Soil Contamination and Crop Response to Fly Ash and Effluent Discharge from Coal-Based Thermal Power Plants

Journal of Research and Development Peer Reviewed International, Open Access Journal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Website: https://jrdrvb.org Volume-17, Issue-10(IV)| October2025 92 Soil Contamination and Crop Response to Fly Ash and Effluent Discharge from Coal-Based Thermal Power Plants Vaibhav Bawankar1, Dr. Bharti Tapase2 1,2 Department of Environmental Science, Sevadal Mahila Mahavidyalaya Post Graduate Research Academy, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India Email- [email protected]m Manuscript ID: JRD -2025-171024 ISSN: 2230-9578 Volume 17 Issue 10(IV) Pp. 92-98 October 2025 Submitted: 25 Sept. 2025 Revised: 12 Oct. 2025 Accepted: 15 Oct. 2025 Published: 31 Oct. 2025 Abstract Thermal power plants (CFTPPs) are a major production source of electricity in a large number as well as the developing countries, and their environmental impact is becoming a topic of concern as a result of the fly ash and effluent release of the wastewater. These by-products have heavy metals, soluble salts, and organic residues that change soil physicochemical characteristics, interfere with microbial diversity, and influence crop production. This paper is a review of the recent literature (2018-2025) assessing the synergistic effects of fly ash and discharge effluents on soil quality, microbial ecology, and crop growth with the view of informing sustainable agricultural activities in the impacted areas. The results indicate that fly ash has effects of changing the soil PH, electrical conductivity, nutrient availability and cation exchange capacity whereas effluent irrigation enhances the heavy metal content, salinity and toxicity. Prolonged exposure lowers the microbial diversity and enzyme activities such as dehydrogenase and urease which are important signs of soil health. These altered in microbes interfere with the cycling of nutrients. The effect of pollution on crops is unpredictable, controlled fly ash amendments may enhance germination and productivity by providing necessary nutrients and stabilizing the soil texture but chronic exposure will almost always lead to poor growth, low productivity and accumulation of heavy metals in edible portions, which pose serious food safety issues. The review highlights the necessity of safe specifications of fly ash use, enhanced treatment of effluents, and the incorporation of microbial mediated remediation measures to rejuvenate the health of the soil and also offers an integrative framework in comprehending and managing the ecological foot print of thermal power generation that uses coal, thus empowering sustainable agriculture and environmental protection in energy dependent areas. Keywords: Fly ash, Soil microbiality, Heavy metals accumulation, Crop productivity, Thermal power plant Introduction Coal - fired thermal power plants (CFTPPs) continue to be a mainstay of electricity generation across many parts of the world, especially in emerging economies such as India and China. However, the by-products of coal combustion (mostly fly ash, suspended particulates and wastewater effluents) are increasingly being recognised as significant environmental contaminants. India alone produces several hundred million tonnes of fly ash every year, a significant fraction of which is still disposed off on land or ash ponds and thus posing risks to soil and agricultural ecosystems (Yousuf, 2020; Vig et al., 2023). Fly ash and effluents emitted from these plants are in the form of complex mixtures of heavy metals, soluble salts, and organic residues that cause changes to the soil properties either through direct irrigation with contaminated water or through atmospheric deposition and subsequent leaching (Romana et al. 2022; Luo et al., 2024). Their impact on soil physicochemical properties is complex: while some nutrients, such as calcium, potassium, and magnesium, are enriched, toxic metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead, often accumulate and thus impacting both fertility and increasing the ecological risk (Zhang et al., 2020; Rai, 2019). Quick Response Code: Website: https://jrdrvb.org/ DOI: Creative Commons (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International Public License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work noncommercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations ae licensed under the idential terms. Address for correspondence: Vaibhav Bawankar, Department of Environmental Science, Sevadal Mahila Mahavidyalaya Post Graduate Research Academy, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India How to cite this article: Vaibhav Bawankar, Dr. Bharti Tapase, (2025) Soil Contamination and Crop Response to Fly Ash and Effluent Discharge from Coal-Based Thermal Power Plants. Journal of Research & Development,17(10(IV)), 92-98 Original Article Journal of Research and Development Peer Reviewed International, Open Access Journal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Website: https://jrdrvb.org Volume-17, Issue-10(IV)| October2025 93 Beyond chemical modifications, discharges from thermal power plants have a strong effect on the biological integrity of the soil. Recent research has consistently reported on the existence of significant changes in microbial community composition and enzymatic activities in fly ash and heavy metal contaminated soils. For example, microbial diversity in the vicinity of coal-fired power stations has been found to decrease with community structures shifting in favour of more stress-tolerant taxa (Li et al., 2023; Su et al., 2023). A metagenomic study done in India also found distinct bacterial and fungal assemblages in fly ash contaminated soils, which is also an adaptive response to toxic environments (Das et al., 2022). These microbial