of plants create texture diversity in the space. Needle-leaved plants such as Juniperus sabina 62   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 create a fine-textured ground cover, while broad-leaved species such as Quercus robur create a strong visual mass effect. This diversity determines the depth perception and visual rhythm of the space (Robinson, 2004). 2.2.3.Form The irregular growth patterns of native plants support a visual concept known as the ‘wild aesthetic’ in landscaping. This approach incorporates nature’s random order into the design (Robinson, 2004). In modern cities, where artificial order dominates the environment, this approach stands out as an expression of naturalness and originality. The flora of Turkey is quite rich in terms of many native plant species that carry aesthetic value. A large proportion of these species, found in different climate zones, have the potential to create visual diversity and ecological harmony in landscape designs. These species are suitable examples of sustainable aesthetic approaches due to both their low maintenance requirements and the formal richness they offer (Diekelmann and Schuster, 2002). The aesthetic value of native plants should be evaluated not only as a visual element but as an aesthetic integrated with ecological processes (Martinson, 2020). The development of these plants in harmony with nature creates both a visual and ecological balance in the landscape. Thus, aesthetic value carries a meaning that represents the continuity of nature, not just formal beauty. The aesthetic potential of native plants is based on a holistic beauty created by naturalness, seasonal change, and ecological harmony, beyond their formal characteristics. The use of these plants in landscape design both preserves local identity and ensures the continuity of an aesthetic language belonging to nature. In the future, the aesthetic value of native plants must be considered a primary design criterion in sustainable urbanisation and ecological landscape approaches. The next subsection evaluates this aesthetic potential in the context of colour, form and seasonality. 2.3.TheUseofNativePlantsinLandscapeDesign Turkey possesses a rich flora due to its location within three distinct plant geography regions (European-Siberian, Mediterranean, and Iranian-Turanian) (Davis, 1965–1985; Davis et al., 1988). This diversity allows for the use of numerous native species with high ecological potential in landscape design. THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   63 2.3.1.ExampleSpeciesforTerrestrialClimate • Quercus cerris (Turkish oak): Effective in erosion control with its deep roots; ideal for rural landscapes with low water requirements. • Juniperus oxycedrus (Prickly juniper): Thrives in stony, calcareous soils; resistant to drought and low temperatures. • Pistacia terebinthus (Mastic tree): Grows on dry slopes, effective in soil stabilisation. 2.3.2.ExampleSpeciesfortheMediterraneanClimate • Laurus nobilis (Bay laurel): With its aromatic leaves and aesthetic form, it has both ecological and visual value. • Phillyrea latifolia (White broom): Drought-resistant; provides food and shelter for birds. • Arbutus unedo (strawberry tree): An important source for pollinating insects during its flowering and fruiting periods. 2.3.3.ExampleSpeciesfortheBlackSeaClimate • Rhododendron ponticum (Pontic rhododendron): Naturally occurs in acidic and moist soils, has an erosion-preventing effect. • Fagus orientalis (Eastern beech): Has a high carbon storage capacity; plays an important role in moist forest ecosystems. • Ilex aquifolium (Holly): Valuable for both wildlife and landscape aesthetics. The use of these species in landscape design not only enhances ecological functionality but also preserves the unique identity of cultural landscapes. Native woody plants support ecosystem services and add aesthetic value to designs by providing seasonal visual diversity. For example, Cercis siliquastrum creates a strong visual impact aesthetically with its dense flowering in spring, while also providing an important source of pollen for bees. Similarly, Liquidambar orientalis, with its endemic nature and high carbon storage capacity, provides remarkable visual richness in the landscape with its red-orange colouration in autumn (Erken et al., 2022). The ecological and aesthetic potential offered by native woody species makes them an indispensable component of sustainable landscape design. 64   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Information on the functions and uses of some woody (Table 1) and herbaceous (Table 2) native plant species in landscape design is summarised in the tables below. Table 1: The ecological and aesthetic potential of some of our native woody plants Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Acer campestre Tolerant to air pollution; stabilizes soil. White spring flowers; yellow-orange autumn foliage. Large parks, street tree plantings Arbutus unedo Provides fruit for birds; tolerant to drought conditions. Red berries and white flowers create visual diversity. Natural gardens, sloped areas Cercis siliquastrum Provides pollen source for bees; contributes to erosion control. Creates visual impact with purple-pink blossoms. Parks, gardens, urban squares Cornus mas Fruit source for wildlife. Yellow spring flowers and red fruits add seasonal color. Hedges, roadside plantings Cotinus coggygria Tolerant to dry, rocky soils; contributes to erosion control. Feathery pinkish inflorescences create unique visual effect. Parks, rock gardens Crataegus monogyna Provides fruit for birds. White blossoms and red berries add strong color contrast. Parks, roadside landscapes Fraxinus ornus Tolerant to urban conditions; functions as a windbreak. Creamy white, fragrant flowers create a soft aesthetic. Used as park or street tree Laurus nobilis Adapted to Mediterranean climate; droughttolerant. Glossy foliage and aromatic leaves. Parks and gardens Lavandula angustifolia Drought-resistant; reduces soil erosion; important for pollinators. Violet-blue aromatic flowers enhance sensory experience. Aromatic gardens, hedges, pedestrian zones Liquidambar orientalis Endemic species; high carbon storage capacity. Autumn foliage with vivid red-orange coloration. Large parks THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   71 Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Galanthus nivalis Suitable for shade and moist areas; naturalised in subforest habitats. White-flowered; contrasting with early spring flowering. Rock garden, under trees, natural meadow arrangements. Galanthus plicatus subsp. byzantinus Grows naturally in shady, moist and stony forest understoreys. White flowers provide aesthetic contrast in early spring. Rock garden, between lawns, borders and natural meadow arrangements. Geranium purpureum Grows in arid and stony areas. Purple flowers; natural looking. Rock garden, roadside, between natural grass. Geranium sp. Part shade, part sun; covers the soil quickly. Pink, purple, white flowers. Rock garden, under trees, flower border. Geranium sylvaticum Resistant to humid environments and shade; effective in soil stabilisation. Purple-lilac flowers; creates a soft texture effect. Rain garden bottom areas, grass transition belts. Geranium tuberosum subsp. tuberosum Resistant to disturbed and stony areas; fast spreading. Pink-purple flowers; compact form. Pots, borders, hanging pots and window boxes. Geum coccineum Grows in moist and shady forest interiors. Remarkable with orange-red flowers. Shade garden, ground cover, border plant. Glaucium flavum Suitable for arid, poor, coastal dunes and gravelly soils; resistant to salinity. Yellow tulip-like flowers; contrasting effect with greyishgreen foliage. Border, ground cover, shoreline plant; used in low maintenance areas. Glaucium grandiflorum subsp. refractum Grows in steppe habitats, sun-loving. Yellow-orange flowers contrast with grey-green foliage. Rock garden, parterre, clumping use. Helianthemum nummularium Drought resistant; thrives in stony soils. Yellow, pink, red, white flowers. Rock garden, border, dryland. Helichrysum arenarium subsp. Aucheri Hardy in dry, calcareous or sandy soils. Silvery-green leaves, golden yellow flowers. Rock garden, slope, dried flower arrangements. Helichrysum stoechas Resistant to drought and cold to -10 °C; thrives in sandy to rocky soils. Grey-silver foliage, long lasting yellow flowers; aromatic scent. Rock garden, ground cover, geometric designs, dried flower material. 72   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Helleborus orientalis Suitable for part shade; requires soil rich in organic matter. Cream-pink flowers; long flowering period. Winter garden, under trees, shady area. Hemerocallis fulva Resistant to variable water levels; prevents erosion. Seasonal visual accent with orange flowers. Rain garden middle zone, refuges and park areas. Hesperis matronalis Grows in semi-moist, calcareous soils; shade tolerance is high. Fragrance with purple-white flowers. Shady refuge, under road areas. Hyacinthella micrantha Grows in calcareous stony areas. Light blue flowers; decorative in early spring. Rock garden, slope, pot and flower parterre. Iberis sempervirens Likes calcareous, well drained soils. Decorative in early spring with white flowers. Rock garden, border, small area. Inula ensifolia Drought and wind resistant; stabilises the soil. Hard-leaved form with yellow flowers. Slope, roadside, open park areas. Inula heterolepis Grows in arid, permeable, stony areas; sun-loving. Small yellow flowers; provides colour contrast with grey foliage. Ground cover, rock garden, providing optical width in small areas. Inula salicina Thrives in moist habitats. Effective in flower parterres with intense yellow flowers. Around ornamental ponds, lawn edges. Iris germanica Resistant to arid, stony areas; low maintenance. Vertical accent plant with purple, blue or white flowers. Border, rock garden, flower partner, arrangement plant. Iris pseudacorus Water tolerant; grows naturally along stream banks and wet areas. Yellow flowered; accent effect with its large form. Water edge, pond surroundings, wet ground arrangements. Juncus effusus High tolerance to flooding; increases infiltration with its roots. Provides linear aesthetics with its elongated form. Rain garden centre and lower ground layer. THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   73 Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Leucanthemum vulgare Thrives in dry to medium moist soils; low maintenance. Provides simple aesthetic accent with its white flowers. Rain garden edge plantings, outdoor decorations. Leucojum aestivum Grows in wet meadows and stream banks; prefers moist soils. White bell-shaped flowers; elegant form. Waterside, shady gardens, rock garden and flower beds. Lilium martagon Grows in cool, moist woodlands. Pink-purple flowers; elegant form. Forest walkways, shade garden. Limonium graecum Grows in saline, sandy-calcareous coastal soils; low maintenance. Attractive with lilaccoloured flowers; sparsely textured. Coastal landscapes, natural planting, beebutterfly attractive species; wildlife supported areas. Linaria genistifolia Inhabits arid, stony slopes; tolerant of salinity. Yellow flowers; longstemmed decorative form. Arid slopes, roadsides, stone wall gaps. Liriope spicata Shade and part shade tolerant. Lilac-white flowers; grass-like form. Under trees, lawn alternative, small area. Lupinus varius Fixes nitrogen; grows well in acidic, slightly moist soils; sunloving. High visual accent with purple-blue flowers; foliage also decorative. Seasonal flower parterres, flower boxes, sunny slopes. Lychnis flos-cuculi Resistant to permanently moist soils; high water absorption capacity. Pink flowers, light textural effect. Rain garden lower levels, edge areas close to water. Lysimachia nummularia Fast spreading in moist, shady areas. Yellow flowered; dense ground cover. Water edge, shade area, erosion control. Lythrum salicaria Long flowering period in areas of high humidity. Vertical inflorescences in shades of purple. Rain garden water collection area, biological pond edges. Matthiola tricuspidata Resistant to arid and saline coastal conditions; likes rocky and stony ground. Lavender-coloured, fragrant flowers. Rock garden, geometric designs, pot and parterre plant. 