changes have direct implications for nutrient cycling and soil health, and have long-term implications for agricultural productivity. Impacts on crops are also disturbing. Although controlled application of fly ash in combination with organic amendments can sometimes increase soil porosity and provide nutrients (Taupedi et al., 2022), uncontrolled exposure usually leads to decreased germination rates, reduced growth and accumulation of heavy metals in edible tissues, thereby raising food safety concerns (Rai, 2019). Moreover, according to recent modelling studies, the gaseous emissions from the production of coal power, especially nitrogen oxides and fine particulates, are responsible for the yield losses in staple crops such as rice and wheat (Singh et al., 2025) Given these outcomes, lesser agronomic benefits under regulated conditions versus widespread risks under unregulated discharge, there is a pressing need to synthesize recent studies on soil and crop responses. This review, therefore, examines literature published between 2018 and 2025, with particular attention to changes in soil physicochemical and biological properties, consequences for crop growth and food quality, and strategies proposed for mitigation. By integrating global evince with case studies from major Indian coal belts such as Singrauli, Korba, and Chandrapur (Romana et al., 2022), the review highlights both the challenges and potential management pathways for minimizing the agricultural footprint of coal-based thermal power plants. Rationale of the Study Coal-based thermal power stations discharge large amounts of fly ash and wastewater that often pollute adjoining farmlands. These pollutants modify the chemical and biological balance of soils, disturb microbial populations, and hinder crop productivity. Although past research has explored either soil contamination or plant response individually, comprehensive studies linking all these components remain scarce. Therefore, the present investigation focuses on understanding the combined effects of fly ash and industrial effluents on soil quality, microbial structure, and crop performance. The findings aim to support environmentally responsible farming practices and reduce the risks associated with contamination and food safety. Objectives 1. To examine how fly ash and thermal power plant effluents influence soil chemical and physical characteristics, nutrient composition, and heavy metal buildup. 2. To analyze the long-term effects of these pollutants on soil microbial diversity and key enzyme functions. 3. To study the germination, growth, and yield patterns of major food crops cultivated in affected soils. 4. To identify the interconnections among soil contamination, microbial alterations, and crop response for a holistic ecological understanding. Fig 1: Impact of Coal Power Plant Contamination Journal of Research and Development Peer Reviewed International, Open Access Journal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Website: https://jrdrvb.org Volume-17, Issue-10(IV)| October2025 94 Review of Literature Influence of Fly Ash and Effluent Discharge on Soil Properties Thermal power plants that operate on coal produce substantial quantities of fly ash and liquid waste, both of which strongly influence the quality of nearby agricultural soils. Fly ash mainly contains oxides of silicon, aluminium, and iron, and its introduction into soil changes essential physicochemical parameters such as PH, electrical conductivity, bulk density, and water-holding capacity (Horvatinec et al., 2024; Jeyaraj et al., 2024). When applied in moderate amounts, fly ash can actually improve soil structure, porosity, and nutrient supply, thereby supporting plant growth (Ultra Jr. et al., 2024). However, excessive or long-term accumulation tends to degrade soil quality because of the build-up of toxic trace elements. Liquid effluents from power plants often intensify this problem, as they contain elevated levels of salts and heavy metals like arsenic, mercury, cadmium, and lead. These substances are nonbiodegradable and persist in the soil for years, disturbing nutrient balance and reducing fertility (Zhang et al., 2022). The buildup of such metals not only alters soil chemistry but also heightens ecological risks for nearby ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2024). Extended exposure to these contaminants diminishes soil microbial activity and enzyme functions, which play vital roles in nutrient cycling (Li et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). Consequently, soil productivity decreases and the risk of toxic metals entering food chains rises, threatening both agricultural sustainability and food security. Changes in Soil Microbial Diversity and Enzyme Function Microbial life in soil drives nutrient transformations, organic matter decomposition, and overall soil health. The entry of fly ash and thermal-plant effluents disturbs soil chemistry—altering PH, ionic strength, redox potential, and metal levels and these shifts disrupt microbial communities. Studies near ash-disposal and combustion areas consistently show lower microbial richness and diversity, with dominance of metal-resistant groups such as Actinobacteria and some Proteobacteria (Li et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2023). This selective survival results in the loss of sensitive functional groups, including nitrifiers crucial for plant nutrition. Enzyme activities—such as those of dehydrogenase, urease, phosphatase, β-glucosidase, and catalase—serve as indicators of microbial metabolism. A comprehensive meta-analysis revealed that heavy metals like Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, and as markedly reduce soil enzyme activities, particularly dehydrogenase and arylsulfatase (Aponte et al., 2020). Field investigations confirm similar declines in soils impacted by fly ash or industrial effluents, suggesting weakened microbial respiration and nitrogen cycling (Nikolova, 2023; Li et al., 2024). Enzyme inhibition occurs both directly through metal binding or protein denaturation—and indirectly, due to loss of microbial biomass and changes in soil properties. Importantly, the bioavailable metal fraction better predicts enzyme suppression than total metal content, as it interacts directly with microbes (Zhang et al., 2024). Factors like soil PH, organic carbon, and clay content influence metal mobility and toxicity; higher organic matter usually complexes metals, thereby reducing harmful effects (Tang et al., 2024). Even so, restoration is possible. Studies using soil amendments such as biochar, compost, lime, or stabilized fly-ash mixtures show that enzyme activities and microbial diversity can recover once metal availability decreases and soil conditions improve (Li et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024). Regular monitoring of dehydrogenase, urease, soil organic carbon, and available metal concentrations provides an effective early-warning system for ecological stress and remediation success. Crop Behavior under Contaminated Soil Conditions The response of crops to soils affected by fly ash and power-plant effluents varies widely depending on soil type, contaminant concentration, crop species, and management practices. At low and regulated doses, fly ash can supply essential minerals such as Ca, Mg, K, and Se and improve soil porosity and water retention, sometimes enhancing plant growth and biomass (Bogacz & Kowalski, 2024; Kuznia et al., 2024). These advantages, however, are only achieved when the ash is properly blended with organic materials and applied within safe limits (Li et al., 2024; Horvatinec et al., 2024). Uncontrolled deposition or continuous application, on the other hand, usually harms plants. Increased salinity and high sodium adsorption ratios from effluents, combined with heavy metal accumulation, reduce germination rates, inhibit root development, and lower chlorophyll and yield (Rashid et al., 2023; Nowwar et al., 2023). Heavy metals also trigger oxidative stress, disrupt photosynthesis, and hinder nutrient absorption and hormone balance across a range of crops (Rashid et al., 2023; Chen, 2024). Metal uptake into edible plant parts poses additional food-safety concerns. Leafy and root vegetables often accumulate more Cd, Pb, and as than cereals, raising human health risks in affected regions (Nowwar et al., 2023; Manegabe et al., 2025). Studies on wastewater irrigation further reveal that while nutrient-rich effluents can temporarily raise yields, they also elevate metal concentrations in plants and soils over time, creating a difficult trade-off between productivity and safety (Saleh, 2025). Various mitigation measures can reduce these impacts. Mixing fly ash with compost, lime, or biochar lowers salinity and metal mobility, helping plants grow better and absorb fewer metals (Banda et al., 2024; Bogacz & Kowalski, 2024). Other strategies—such as phytoremediation, metal-accumulating plant rotations, and beneficial rhizobacteria inoculation—also promote healthier growth in contaminated fields (Banda et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024). Journal of Research and Development Peer Reviewed International, Open Access Journal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Website: https://jrdrvb.org Volume-17, Issue-10(IV)| October2025 95 Overall, recent research (2018–2025) underscores that fly ash and effluents can be beneficial only under controlled, amended, and closely monitored use. Otherwise, they lead to soil salinity, heavy-metal toxicity, physiological stress, yield reduction, and food-quality hazards. Hence, crop studies should routinely measure yield along with metal uptake, stress indicators, and bioavailable metal fractions to ensure sustainable management (Horvatinec et al., 2024; Rashid et al., 2023). Links between Soil Contamination, Microbial Changes, and Crop Growth Current evidence increasingly points to strong interconnections among soil contamination, microbial imbalance, and crop performance. Heavy metals and salts from fly ash and effluent discharge modify soil conditions that is, PH, redox status, and ionic strength selecting for tolerant microbial species while suppressing sensitive ones. Consequently, microbial diversity declines and soil enzyme activities such as urease and dehydrogenase fall (Li et al., 2024; Chen, 2024). These microbial alterations translate into lower functional capacity of the soil ecosystem. Simplified microbial communities are less efficient at nutrient mineralization, organic matter breakdown, and nitrogen cycling, which directly affects crop nutrition and productivity (Romero et al., 2023; Chen, 2024). Metal bioavailability, rather than total concentration, remains the main factor controlling these interactions higher bioavailable fractions lead to greater microbial disruption and higher plant metal uptake (Horvatinec et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). Environmental factors such as irrigation with untreated wastewater and seasonal flooding can further increase metal mobility, extending exposure for both microbes and crops. Additionally, the relationship between plant health and microbial life is reciprocal. Plants under stress release different root exudates, which reshape the rhizosphere microbiome, while the loss of beneficial plant-growth-promoting microbes reduces crop resistance to metal toxicity (Thepbandit et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024). This feedback loop amplifies the adverse effects on productivity. Encouragingly, integrated remediation methods have shown positive outcomes. Incorporating organic matter, lime, or stabilized fly-ash mixtures can lower metal availability, restore microbial diversity, and