74   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Medicago sativa Nitrogen fixing; moderately drought tolerant. Green-purple flowers; forms dense cover. Erosion control, median cover. Mentha aquatica Lives in permanently wet soils; improves water quality. Provides sensory impact with aromatic fragrance and purple flowers. Rain garden pool section, water edge bands. Mentha pulegium Distributed in forest and humid areas. Fine textured form with bright blue flowers. Rock garden, shady areas, lawn. Muscari armeniacum Likes moist, clayey soils; rhizomatous spreading habit. Lilac flowers; attracts wildlife with aromatic scent. Ground cover, semishade areas; but needs limitation as it is spreading. Muscari comosum Stony, calcareous areas; semi-shade tolerant. Intense colour effect with purple-blue flowers. Rock garden, pot, refuge, flower border. Muscari neglectum Suitable for calcareous and permeable soils; drought resistant. Fine texture effect with purple-blue flowers. Rock garden, lawn, border. Myosotis sp. Rocky limestone slopes; tolerant to part shade. Purple-flowered; compact form. Rock garden, pot, water bank, bulb garden. Narcissus tazetta subsp. aureus Thrives in moist soils. Blue, pink, white flowers; delicate appearance. Borders, flower beds, spring compositions. Nepeta sp. Suitable for semimoist, sunny habitats; blooms in early spring. Yellow flowers; intense colour and fragrance effect. Border, median, seasonal flower partner. Onobrychis hypargyrea Drought resistant; effective in soil stabilisation. Purple-blue flowers, aromatic leaves. Rock garden, roadside, median. Origanum sipyleum Grows on limestone slopes. Elegant appearance with white-pink veined flowers. Slopes, roadsides, lawns. THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   75 Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Ornithogalum nutans Grows in calcareous, dry and sunny areas. Aromatic species with whitish-purple flowers. Rock garden, slope, flower partner; in groups or rows. Phalaris arundinacea Naturalised on field edges and pastures. Provides simple aesthetics with whitegreen striped flowers. Rock garden, flower beds, water edge planting. Phlomis armeniaca High water storage and filtration capacity; prevents erosion. Green-white variegated leaves. Rain garden middle zone, bioswale areas. Phlomis tuberosa Resistant to dry, stony and steppe conditions. Vertical form with yellow flowers. In groups in rock garden, pot, lawn areas. Phlox subulata Thrives in arid and stony areas. Purple flowers; aromatic scent. Slope, refuge, stony area planting. Primula vulgaris subsp. sibthorpii Drought and frost resistant. Pink-purple flowers; dense cover. Rock garden, border, small area. Prometheum sempervivoides Suitable for semishade, moist habitats. Yellow-flowered; early spring effect. Under trees, pots, border arrangements. Ranunculus ficaria subsp. ficariiformis Inhabits rocky slopes and rubble. Succulent species with dark red flowers and fleshy leaves. Rock garden, waterfront, gravel garden. Salvia splendens Grows well in moist and shady soils. Yellow-flowered; remarkable with glossy surface flowers. Shade area, lawn edge, spring cover. Saponaria officinalis Grows in moderately moist soils; pollinator attractive. High colour contrast with red flowers. Rain garden upper zones, flower parterres. Saponaria prostrata subsp. prostrata Hardy in arid, stony and alkaline soils. Elegant appearance with pink flowers. Slope and road edges, border plant. Scilla bifolia Spontaneously grows on degraded areas. Compact spreading form with pink flowers. Rock garden, slope, pot, ground cover. Scorzonera tomentosa Suitable for gypsiferous, serpentine hill slopes. Silvery-green leaves, large flower heads. Rock garden, slope plant, areas with gravel surfaces. 76   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Sedum acre Stores water in leaves; resistant to extreme heat and drought. Low form with yellow flowers. Arid slope, stone surface, roof planting. Sedum album High resistance to salinity and heat; requires little maintenance. White flowers, dense texture. Slope slope, stone garden, erosion control. Sedum spectabile Drought tolerant; low maintenance; stores water in leaves. Pink flower heads; allseason colour effect. Arid rain garden margins, rooftop rain gardens. Sedum sp. Drought and heat tolerant; water storage. Yellow, pink, red flowers; fleshy leaves. Rock garden, slope, roof garden. Sempervivium sp. Inhabits arid, sunny and stony areas. Fleshy leaf rosette; green-purple tones. Rock garden, stone wall, pot. Serapias cordigera Thrives in partial shade; widespread in forest edge habitat. Dark red-purple flowers; exotic form. Natural forest understorey, thematic orchid garden. Sternbergia colchiciflora Drought tolerant; grows on stony slopes. Bright yellow flowers; provides colour continuity with autumn flowering. Rock garden, dryland, roadside. Sternbergia lutea Resistant to arid areas and partial shade. Blooms in autumn with intense yellow flowers. Bed, border, rock garden and dry area arrangements. Tanacetum parthenium Resistant to cold and wind; natural dispersal. Long lasting effect with white daisy flowers. Roadside, arid refuges. Teucrium chamaedrys Suitable for calcareous, arid soils; tolerates full sun or part shade. Pink-purple flowers contrast with dark green foliage; dense texture. Low hedge, roadside, border plant, rock garden; dense planting recommended. Teucrium polium Lives in arid, stony and poor soils; very low maintenance. Whitish grey-green leaves, flowering throughout summer; striking for its contrasting colour. Rock garden, dryland, flower partner, border element; ideal for arid landscapes. THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   77 Plant Latin Name Ecological Potential Aesthetic Potential Landscape Design Applications Thymus serpyllum Hardy in arid and stony areas; aromatic. Lilac-purple flowers; low cover. Slopes, roadsides, naturalised areas. Valeriana officinalis Grows well in moist, organic matter-rich soils. Pale pink flowers; fragrant inflorescences. Moist rain garden areas, shady substrates. Verbascum olympicum Hardy in arid and stony soils; tolerant of soil salinisation. Yellow flowers; high vertical form. Sloping berm, accent plant, natural landscape. Verbena officinalis Hardy in sunny, permeable soils; supports nitrogen accumulation. It provides a fine textured accent with its purple flowers. Rain garden slope area, roadsides. Vicia cracca Fixes nitrogen; coldresistant; provides soil stabilisation. Purple-blue drooping flowers. Erosion control, sloping verges and road edges. Vinca minor Shade and partial shade tolerant; spreading habit. Blue-lavender coloured flowers. Tree base, erosion control, edging. Viola odorata Suitable for shady and damp habitats. It has a high aesthetic value with its purple flowers. Shady gardens, under trees, by the water’s edge. Xeranthemum annuum It thrives in arid, steppe and sandy areas. It is valued as a dried flower for its pink blossoms. Seasonal parterre, rock garden, dry landscape designs. The 125 herbaceous plant species evaluated in this study consist of taxa that grow naturally in different ecological conditions in Turkey and stand out in landscape design in terms of ecological resilience, aesthetic value and functional diversity. The data obtained reveal that these species can be used in landscape areas with climatic and edaphic diversity thanks to their broad adaptation capabilities. When evaluated in terms of ecological resilience, most species can adapt to arid, permeable or stony soil conditions. Achillea millefolium, Alkanna tinctoria and Alyssum murale are species that can be successfully used on roadsides, sloping terrain and dry gardens thanks to their high tolerance to drought and low temperatures. Taxa such as Allium ampeloprasum, Allium neapolitanum, 78   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 and Allium scorodoprasum, as species that are resistant to cold climates and thrive in permeable soils, provide both ecological and visual emphasis in plant compositions (Deniz and Şirin, 2005; Korkmaz and Şirin, 2018). Among the species adapted to moist habitats are Ajuga reptans, Cardamine pratensis, and Carex pendula. These plants offer advantages in terms of erosion control and surface coverage in shady and moist environments. Early-flowering species such as Anemone blanda and Anemone nemorosa contribute to filling phenological gaps by creating visual continuity during seasonal transition periods (Akdeniz and Yener, 2013). Among species with high coastal and salt tolerance, Armeria maritima and Aptenia cordiflora stand out. These taxa are preferred in coastal landscapes and open space designs due to their resistance to salinity and wind stress. Species such as Artemisia absinthium and Asphodeline lutea are suitable for naturalistic landscape designs in arid–semi-arid areas due to their low maintenance requirements (Tuttu et al., 2019). When examined in terms of aesthetic potential, the flower colours, leaf textures, and form diversity of the species allow for the creation of layered compositions. Adonis flammea and Centaurea glastifolia are used as accent plants with their brightly coloured flowers; Aster amellus and Centranthus longiflorus are valued in borders and group plantings for their rhythmic flowering characteristics. Arabis caucasica and Cerastium tomentosum create a contrasting effect with their light-coloured leaf textures, while Asphodelus aestivus and Bellardia trixago provide visual balance with their vertical form and flower stem structure (Akdeniz and Zencirkıran, 2016; Yener and Seyidoğlu Akdeniz, 2020). In terms of ecological functionality, some species provide specific habitat services. Asphodeline lutea and Centaurea iberica contribute to the maintenance of biological diversity by providing a nectar source for pollinating insects. Dense ground cover species such as Ajuga reptans and Carex pendula are effective in soil stabilisation and preventing surface erosion. Early-flowering species such as Colchicum turcicum contribute to ecological aesthetics by providing visual continuity in the seasonal cycle. These results demonstrate that native plants are not merely aesthetic elements but also landscape features that enhance ecological resilience (Shi et al., 2024). Overall, this study demonstrates that when native herbaceous species are integrated into landscape planning using natural planting principles, they offer high potential in terms of ecological resilience, aesthetic diversity, and THE ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC POTENTIALS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES . . .   79 spatial integrity. The findings show that native species are not merely visual elements but also functional components that increase ecosystem resilience. In this context, the correct selection of native plant species, their positioning within the spatial composition, and their use in harmony with habitat characteristics are considered a strategic approach that supports naturalness, identity integrity, and ecological continuity in sustainable landscape design. 3. Conclusions and Recommendations Today, the globally accepted concept of sustainable landscape design has made the use of native plant species a strategic necessity. The inclusion of native species in landscape applications offers numerous advantages, such as reduced water consumption, lower maintenance costs, and enhanced adaptation to climate change. However, one of the most significant problems encountered in practice is that native species are not sufficiently recognised in the landscape sector and are limited in number in nursery production. Various conservation decisions taken in Turkey in recent years indicate that awareness of the ecological and aesthetic potential of native species is increasing. Such decisions highlight the need to consider native plants not only as biological resources but also as cultural elements that ensure the sustainability of spatial identity. Taking these legal bases into account in landscape design is an important step towards strengthening sustainable planning approaches. This study comprehensively addresses the ecological and aesthetic potential of native plants in landscape designs. The findings show that Turkey’s rich flora offers multifaceted contributions to landscape applications. Native species are indispensable components of sustainable designs, both for their ecosystem services (carbon storage, erosion control, support for biological diversity) and their aesthetic values (flowering, leaf colouration, form and texture diversity). Species such as Cercis siliquastrum (Judas tree) give urban spaces a visual identity during their flowering periods, while long-lived oaks such as Quercus sp. support ecological sustainability. The inclusion of endemic species such as Liquidambar orientalis (Anatolian sweetgum) and Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani (Kazdağı fir) in designs not only provides aesthetic and ecological benefits but also serves to protect biological heritage and strengthen unique landscape identity. Species such as Achillea millefolium, Alyssum murale and Artemisia absinthium, which are adapted to arid areas; Ajuga reptans, Cardamine pratensis and Carex pendula, which thrive in moist habitats; and Armeria maritima and 80   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Aptenia cordiflora, which are resistant to salinity stress, offer viable solutions for different ecological zones. In addition, species with high visual impact, such as Allium ampeloprasum, Centaurea glastifolia, and Aster amellus, are among the defining elements of aesthetic compositions. The evaluations reveal that the native woody and herbaceous native plant species considered in the study have high potential in landscape design from an ecological, aesthetic, and functional perspective. The wide ecological tolerance range of the species allows for the planning of climate change-resistant, lowmaintenance green spaces that provide ecosystem services. Species that can adapt to different habitats under arid, humid, and salinity stress offer applicable solutions in various climate zones; while taxa with high visual qualities stand out as powerful components of aesthetic compositions with their colour, form, and texture characteristics. These findings demonstrate that native plant species are fundamental elements in landscape design, not only enhancing ecological resilience but also supporting spatial identity and visual continuity. The results indicate that the systematic evaluation of these species in landscape design is of strategic importance in terms of efficient use of water resources, reduction of maintenance costs, enhancement of habitat diversity, and preservation of local flora identity. It is anticipated that these aspects of native species will directly contribute to the development of an ecologically based landscape planning approach in Turkey. The more effective use of native plant species in landscape design in Turkey is an inevitable necessity in terms of both ecological sustainability and aesthetic diversity. In this context: • Increasing sectoral awareness, • Developing policies that encourage the production and use of native species, • Increasing the production capacity of native species in nurseries, • Conducting awareness campaigns to change social visual habits towards exotic species, • And establishing regulations and standards that support the use of native species, will make significant contributions to the creation of sustainable urban landscapes in the future. In this context, landscape architects, urban planners and decision-makers should take the lead in promoting a landscape planning culture based on FROM NATURAL FORMS TO DIGITAL DESIGN: THE SPATIAL FICTION PROCESS . . .   87 Figure 1. Abstraction and transformation of tree roots into form (Yılmaz et al., 2018). Figure 2. Abstraction and transformation of the spider web into form by CAD (Reid, 2007). The first form of imitation of nature involves taking the form of a natural object and transferring it to a structure with formal concerns and an analogy (Arslan and Sorguç, 2007). At the same time, it is the “analogical” method, based on using forms and adapting them for architectural purposes, that enables us to transform abstract thought in our minds into concrete form (Broadbent and Ward, 1969). Gero (2000) also introduces analogy to the spatial design process, in addition to the combination, exploration, and transformation mentioned by Boden (2003). Thinking using analogies is an effective tool in solving the design problem and facilitates the creative process (Ball et al. 2004; Ball and Christensen, 2009; Casakin, 2010; Dunbar and Blachette, 2001; Ender Altay and Pirselimoğlu Batman, 2022; Pirselimoğlu Batman and Ender Altay, 2023; Pirselimoğlu Batman et al, 2024). It should be considered that analogy can be a tool in generating solutions during the spatial design process, as it is a cognitive process that supports the acquisition of new information and facilitates learning (Casakin and Timmeren van, 2015; Hofstadter, 2001). Analogical thinking is the source of inspiration used to develop concepts in the initial stages of the design process, to inform design decisions in later stages (Goldschmidt and Smolkov, 2006; Cardoso and Badke-Schaub, 2011), and to transform ideas into forms in the final stage. 88   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 In creating forms, the process of analogical thinking on any form in nature leads us to think of the form as a module. The module can be organized in a self-integrating systematic framework that has a beginning and an end (Fer, 2000; Ender Altay and Pirselimoğlu Batman, 2023). With this approach, which can also be described as a modular design, the module must be thoroughly analyzed. Modules are an important factor in understanding forms and concepts (Bums, 2000). The ability of modules to create and maintain forms is the basis for understanding systems and order. This module, in nature, is a design that includes the relationships between objects and geometric forms (Childs, 1995). To produce a creative, systematic design approach, the principle of repetition must be combined with order, resulting in the construction of a well-structured object. The elements in landscape design are color, line, shape-form, scale, range, texture, light-shadow, stress, sequence, and action (Ender et al., 2016). In this context, natural arrangements utilize the composition and colors found in nature as they are; in a sense, nature is imitated (Zencirkıran, 2009; Ender and Zencirkıran, 2017). Within this framework, emulating nature involves creating modules that imitate natural ones, thereby achieving ready-made solutions with an endless variety of forms, colors, textures, materials, and combinations, both formally and functionally (Zencirkıran, 2013). To be successful in producing solutions within an integrated system, designers who follow and emulate nature resort to natural modules to generate forms (Akdeniz et al., 2017) (Figure 3–4). Therefore, it is essential to enable designers to design with modules during the spatial design process. Nevertheless, designers need to express their work in a comprehensive, realistic, and dynamic way. Designers complete this process with computer-aided design (Wei, 2021; Du, 2022). With computer-aided design, designers are freed from many tedious and repetitive tasks in the design process, allowing them to focus on professional design. Therefore, it is essential to use CAD technology in designs to complete the final product (Vries and Harink, 2007; Zhao, 2021) Figure 3. Transforming the leaf into form for spaces with an integrated system (Yılmaz et al., 2018) FROM NATURAL FORMS TO DIGITAL DESIGN: THE SPATIAL FICTION PROCESS . . .   89 Figure 4. Conversion of Nautilus with the integrated system by CAD (URL 1) In this context, emulating nature or incorporating natural elements into spatial design progresses as an integrated system, complemented by form production. This study reveals the process of understanding the forms and strategies found in nature and adapting them to the project. This study encompasses the process of drawing inspiration from nature, the principles of creating form in design, and examples of computer-aided design within the context of these concepts. This study aims to explore whether objects from nature inspire designers, and if so, how these objects form the basis for abstracting and creating forms in the design process. 2. Material and Methods In this study, all samples that can be selected by imitation from nature can be used as material. In this study, honeycomb, sweet corn, tortoiseshell, pineapple, ice, hedgehog, scallop shell, tree trunk, pine cone, fish scale, chromosome, cell colony, orange, caterpillar, cactus, and rose were selected as materials. The purpose of choosing these examples is to have materials that will form the basis for spatial design fiction in various forms. The method of the study for spatial design was carried out in four stages: • Selection of forms in nature / Selection of inspiration object (a) In the first stage, samples were selected. In the 16 selected samples, attention was paid to the presence of different geometric forms in the formal structure of the final product. • Abstraction (b) In the next stage, images of nature were carefully examined and an attempt was made to understand their structure. At this stage, abstraction has been made. While creating abstractions, students in the basic design studio used cardboard 90   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 to make three-dimensional examples of forms found in nature. In the process of abstraction with cardboard, the memorable lines of the form in nature were transformed into different forms. Thus, the product in nature has been simplified, freed from details, and transformed into a characteristic structure. During the abstraction process, the form in nature was not directly copied but interpreted and expressed in the mind. • Geometric transformation (c) In the 3rd stage, geometric transformations of the abstracted examples were provided to facilitate a holistic understanding of the design system. In the third stage of the form generation process, the samples were transformed into forms of various shapes, including triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons, circles, and ellipses. In this transformation, the system (unity) created by the designer should be perceived as such. At this stage, the forms were drawn using AutoCAD 2023. Geometric transformation enables the designer to create a balanced piece that contributes to an integrated system or unity (Jackle, 1987). To fully express an idea in spatial design, each form must be regularly repeated and systematically brought together in a cohesive manner. • Creating the spatial design fiction of the design with an integrated system approach (d) After completing all these stages, the forms obtained as a result of abstraction and geometric transformation were integrated into a cohesive system. It is stated that the transformation of geometric forms and the combination of these forms with a system result in the final product in design. In this process, it is expressed how abstraction and geometric transformation are reflected in the project. At this stage, the forms in the final product, in other words, spaces with different functions, were drawn in AutoCAD 2023. In the final product, the sequence created by the designer is organized using the inferences obtained from the abstraction. However, to be able to talk about an integrated system in this fiction, it is not enough to have only a collection of elements. The juxtaposition of forms in the integrated system should be clear, understandable, and readable. At the same time, the measurements of the forms should be determined according to their function, and links between functions must be established, as well. In the system approach, juxtapositions and measurements generate an integrated structure. FROM NATURAL FORMS TO DIGITAL DESIGN: THE SPATIAL FICTION PROCESS . . .   91 3. Results In this part of the study, honeycomb, sweet corn, tortoiseshell, pineapple, ice, hedgehog, scallop shell, tree trunk, cone, fish scale, chromosome, cell colony, orange, caterpillar, cactus, and rose samples were analyzed respectively (a). In the following stages, data were obtained from abstraction (b) and geometric transformation (c). The data obtained enabled the creation of the spatial design fiction (d) with an integrated system approach. In Figure 5, the spatial design fiction process of the honeycomb, sweet corn, tortoiseshell, and pineapple, in Figure 6, ice, hedgehog, scallop shell, and tree trunk, in Figure 7, pine cone, fish scale, chromosome, and cell colony, in Figure 8, orange, caterpillar, cactus, and rose has been completed. Figure 5. Abstraction and spatial design fiction of pineapple, tortoiseshell, sweet corn, and honeycomb (Original) Triangles and polygons are used in the abstractions in Figure 5. Broken lines, ellipses, and quadrilaterals are used in the abstractions in Figure 6. 92   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Figure 6. Abstraction and spatial design of tree trunk, scallop shell, hedgehog, and ice (Original) Figure 7. Abstraction and spatial design fiction of cell colony, chromosome, fish scale, and pine cone (Original) FROM NATURAL FORMS TO DIGITAL DESIGN: THE SPATIAL FICTION PROCESS . . .   93 Different circular forms are used in the abstractions in Figure 7. Figure 8. Abstraction and spatial design fiction of rose, cactus, caterpillar, and orange (Original) In the abstractions in Figure 8, various circular forms and straight lines are combined to create a visually striking composition. The abstractions in all examples (Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8) can help create a base for natural examples where abstractions similar to these shapes exist. In Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8, all processes are explained to reach the spatial design fiction of the form in nature. During the design phase, the process will be carried out using computer-aided design to create the final product, which will have a similar form to the examples, based on the forms presented in these examples. The perspectives of the spaces generated through spatial design fiction are presented in Figures 9-10. 94   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Figure 9. Perspective view of the spatial design fiction of honeycomb (Original) Figure 10. Perspective view of the spatial design fiction of sweet corn (Original) These perspective images are given to understand the system approach when creating spaces. 4. Conclusion and Discussion This study was designed to identify systems and methods that provide designers with design and creativity skills across all disciplines involving design and creative processes. It also reveals the importance of computer-aided design in this process. Nature, which possesses a perfect geometric order, is a significant source for generating forms. Therefore, emulating nature is a critical and widely used approach for design-oriented disciplines. Aldemir (2014) included facade designs that imitate natural processes and productive systems FROM NATURAL FORMS TO DIGITAL DESIGN: THE SPATIAL FICTION PROCESS . . .   95 in his study, forming building shells. Approaches to design, development, and production processes were also examined. He emphasized that causal and probabilistic methods in nature can be transferred to architectural design as a system. Similarly, in this study, a form of fiction was created using the system in real spaces, taking advantage of the possibilities inherent in natural forms. Rhythmic ‘S’ curves in nature, natural vegetal lines, flower and branch motifs are equivalent to the instinctive lines created by human hands. These forms guide the design sketches. When we look back at nature, structures, amorphous distributions, and non-symmetrical forms are considered sources of design inspiration (Karagöz, 2007). This process, which supports learning, is regarded as the beginning of conscious learning from nature in design, as exemplified by Buckminster Fuller and Frei Otto’s inquiries into understanding the “process” and their search for new forms and structures (Aldemir, 2014). The abstraction method is one of the topics that should be explained to designers in training, including those in design process and design studio courses. Avcı (2019) supported this idea in her study, emphasizing that incorporating inspiration from nature into classes, through projects and workshops, will be beneficial for students’ development in many aspects. Abstraction enables the designer to observe, analyze, and synthesize examples in nature effectively. Being able to do this fiction well makes the process of creating the form easier. While the designer will first learn to produce forms by imitating nature, he will secondarily acquire the ability to think analogically without realizing it. Analogical thinking will be an effective tool for them in solving the design problem and will contribute to the development of their creativity. Steadman (2008) describes the analogies between nature and design in his book “The Evolution of Designs: Biological Analogy in Architecture and the Applied Arts”. He examined the effects of these analogies on design thinking practice. He stated that human beings have been designing by learning from nature for a long time, and that critics and philosophers have been examining nature to understand the classical ideal of beauty since Ancient Greece. He states that the perfect model of harmony, balance, and proportion in design is found in the forms of organisms in nature. He notes that the connection between the analogical thinking approach and design persists, not only in ancient times but also in the present day. Çelikel and Uçar (2020) stated in their study that the Esplanade Theater in Singapore was designed with inspiration from the Durian plant, and the Eden Regional Climate and Vegetation Project in England was designed with 96   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 inspiration from carbon molecules. While analyzing the form in this process, he emphasized that finding a solution for that form supports the design process. In their research, J. Sumrall, M. Sumrall, and Robinson (2018) implemented a “learning with nature” classroom practice by having first-grade students work collaboratively in groups of four. First, they showed students various examples from nature, and the students drew creative designs inspired by these examples. Then, they presented their designs to their friends. The research revealed that students were made to think about nature, and their creative thinking skills were developed. The approach outlined in the study, as described during the design process, can serve as a guide for the learning process. In the design process, it is essential not to forget that the source of life is hidden in nature. Observing nature, examining it, taking it as an example, abstracting from it, and emulating it will enable us to complete the design process successfully. Choosing an example from nature and ensuring continuity of shapes by abstracting this example will provide integrity in the design process. This situation highlights the significance of the ideas explored in this research. Acknowledgement: The author sincerely thanks the students (Ayşe Sudenaz Balta, Edanur Kardeş, Helin Tunç, İpek Toptan, İrem Yıldırım, Fatma Yağmur Kabran, Roaa Selem, Sabriye Yaren Kabran, Tuba Nida Yelki, Zeynep Kabasakal) who contributed to the abstraction phase of natural forms within the Basic Design Studio conducted at the Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture, Bursa Uludağ University. References Akdeniz, N. S., Ender, E., & Zencirkiran, M. (2017). Evaluation of ecological tolerance and requirements of exotic conifers in the urban landscape of Bursa. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 26(10), 6064-6070. Aldemir, B. C. (2014). Bina Kabuğunun Biçimlenmesinde Doğal Süreçlere Dayalı Üretken Yaklaşımlar. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi. İstanbul. Arslan, S., Sorguç, A. (2007). Mimarlık Tasarımı Paradigmasında Biomimesis’in Etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik-Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(2), 2007, s. 451-459. Avcı, G. (2019). Use of Biomimicry in Industrial Design Education in Turkey: the Case of Izmir Universities. Master Thesis. Izmir Institute of Technology. İzmir. THINKING OVER THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HISTORIC URBAN . . .   103 heritage for “culturally vibrant, economically prosperous, socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable cities and settlements” (UNESCO, 2019). The “Historic Urban Landscape (HUL)” approach is essentially a document containing recommendations aimed at ensuring the preservation and management of cultural heritage are integrated with broader urban development objectives and made sustainable. The concepts of “cultural landscape” and “historic landscape” at the core of the recommendation text have enabled the accumulation of knowledge on conservation from the past to the present to be addressed within a broader framework (Çatalbaş and Ecemis Kılıç, 2022). The HUL recommendation, which includes suggestions on sustainability, collaboration across different disciplines, participation, and capacity building, supports considering past values through a landscape-based approach as a resource in the formulation of urban development policies (UNESCO, 2011; Veldpaus, 2015; Rey-Perez and Pereira Roders, 2020). The HUL approach emphasizes the importance of cultural identity and diversity, cultural traditions, the built environment, spatial form, physical characteristics (including topography, geomorphology, and hydrology), economic and social processes, and the balance and well-being between people and their natural environment. It aims for an interdisciplinary approach to the management of historic cities in harmony with their natural structures. By emphasizing the role of society in heritage management and urban development, it encourages raising public awareness and ensuring sustainability through local community participation, as well as developing a democratic urban management model (UNESCO, 2011; UNESCO, 2015; Zeayter and Mansour, 2018; Bandarin and Van Oers, 2015). Thus, in addition to the tangible elements that previously dominated the conservation approach, intangible elements have also become essential for conservation (Taylor, 2016; van Oers and Pereira Roders, 2013). Furthermore, it treats rural or urban areas as a process. It emphasizes the need to protect historic sites from threats such as climate change, the impact of new global challenges, urbanization, and pressures from unsustainable tourism. Six critical steps and four key tools are recommended for implementing the HUL approach. The six crucial steps can be summarized as follows: • Comprehensive research and mapping of the city’s natural, cultural, and other resources, • Identification of values to be protected through participatory planning and stakeholder consultations, 104   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 • Assessment of the vulnerability of heritage to socioeconomic pressures and the effects of climate change, • Integration of urban heritage values and their fragility into a broader urban development framework, • Prioritization of conservation and development activities, • A process is proposed that involves establishing appropriate partnerships and local governance frameworks for each of the identified projects for conservation and development, as well as developing mechanisms for coordinating activities between actors in the public and private sectors (UNESCO, 2011; Çatalbaş and Ecemis Kılıç, 2022). However, although the concept of preserving historical environments holistically with their surroundings has been established through legal processes, it is a fact that this concept has implementation problems. In particular, green areas such as historical gardens and recreational spaces need to be designed with the idea of preserving them and ensuring their continuity, just like monuments. However, many of them now appear in entirely different forms and uses. Conservation issues for green spaces can be attributed to pressures such as population growth, urbanization, profit-driven activities, infrastructure development, and changing environmental and living conditions in a rapidly evolving world. The deterioration of the natural structure of cities due to intensive use and inappropriate activities, changing lifestyles, and entertainment concepts has led to significant changes, especially in historic environments used for recreational purposes. The Sadabad recreation area, located within the Kağıthane district, was selected as the study area. When Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent saw the Kağıthane, he liked it very much and began to come here frequently to hunt and relax. Thus, Kağıthane was first included in the scope of royal gardens during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent. Surrounded by broad meadows used by the public, this complex of palaces, combined with the Sadabad Palace and its gardens, became a garden and water city featuring a series of beautiful landscapes stretching from the Golden Horn to the village of Kağıthane. Thus, the work area acquired the character of a space developed in a planned manner and within a short period of time for recreational purposes, as per the landscape architecture traditions of Ottoman history. The Kağıthane recreational area has been impacted by shifting social and physical conditions, and as a result, it has undergone changes. This study aims to determine the process of change that the THINKING OVER THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HISTORIC URBAN . . .   105 Sadabad recreational area has undergone to reach the present day, how and in what way it has been affected by this process, and its current uses. The Sadabad recreational area, which was first incorporated into the royal gardens during the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, was selected as the study site. Within this scope, the physical, social, and functional changes of the largest and most popular recreational area of the period were investigated. In light of the source information obtained within this scope, Sadabad’s current uses and spatial changes were examined, and conclusions and recommendations for the area in question were presented in line with the “principles of landscape design in historical spaces.” 2. An Example of an Important Historic Urban Landscape: Sadabad 2.1Location Kağıthane, one of the recent period settlements of Istanbul, became a district in 1987 after separating from Şişli. Administratively, the Kağıthane district area is bordered by Ayazağa, which is part of Şişli, to the north, and the district lands of Şişli to the south and southeast. The district is adjacent to Beşiktaş to the northeast, Beyoğlu to the southwest, and Eyüpsultan to the west and northwest. In terms of area, Kağıthane district is one of the seven smallest districts in Istanbul, along with Adalar, Bayrampaşa, Beyoğlu, Güngören, and Zeytinburnu, covering a total area of 16 km² (Figure 1) (Url 1). Figure 1. Location of Kağıthane and Sadabad recreational area (Url 2, Url 3) 106   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Kağıthane has become a preferred district in recent years due to the changes and transformations it has undergone. According to the 2024 AddressBased Population Registration System results of the Turkish Statistical Institute (TUİK), the population of Kağıthane is 444,820 (URL 4). 2.2.HistoryofSadabad Kağıthane district, which is selected as a study area, has witnessed significant periods such as the ancient era, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman. Archaeological findings, mythological stories, and all historical information serve as evidence of the area’s historical layers (Irmak, 2011). Kâğıthane, a natural meadow, presented a landscape where the valley floor, waterfront, and vegetation followed the riverbanks like a cord. The steep ridges and hills surrounding the valley, naturally clustered with hornbeam, plane tree, red oak, willow, and juniper groves, were covered with dwarf, evergreen oak, wild mastic, heather, laurel, ladin (fir), holly, horse chestnut, firethorn, Judas tree, and juniper. The 1860 document instructs that two liva tents be entrusted to the minister who will be staying in Kâğıthane for a week to change the air. This instruction indicates that Kâğıthane’s air and water were preferred for therapeutic purposes due to health reasons. Starting in the 15th century, Kâğıthane, renowned for its natural beauty and forests, became a beloved place of entertainment and retained this characteristic for many centuries (Tosun, 2019). Before the Tanzimat, the people of Istanbul participated in public celebrations organized by the palace, where they had fun at these events. Particularly during the Tulip Era, very lavish celebrations were held at the Kâğıthane Mesiresi under the name Sadâbâd Nights. During these summer night festivities in Kâğıthane, lanterns were lit under the trees in the gardens, and candles were placed on walking turtles to illuminate the entertainment area. Following these feasts, which were also attended by ambassadors from foreign countries, target practice, horse races, swimming, and wrestling competitions were held. In addition to state officials, the public’s interest in the Sadâbâd festivities also increased considerably. They named this recreational area, which they flocked to especially on Fridays, the Sadâbâd outing. People arrived at the recreational area in gilded and latticed carriages by land and in boats decorated with flowers via the Golden Horn waterway. They participated in day-long festivities accompanied by saz music under the shade of Judas trees (Özcan, 2003). THINKING OVER THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HISTORIC URBAN . . .   107 With Sultan Abdülmecid’s accession to the throne, the Ottoman Empire issued the Tanzimat Edict, aimed at strengthening social bonds that had reached a breaking point. With the proclamation of the Tanzimat, the process of urbanization gained even greater importance. Cultural change also accelerated alongside urbanization. During the Tanzimat era, Westernization movements influenced daily life in every aspect; the winds of change that began in the palace spread throughout society, leading to a rapid transformation in lifestyle. This cultural change manifested itself in recreational areas and entertainment venues, as the Western lifestyle made its presence felt in various aspects, from clothing to Western-style dining tables, from vehicles providing urban transportation to eating and drinking establishments (Çetin, 2022; Hayta and Ünal, 2014; Harmandar, 2019). Following the proclamation of the Tanzimat, visiting recreational areas became an indispensable habit for the people of Istanbul. The Kâğıthane recreational area was among Istanbul’s most popular recreational areas (Faroqhi, 2014; Cebeci, 2017) (Figures 2, 3, and 4). Figure 2. Past photos of Sadabad recreation area (URL 5) 108   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Figure 3. Past photos of Sadabad recreation area - 1903 (URL 6) Figure 4. Past photos of Sadabad recreation area -Sébah ve Joaillier (URL 7) 2.3.ChangeProcess This area, located so close to the city with a clean, sweet stream flowing through its center and surrounded by vast meadows, retained its natural THINKING OVER THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HISTORIC URBAN . . .   109 recreational and leisure area status uninterrupted until the 20th century. The 20th century marked a period of decline for Kağıthane, first due to neglect and later due to misguided growth. The 1937 Prost Plan and the industrialization that began in the 1950s brought numerous problems, with dire consequences for Kağıthane, both environmentally and structurally. The large influx of migrants that followed the establishment of factories in the river valley after 1955 led to significant physical and environmental destruction. The Kağıthane Stream has been polluted with toxic waste, and the species known as the Kağıthane Fish has become extinct. Similarly, the endemic plant known as the Kağıthane Flower has also disappeared. This massive extinction of ecological life has also affected the architectural heritage. Koşu Köşkü was demolished by its owners when it became privately owned in the 1930s. In 1943, the Çağlayan Palace, the third of the Sadabad Palaces, was destroyed by the state and replaced by the Military Supply School. This building is now used as the Kağıthane Service Building. Similarly, in the early 1950s, the İmrahor Palace, where Lale Site (URL 8) stands today, was demolished. The cascades, which had fallen into disrepair over time, were dynamited by the Military Engineering School in 1956 to clear the way for floodwaters to flow. Poligon Palace was demolished in 1954-55 to make way for the construction of the Gasworks Administration Gas Plant. Currently, the İETT Poligon Bus Garage stands on the site. Many buildings of the Kağıthane Gunpowder Factory, which supplied weapons during the War of Independence, have been demolished. Many buildings belonging to the Atiye Sultan Palace have been destroyed. In summary, Kağıthane has witnessed the complete disappearance of structural elements, including palaces, fountains, commemorative stones, and Haray-ı Hümayün buildings, as well as pastures, polygon fields, military training grounds, and recreational areas (Irmak, 2011). The area known as Istanbul, one of the most famous recreational areas, is now used as a park but bears no traces of its past (Figure 5). Sadabad, which remains one of the largest green spaces today, has undergone significant changes and is now facing intense urbanization and construction pressure, with only a few traces of its architectural heritage remaining. The remaining heritage elements are being overwhelmed by the appearance of new high-rise buildings (Figure 6). The area is experiencing a complete identity crisis. 110   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Figure 5. Sadabad Park today (URL 9) Figure 6. Sadabad Mosque and its surroundings, 2008 (URL 10) THINKING OVER THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HISTORIC URBAN . . .   111 Although Kağıthane Municipality is currently undertaking various functional (activities such as javelin throwing, oil wrestling, and archery) and natural (planting initiatives) actions aimed at revitalizing Sadabad, these efforts are insufficient. 3. Discussion and Conclusion This study examines the historical process of the Sadabad recreational area, researched from various written and visual sources, and offers interpretations based on its current spatial design. In this study, Sadabad, which is briefly mentioned as having a rich cultural heritage, has unfortunately reached the present day with almost no trace of its identity remaining, despite its architecture and green spaces. Alongside the physical changes in the region, significant social transformations have also occurred. It is a fact that Sadabad must be re-examined in terms of its entire functional, social, and natural structure. In this context, landscape planning and design studies should be carried out in historical, cultural, and natural environments in a multidimensional manner. Accordingly; • The first task is to research the evolution of the landscape. All physical structures, such as floristics, hydrology, topography, etc., must be analyzed from the past to the present. The natural structure must be improved in line with the ecological memory of the area. • The socio-historical context of the area must be thoroughly researched, and all relevant events that have occurred must be documented. • The architectural heritage within the area must be preserved and considered together with its surroundings. It should be designed and considered together with its natural structure, environmental values, and vegetation cover. The relationships between structural/architectural elements and landscape elements should be preserved to the extent possible under current conditions and should be put to appropriate use. • In historic environments, elements such as flooring, fixtures, lighting, etc., should be carefully selected and harmonized with the original or near-original materials in a way that does not disrupt the overall character and silhouette. • In addition, care should be taken to ensure that the botanical and environmental arrangement is not different from the original and does not disrupt the existing texture and silhouette. 112   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 • Considering the educational, cultural, and biological values of historic gardens, they should be protected from environmental activities that could compromise their overall character. • To preserve the area’s identity, it is essential to communicate and remind the public of its historical values and experiences through various methods. No area can maintain its continuity if the public does not embrace and take ownership of it. Societies survive by knowing their history and embracing their culture and identity. Therefore, all heritage sites are areas that support societies in their processes of becoming a community and uniting. We must protect these areas and implement plans and designs that will preserve our history for future generations. References Ahunbay Z., 1996. Tarihi Çevre Koruma ve Restorasyon. YEM Yayınları, İstanbul. Bandarin, F., van Oers, R. (2015). Reconnecting the City. The Historic Urban Landscape Approach and the Future of Urban Heritage, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Cebeci, D. (2017). Tanzimat ve Türk Ailesi, Panama Yayıncılık, Ankara. Çatalbaş F., Ecemis Kılıç, S. (2022). Tarihi Kentsel Peyzaj [Historic Urban Landscape (HUL)] yaklaşımı perspektifinde İzmir tarihi liman kentinde planlama ve kültürel mirasın korunmasına yönelik katılımcı bir model. Megaron 17 (3): 526–541. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14744/MEGARON.2022.64624 Çetin, Ü. (2022). 19. Yüzyılda Batılılaşma Hareketleri Kapsamında Yaşanan Kültürel Değişimin İstanbul’daki Mesire Eğlencelerine Yansıması. Erzurum Teknik Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Dergisi ETÜT, Sayı: 4, Erzurum. Doi 10.52003/etut.2022.22 Faroqhi, S. (2014). Osmanlı Kültürü ve Gündelik Yaşam (Ortaçağdan Yirminci Yüzyıla) (8.Baskı), Çev. Elif Kılıç, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul. Harmandar, S. (2019). Tanzimat’tan II. Meşrutiyet’e İstanbul’da Yemeİçme Mekânları, Erzurum Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erzurum. Hayta, N. Ünal, U. (2014). Osmanlı Devleti’nde Yenileşme Hareketleri (XVII. Yüzyıl Başlarından Yıkılışa Kadar) (7. Baskı), Gazi Kitapevi, Ankara. BETWEEN CELEBRATION AND CONSERVATION: RETHINKING . . .   119 Figure 3. An open-air concert stage is set up for the Stork Festival in Eskikaraağaç. Sound systems and visual screens contribute to high decibel levels in this otherwise quiet wetland village (Original, 2025). High-decibel events in natural settings can lead to severe ecological disturbances, such as altered breeding behaviors, heightened stress responses, decreased foraging efficiency, and disrupted communication among birds (Francis et al., 2009; Patricelli and Blickley, 2010). In wetlands specifically, acoustic disruptions can cause waterbirds and other wildlife to exhibit increased vigilance or flight responses, potentially reducing site fidelity and negatively impacting their health (Kunc et al., 2016; Engel et al., 2024). While explicit quantitative data on Eskikaraağaç’s bird populations during these festival events remain absent, non-invasive field observations conducted by the author during the 2025 Stork Festival documented noticeable disturbances among local bird species. During peak sound levels, both migratory and resident species displayed heightened alertness, frequent flight responses, and evasive behaviors, indicating stress reactions to anthropogenic noise. Moreover, this shift towards entertainment-oriented activities carries the risk of diluting the festival’s original conservation message. Festivals and events that brand themselves as eco-friendly can unintentionally engage in forms of “greenwashing,” where superficial sustainability claims overshadow 120   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 ecological realities (Cohen and Cohen, 2019; Jones, Comfort, and Hillier, 2016; Pirselimoğlu Batman and Ender Altay, 2025). In Eskikaraağaç, the growing prominence of loud music performances juxtaposed against a Ramsar-listed wetland environment reflects a problematic disconnect between the festival’s stated goals and its actual practices. Similar concerns have been raised in coastal landscapes, where unregulated recreational pressures risk undermining ecological integrity despite their social and cultural value (Seyidoğlu Akdeniz et al., 2020; Pirselimoğlu Batman and Seyidoğlu Akdeniz, 2020). This contradiction not only undermines the conservation objectives of the Ramsar framework but also challenges the credibility of the European Stork Village designation. The EuroNatur foundation specifically highlights villages that commit to sustainable practices and ecological education; yet, without clear guidelines regarding acceptable levels of anthropogenic noise, the legitimacy of this recognition risks erosion (EuroNatur, 2016). This commercialization is not limited to entertainment infrastructure. The increasing number of stalls selling non-local, mass-produced items further blurs the village’s cultural identity. A particularly striking example is a vendor selling mass-produced plastic slippers in the heart of the festival zone—a product that is entirely disconnected from the village’s ecological and cultural landscape. Such commercialization illustrates a gradual detachment from local authenticity, replacing cultural specificity with generalized consumerism. While selling local foods or crafts could reinforce the village’s identity and ecological message, items like these underscore a deeper contradiction between conservation branding and actual practice (Figure 4). In sum, Eskikaraağaç’s Stork Festival exemplifies a broader tension between conservation ideals and cultural or economic drivers, highlighting the need for more straightforward guidelines and stronger regulatory oversight in ecologically sensitive areas. 3. Policy Gaps in Noise Management: A Critical Review of Ramsar and European Stork Village Guidelines Despite extensive international recognition and the presence of detailed ecological conservation frameworks, critical regulatory gaps persist, particularly concerning acoustic disturbances in sensitive environmental sites. The Ramsar Convention, established in 1971, explicitly promotes the conservation and wise use of wetlands through maintaining their ecological character (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2013). However, while the concept of “ecological BETWEEN CELEBRATION AND CONSERVATION: RETHINKING . . .   121 character” broadly encompasses various habitat attributes, current Ramsar guidelines offer limited explicit provisions or recommendations regarding noise pollution control or acoustic impact management (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2013; Gardner and Davidson, 2011). Figure 4. A selection of commercial stalls at the Stork Festival in Eskikaraağaç. The inclusion of unrelated, mass-produced products—such as synthetic slippers— raises concerns about cultural authenticity and ecological messaging (Original, 2025). The absence of clear regulatory guidance on anthropogenic noise management under the Ramsar framework represents a substantial oversight. A growing body of literature highlights noise as a significant anthropogenic disturbance, capable of impairing ecosystem functionality and altering species behavior, particularly in wetlands that host acoustically sensitive avian communities (Shannon et al., 2016; Engel et al., 2024). Without explicit reference to acoustic impacts in its guidance or management practices, Ramsardesignated wetlands remain vulnerable to unintended degradation caused by seemingly benign human activities, such as festivals and tourism-related events. Similarly, the European Stork Village network—an initiative established by the EuroNatur Foundation to encourage sustainable coexistence between human communities and stork populations—does not explicitly integrate noise 122   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 management or acoustic considerations within its selection criteria or operational guidelines. Villages recognized under this initiative, such as Eskikaraağaç, are expected to demonstrate sustainable habitat management, educational outreach, and local community engagement (EuroNatur, 2016). Nonetheless, guidelines neglect explicit acoustic standards or noise pollution mitigation measures. This omission is increasingly problematic as communities leverage their European Stork Village status for cultural and touristic branding, frequently incorporating large-scale entertainment events. High-decibel performances held within sensitive ecosystems risk eroding the core values underlying the European Stork Village designation, inadvertently leading to ecological disturbances under the auspices of conservation and community awareness (Cohen and Cohen, 2019; Jones et al., 2016). The lack of explicit guidelines addressing noise management within both Ramsar and European Stork Village frameworks underscores a critical need for policy enhancement. Integrating clear acoustic management practices, such as defined acceptable noise thresholds, mandatory acoustic impact assessments, and recommendations for noise-sensitive event planning, could substantially reduce unintended ecological disruptions in designated conservation sites. In conclusion, this policy gap highlights an urgent need to expand current environmental guidelines to explicitly incorporate acoustic considerations. Strengthening these frameworks by integrating comprehensive noise pollution standards would safeguard ecological integrity while maintaining the community-engagement and conservation objectives inherent in initiatives like the Ramsar Convention and the European Stork Village Network. 4. Towards Quieter Celebrations: Sustainable Alternatives for NatureBased Events The recognition of acoustic pollution as a critical environmental concern necessitates reimagining how cultural and tourism-driven events are designed, particularly within ecologically sensitive sites like Eskikaraağaç. Instead of eliminating festivals or reducing their cultural vibrancy, event planners can transition to a more environmentally sustainable model emphasizing quieter, nature-compatible activities. Globally, successful examples of festivals in ecologically sensitive regions demonstrate that vibrant cultural activities can coexist harmoniously with conservation objectives. For instance, birdwatching festivals held at Ramsar sites worldwide effectively balance educational engagement and economic BETWEEN CELEBRATION AND CONSERVATION: RETHINKING . . .   123 benefits without compromising ecological integrity (Stefanica and VlavianosArvanitis, 2013; Bennett et al., 2014). Such events typically include guided birdwatching tours, photography contests, local culinary experiences, naturefocused workshops, and educational presentations, all designed to foster ecological appreciation without creating disruptive acoustic environments. Similarly, eco-acoustic or “soundscape-based” tourism, which highlights the inherent auditory beauty of natural landscapes, offers another promising avenue. By showcasing the unique soundscapes of wetland ecosystems, such festivals can creatively highlight biodiversity conservation and sound ecology (Pijanowski et al., 2011; Dumyahn and Pijanowski, 2011). Quiet activities such as soundwalks, nature meditation sessions, acoustic ecology workshops, or silent performances have successfully enhanced visitor experiences in various protected natural areas without compromising wildlife habitats (Dumyahn and Pijanowski, 2011; Farina, 2013; Pirselimoğlu Batman and Özuçar, 2022). In the case of Eskikaraağaç, festival activities could be redesigned to prioritize community-based, low-impact engagements such as guided storkwatching tours, interactive ecological workshops, silent film screenings showcasing local wildlife documentaries, or storytelling events focusing on traditional environmental knowledge and local folklore (Bennett et al., 2014). Such an approach would retain the festival’s cultural richness while significantly reducing ecological disturbances caused by noise. Implementing acoustic zoning—spatially segregating louder events from sensitive habitats—can further reduce acoustic impacts. Establishing clear guidelines on maximum permissible decibel levels, mandating acoustic assessments for large-scale events, and educating participants about noise sensitivity and its ecological implications are practical measures that can ensure sustainable festival practices (Farina, 2013). Thus, transitioning to quieter, ecologically respectful event planning aligns well with the Ramsar Convention’s “wise use” principle and reinforces the conservation commitments of the European Stork Village initiative. Such modifications provide tangible pathways for balancing cultural, ecological, and socio-economic benefits, ultimately exemplifying how human communities can celebrate nature without inadvertently undermining it. 5. Conclusion: Balancing Cultural Vibrancy and Ecological Integrity This chapter has critically examined the intersection of cultural events and ecological conservation through the case of the Eskikaraağaç Stork Festival. 124   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 It highlighted the inherent tension that arises when festivals initially aimed at environmental awareness inadvertently generate ecological disturbances, particularly through high-decibel musical performances. By scrutinizing the absence of noise management guidelines within prominent conservation frameworks, such as the Ramsar Convention and the European Stork Village initiative, the chapter has highlighted a significant regulatory gap. Rather than advocating for the elimination of culturally meaningful events like the Stork Festival, the chapter argues for a thoughtful and deliberate redesign that incorporates acoustic ecology into the planning of such events. International experiences illustrate that quieter, nature-based activities not only minimize environmental impacts but also enhance visitor appreciation and foster deeper connections with natural habitats. Implementing acoustic zoning, setting explicit noise thresholds, and emphasizing education around sound sensitivity represent practical steps toward this objective. Ultimately, achieving genuine sustainability in nature-based tourism and conservation-oriented festivals demands rigorous integration of acoustic considerations into existing environmental frameworks. By doing so, initiatives such as the Ramsar Convention and the European Stork Village network can ensure the long-term ecological integrity of sensitive ecosystems, reinforcing their conservation missions without sacrificing cultural vitality. Appendix An earlier version of this study was presented at the INECPAC 2025 – 1st International Nature and Environment Conservation and Protected Areas Congress. 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Consequently, the innovative landscape paradigm redefines the concept of waste: rather than a worthless residue, waste is reframed as a resource carrying latent potential for energy, material, and information flows. Within this context, landscape architecture assumes both a physical restorative and symbolic healing function, reestablishing ecological equilibrium through the regenerative power of nature. Innovation today is no longer confined to nature-based approaches; it is increasingly intertwined with digital infrastructure (Bondar et al., 2022). Virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), drone-based spatial analysis, and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven simulation systems have become integral components of contemporary landscape planning processes. These technologies are utilized to evaluate the performance of green infrastructure systems, monitor carbon emissions, analyze bioclimatic effects, and simulate user experiences (Xing et al., 2025; Batty, 2018). Within this context, digitalization serves as a critical tool that enables the measurement and optimization of the energy efficiency and environmental performance of innovative landscape systems. Through the implementation of digital twin technologies, parameters such as energy consumption, water cycles, and plant growth dynamics can be monitored in real time. Consequently, the landscape evolves into an intelligent ecological system, one capable of managing its own environmental metabolism through data-driven feedback and adaptive regulation. Innovative landscape design functions not only as a technological and ecological instrument but also as a catalyst for social restructuring. The community-based landscape design model proposed by Soemardiono and Rachmawati (2018) exemplifies this perspective. Their project in the Kembang Jepun district of Surabaya demonstrates that the transformation of historic and densely built urban fabrics through public participation generates an innovative impact in terms of social belonging and spatial identity. This perspective interprets innovation not merely as the implementation of new ideas but as the integration of local knowledge, cultural heritage, and community values into the landscape design process. In light of the existing literature, the relationship between innovation and innovative landscapes can be defined through four key dimensions: ecological, technological, energy and circular, and socio-cultural integration. These four dimensions constitute the ecological, smart-technological, energy-based, productive, and socio-cultural axes of the innovative landscape paradigm. 136   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Therefore, the creative landscape should not be regarded merely as a technical network of natural systems, but as a spatial and systemic model in which the interrelations among technology, society, energy, and ecology are materialized. Innovative landscapes are multidimensional systems in which the relationships between nature, technology, society, and culture are reinterpreted and reconfigured. These landscapes are characterized not by their formal distinctions but by their functional diversity, systemic coherence, and adaptive capacity. McHarg’s (1992) nature-integrated design philosophy, Corner’s (1999) process-oriented landscape theory, and Benedict and McMahon’s (2006) green infrastructure model collectively form the theoretical foundations of innovative landscape typologies. Although various classification approaches exist in the literature, contemporary research tends to conceptualize innovative landscapes within four principal frameworks: ecological systems, smart-technological systems, energy-based productive systems, and socio-cultural systems (Mell and Roe, 2007; Kabisch et al., 2017; Bondar et al., 2022). Table 1: A Systematic Overview of Innovative Landscape Typologies Type Criteria Key Features References Nature-based Landscapes Ecological cycles, climate adaptation Biodiversity, carbon management McHarg (1992); Mell and Roe (2007); Kabisch et al. (2017) Smart Landscapes Technology, data, digitalization Sensor systems, artificial intelligence Bondar et al. (2022); Batty (2018); Xing et al. (2025) Community-based Landscapes Participation, social sustainability Local knowledge, spatial belonging Soemardiono and Rachmawati (2018) Urban Regenerative Landscapes Industrial transformation Ecological restoration, adaptive reuse Matovnikova (2016); Paolinelli (2018) Landscapes Born from Waste Circular economy Energy production, ecological rehabilitation Paolinelli (2018) Aesthetic and Cultural Landscapes Sensory experience Digital art, material innovation Margolis and Robinson (2007); Yglesias (2014) FROM NATURE TO DIGITAL: THE TRANSFORMATIVE PARADIGM . . .   137 Innovative landscape typologies do not merely offer formal diversity; they embody a systemic vision of transformation. Situated at the intersection of nature, technology, society, and culture across multiple dimensions, these typologies expand both the theoretical foundations and the practical potential of contemporary landscape architecture. This diversity positions landscape architecture as an inherently interdisciplinary platform—one that encompasses a design and planning approach capable of restoring nature, instrumentalizing technology, empowering communities, and reestablishing socio-cultural continuity. 3. International Innovative Landscape Practices The concept of innovative landscapes manifests in diverse forms across different geographies, shaped by varying environmental, social, and technological contexts. These applications encompass not only aesthetic renewal but also multidimensional objectives, such as ecological restoration, energy generation, community engagement, and digital transformation. In this section, international examples of innovative landscapes are examined through the lenses of nature-based, technological, community-driven, and productive systems, with each case analyzed within its specific geographical, cultural, and planning context. 3.1.InnovativeLandscapePracticesinEurope Europe is one of the continents where the concept of innovative landscape design was both conceived and matured. Numerous projects developed across the continent have integrated principles of industrial transformation, green infrastructure planning, and cultural sustainability, simultaneously addressing ecological and socio-economic development objectives. Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord (Germany): Situated in Germany’s Ruhr region and designed by Peter Latz, Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord is one of the most iconic examples of the innovative landscape paradigm. Initiated in the 1990s, the project transformed an abandoned iron and steel plant into an urban public space by preserving industrial heritage and refunctionalizing it for ecological purposes. Latz’s approach was grounded in the idea of integrating industrial landscapes with natural processes. The former industrial structures— such as blast furnaces and gasometers—were retained and repurposed for new uses, including climbing walls, a diving pool, and an observation tower. 138   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 Contaminated soils were remediated through bioremediation techniques, and spontaneous vegetation was allowed to recolonize the site. This project anticipated the concept of “out of waste landscapes” articulated by Paolinelli (2018), realizing the rebirth of industrial waste through landscape design. DuisburgNord has thus become a reference model for both ecological rehabilitation and cultural sustainability. Emscher Landschaftspark (Germany): Another significant example in Germany is the Emscher Landschaftspark. Extending over 80 kilometers across the Ruhr basin, this green corridor integrates wastewater management, ecological corridor planning, and urban regeneration objectives. Developed in the 1990s under the IBA Emscher Park program, the project became a spatial symbol of the transition “from industrial transformation to ecological revival” (Paolinelli, 2018). The Emscher project combines McHarg’s (1992) nature-based planning principles with Mell and Roe’s (2007) multifunctional green infrastructure framework. The corridor operates not merely as a park network, but as a regional infrastructure system that generates ecological services. Stormwater management, pedestrian and cycling mobility, agricultural production, and renewable energy generation occur concurrently. This model exemplifies how the concept of the innovative landscape operates at systemic and territorial scales. Parco Dora (Italy): Located in Turin, Parco Dora represents another exemplary model of post-industrial landscape regeneration through contemporary design. The project involved transforming a former FIAT factory site into a new-generation urban park that integrates architecture, engineering, and ecology (Paolinelli, 2018). Industrial materials were reused, and existing structures were preserved and reinterpreted within a modern public space framework. The combination of artificial topography, water features, and native vegetation reflects an aesthetic dialogue between nature and industry. As a Mediterranean interpretation of the concept of waste, Parco Dora offers a compelling model where cultural continuity and innovative design converge. 3.2.InnovativeLandscapePracticesinAsia The Asian continent, characterized by high population density and rapid urbanization pressures, has developed innovative landscape approaches primarily through community participation and the use of nature-based solutions. Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park (Singapore): Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park in Singapore is a pioneering example of the large-scale implementation of nature- FROM NATURE TO DIGITAL: THE TRANSFORMATIVE PARADIGM . . .   139 based solutions (NBS) in an urban context. The project is founded on the concept of transforming a concrete drainage canal into a naturalized river ecosystem. Aligned with the nature-based solutions framework proposed by Kabisch et al. (2017), this approach integrates flood management, water quality improvement, and public recreation within a single spatial system. The project translates the concept of resilience thinking (Walker and Salt, 2006) into spatial practice, positioning nature not as a passive engineering component but as an adaptive partner in urban resilience. Bishan Park thus represents an innovative landscape model where ecological engineering and social well-being intersect to create a multifunctional urban ecosystem. Kembang Jepun (Indonesia): Situated within the dense historic urban fabric of Surabaya, Indonesia, the Kembang Jepun project serves as a notable example of community-based landscape design. As described by Soemardiono and Rachmawati (2018), the transformation of this district was conducted through participatory processes framed within the concept of social innovation. The project integrated local cultural values, economic needs, and environmental awareness, preserving the historical context while introducing contemporary functions. This initiative demonstrates that landscape design serves not only as a physical transformation tool but also as a medium for fostering social resilience. The Kembang Jepun model exemplifies the concept of landscape democracy within the Asian context, where design becomes a participatory act of cultural continuity and ecological adaptation. 3.3.InnovativeLandscapePracticesinNorthAmerica North America, particularly the United States, functions as a laboratory where nature-based planning, biophilic urbanism, and digital innovation intersect. High Line Park (New York, USA): Located in New York City, High Line Park is an exemplary project that synthesizes urban renewal and green infrastructure through the adaptive reuse of an abandoned industrial railway line. Developed under the principle of adaptive reuse, the project preserved the structural traces of the existing elevated rail while transforming it into a vibrant public space (Beatley, 2012). The High Line exemplifies the innovative landscape paradigm both ecologically, by mitigating the urban heat island effect and enhancing stormwater absorption, and culturally, by preserving the city’s industrial memory. Ahern’s (2011) safe-to-fail principle is embodied spatially here, as nature is not artificially imposed but allowed to regenerate and evolve autonomously within the designed framework. 140   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 The Underline (Miami, USA): The Underline project in Miami is based on the concept of transforming the vacant spaces beneath urban transit infrastructure into multifunctional green corridors. This project serves as a practical application of Benedict and McMahon’s (2006) model of green infrastructure connectivity. By integrating bicycle paths, sports facilities, ecological gardens, and stormwater management systems, the project achieves a spatial synthesis between infrastructure and landscape. This initiative represents a shift in the American approach to infrastructure-based landscapes toward a more human-centered paradigm, reframing urban infrastructure as an active social and ecological system. The analysis of these international examples reveals that, despite their diverse geographic and cultural contexts, innovative landscapes share standard theoretical foundations (see Table 2). These shared principles demonstrate that innovative landscapes form not only spatial but also systemic coherence, with each project contributing to a universal language of ecological, technological, and social transformation within its own contextual framework. International experience demonstrates that innovative landscape design has evolved beyond merely serving as an instrument of environmental restoration to become a core component of sustainable urbanization. When the digitalization emphasized by Bondar et al. (2022) is integrated with Beatley’s (2012) biophilic city model, it becomes evident that the landscapes of the future will be both datadriven and nature-based. In conjunction with Ahern’s (2011) principle of adaptive design, the discipline of landscape architecture is expected to focus increasingly on self-regulating ecosystems, transforming into a living environmental management practice supported by artificial intelligence, sensor technologies, and participatory data systems. Accordingly, from Landschaftspark DuisburgNord to Bishan Park, and from the High Line to Parco Dora, each example of innovative landscape contributes to constructing the spatial paradigm of the future: landscapes that collaborate with nature, are empowered by technology, and sustained through social interaction. FROM NATURE TO DIGITAL: THE TRANSFORMATIVE PARADIGM . . .   141 Table 2: Common Principles in Innovative Landscape Practices Common Principle Description References Ecological Circularity Functioning of landscape systems in harmony with nature-based processes McHarg (1992); Mell and Roe (2007); Kabisch et al. (2017) Adaptive Reuse Revitalization of underutilized spaces for social and ecological productivity Matovnikova (2016); Paolinelli (2018) Community Participation Integration of local knowledge and social resilience into design processes Soemardiono and Rachmawati (2018) Digital Transformation Implementation of innovative technologies in planning processes Bondar et al. (2022); Xing et al. (2025) Cultural Sustainability Integration of historical fabric and identity with contemporary forms Corner (1999); Beatley (2016) 4. The Impact of Digitalization and Technology on the Discipline of Landscape Architecture Digitalization represents not merely a technical tool for contemporary landscape architecture but an epistemological shift that transforms spatial thinking itself. Landscape is no longer perceived as a static surface; instead, it is conceptualized as a dynamic, data-generating, and self-learning system. Since McHarg’s (1992) analog-based layered analysis approach, landscape planning has retained its capacity to visualize nature-based data; however, today this methodology has evolved, through digital technologies, into multidimensional, continuously updated, and quantifiable systems. When combined with Ahern’s (2011) safe-to-fail model, the flexible analytical and simulation capabilities of digital tools have transformed landscapes into adaptive systems capable of self-regulation and learning through error. Thus, digitalization has become not only an instrumental innovation in landscape design but a cognitive paradigm that reshapes the very foundations of design thinking. At the core of this transformation lies the principle of data-driven decision-making. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms have introduced new levels of precision and predictive capability into spatial analysis processes. Xing et al. (2025) demonstrate that AI applications in landscape architecture range from optimizing planting strategies to advanced water management modeling. Through these technologies, landscape architects can now analyze microclimatic 142   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 conditions, erosion tendencies, carbon sequestration capacity, and user movement patterns using real-time data. Bondar et al. (2022) further emphasize that AI-assisted design software functions not merely as computational support but as a learning system capable of proposing alternative design scenarios. This evolution has transformed landscape design into a predictive process, where spaces are no longer drawn but constructed through data, continuously redefining their behavior in response to environmental inputs (Table 3). Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) technologies have fundamentally transformed the way landscapes are experienced. As Bondar et al. (2022) emphasize, these technologies move the design process beyond mere visual representation, creating immersive environments where spatial experiences can be perceived and tested before construction. VR environments enable designers to explore walkable, three-dimensional simulations at multiple scales. At the same time, AR technologies superimpose digital layers onto real-world settings, allowing alternative design scenarios to be tested directly on-site. Moreover, digital twin systems replicate the physical landscape in a virtual environment, allowing for real-time monitoring of performance data, including water cycles, vegetation growth, and energy consumption. As demonstrated in the Amsterdam Digital Twin Project in the Netherlands, these technologies transform landscape management into a living data infrastructure that continuously generates feedback. This process represents the most tangible digital embodiment of Ahern’s adaptive planning model, where landscapes evolve through iterative, data-informed interaction between design intent and environmental performance. Sensor technologies and Internet of Things (IoT) based systems constitute the foundation of bright landscapes. Batty (2018) argues that sensor networks in urban landscapes enable the real-time monitoring of parameters such as air quality, soil moisture, temperature, noise levels, and user movement, thereby transforming space into a self-regulating organism. As demonstrated by Matovnikova (2016) in the Volgograd case, these systems offer significant cost and energy efficiency benefits in maintaining urban green areas. Bright landscapes are capable of autonomously managing irrigation through soil moisture sensors, adjusting lighting systems according to user density, and regulating water flows in response to climatic variability. These systems generate not only engineering efficiency but also ecological awareness. Through mobile applications, users can access and share data related to air quality, temperature, or plant health, thereby participating in collaborative environmental management processes FROM NATURE TO DIGITAL: THE TRANSFORMATIVE PARADIGM . . .   143 (Soemardiono and Rachmawati, 2018). In this way, digitalization transforms technology from a mere operational instrument into a medium for collective ecological learning. Table 3: The Impact of Digitalization and Technology on Landscape Architecture Criteria Pre-Digital Approach Post-Digital Approach Key References Planning Method Analog mapping, layer analysis Data-driven, AI-assisted decision systems McHarg (1992); Xing et al. (2025) Design Tool 2D drawing, modeling VR/AR, digital twin, simulation Bondar et al. (2022); Batty (2018) User Participation Passive observation Interactive, sensorbased engagement Soemardiono and Rachmawati (2018) Management Model Static maintenance plan Real-time monitoring and adaptive management Matovnikova (2016); Kabisch et al. (2017) Aesthetic Approach Visually oriented design Sensory and datadriven experience Corner (1999); Beatley (2016) Ecological Performance Indirect assessment Real-time monitoring through live data Ahern (2011); Paolinelli (2018) Another dimension of digitalization lies in its ability to reshape the aesthetic and experiential perception of landscape. Corner (1999) defined landscape as a “process of becoming”; today, digital technologies materialize this becoming by rendering invisible ecological processes visible. Data visualizations, light installations, sound maps, and digital art applications allow users to establish multisensory relationships with space. In this context, Beatley’s (2012) concept of the “biophilic city” gains a new interpretation: nature becomes perceptible again through digital environments. The SuperTree Grove in Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay exemplifies this synthesis by transforming nature into a technological narrative through biomimicry, sensor-based lighting systems, and data visualization techniques. This demonstrates that digitalization functions not only as an operational tool but also as a poetic medium, one that reshapes the ways emotional bonds with place are formed. At the same time, digitalization has strengthened the traceability of sustainability. Kabisch et al. (2017) note that integrating nature-based solutions with digital monitoring systems provides 144   SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE - 2025 high precision in climate adaptation strategies. Through the convergence of GIS, sensor, and AI technologies, indicators such as carbon sequestration capacity, water retention potential, urban heat island intensity, and ecosystem service values can now be measured in real time. Thus, sustainability ceases to be a mere intention and becomes a quantifiable performance indicator. This represents a digitized extension of Ahern’s (2011) flexible design approach, in which landscapes learn not through failure but through continuous datadriven improvement. Collectively, these developments have revealed four key conceptual innovations within the discipline of landscape architecture. First, algorithmic design enables the modeling of natural processes through digital algorithms, thereby reproducing nature’s formal logic within computational systems. Second, data-driven planning transforms design decisions from intuitive acts into processes validated by environmental evidence. Third, participatory digitalization allows communities to engage in planning through mobile applications, sensors, and social media platforms. Fourth, the notion of hybrid ecosystems introduces a new typology of landscapes where digital systems and natural processes are interwoven (Paolinelli, 2018). This conceptual transformation positions digitalization not merely as a technological innovation but as a cultural paradigm that redefines the contemporary ontology of landscape. In conclusion, digitalization has generated both a methodological and ontological revolution in landscape architecture. Landscapes are now defined as living systems that collect data, share information, and make decisions (Table 3). Nature collaborates with technology, engineering converges with aesthetics, and humans interact with artificial intelligence. The integration of Beatley’s (2012) vision of the biophilic city with Bondar et al.’s (2022) concept of digital landscapes has given rise to hybrid ecosystems that merge the intuitive intelligence of nature with the analytical power of the digital world. This transformation redefines landscape architecture as more than the design of physical space; it becomes an interdisciplinary field that unites ecological data generation, system management, and the construction of cultural meaning. Through digitalization, landscape architecture evolves from shaping environments to cultivating dynamic, intelligent systems that embody the synergy between ecological processes and technological innovation. 5. Discussion and Conclusion The concept of the innovative landscape represents a paradigmatic transformation within both the theoretical and practical dimensions of