improve crop yield. Phytoremediation and microbial-based restoration also help detoxify soils and rebuild soil health (Munyai et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024; Banda et al., 2024). These studies emphasize that combining chemical stabilization, biological recovery, and agronomic management provides the most effective strategy for minimizing the agricultural damage caused by thermal-power emissions. Discussion The findings of this review underscore the wide-ranging effects of discharges from coal-fired thermal power plants (CFTPPs) on agricultural soils and the crops grown in those areas. Similar to earlier research, both fly ash and wastewater effluents were found to modify fundamental soil characteristics such as PH, electrical conductivity, and cation exchange capacity, with the degree of change depending on the amount applied and the duration of exposure. When used in controlled quantities, fly ash can supply essential nutrients like calcium, potassium, and magnesium, thereby improving soil fertility for a limited period (Taupedi et al., 2022). In contrast, uncontrolled or excessive accumulation leads to the enrichment of toxic elements such as arsenic, cadmium, and mercury, which disturb nutrient balance and contribute to long-term soil degradation (Zhang et al., 2020; Luo et al., 2024). Soil microorganisms and their enzymatic activities are among the most reliable indicators of pollution stress. Continuous exposure to fly ash and effluent inputs shifts microbial communities toward metaland salt-tolerant species, while overall microbial richness and key enzyme activities—such as those of urease, dehydrogenase, and phosphatase—decline noticeably (Li et al., 2023; Su et al., 2023; Sun et al., 2024). Encouragingly, management strategies involving lime, organic amendments, or inoculation with beneficial microbes have demonstrated partial recovery of biological soil functions (Munyai et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024). Plant responses further demonstrate the complex interactions between soil contamination and crop growth. Moderate incorporation of fly ash along with organic materials can improve seed germination, root development, and early plant vigor by enhancing soil texture and nutrient supply (Ultra Jr. et al., 2024). However, unregulated discharge of effluents and excessive ash deposition usually suppress yield through ion toxicity, oxidative damage, and accumulation of heavy metals within plant tissues (Rai, 2019; Zhang et al., 2022). Atmospheric emissions from CFTPPs have also been associated, in modeling analyses, with reduced regional yields of staple cereal crops (Singh et al., 2025). The observed interlinkages among soil contamination, microbial alteration, and crop performance present a coherent ecological pattern: soils with higher concentrations of heavy metals exhibit both diminished microbial diversity and reduced enzymatic activity, which together limit plant growth and productivity. These patterns indicate that monitoring microbial and enzymatic parameters could serve as an effective early-warning approach for evaluating soil health in regions influenced by thermal power plant activities (Romero et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024). Conclusion This study highlights that emissions of fly ash and wastewater from coal-based thermal power plants represent a major threat to soil quality, microbial balance, and agricultural productivity. Although limited and wellmanaged use of fly ash can momentarily enhance soil nutrient content, prolonged or uncontrolled exposure leads to the buildup of toxic metals, a decline in microbial diversity, reduced enzyme function, and lower crop yields. These Journal of Research and Development Peer Reviewed International, Open Access Journal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Website: https://jrdrvb.org Volume-17, Issue-10(IV)| October2025 96 findings stress the necessity for environmentally sound management practices that combine chemical stabilization, biological restoration, and agronomic improvement measures. The relationships identified among soil pollution levels, microbial community alterations, and crop responses emphasize the need for comprehensive monitoring systems in agricultural regions surrounding CFTPPs. Implementing policies that encourage the safe reuse of fly ash, strengthen wastewater treatment, and support microbial or bio-based remediation methods will be crucial in minimizing adverse effects. Future investigations should focus on long-term, field-based evaluations across various farming environments and aim to create predictive models that connect soil health parameters with crop performance under contamination stress. Advancing such integrated research and policy frameworks will be vital for achieving a sustainable balance between energy production, agricultural resilience, and food security in regions dependent on coal energy (Figure 1). Illustrates the temporal trends in major ecological indicators influenced by fly ash and effluent releases from coal-fired thermal power plants. It shows a progressive increase in soil contamination accompanied by corresponding declines in microbial activity and crop productivity over time. Figure 1. Trends in soil contamination, microbial diversity, enzymatic activity, and crop yield (2018–2025). Recommendations Drawing on the reviewed evidence, the following measures are proposed to mitigate the agricultural and ecological challenges arising from fly ash and effluent discharges of coal-fired thermal power plants (CFTPPs): 1. Enhancement of Waste Management Systems Thermal power plants should implement modern ash handling technologies and construct well-lined ash ponds to curb the leaching of heavy metals into nearby soils. The adoption of dry fly ash collection systems and its productive reuse in construction, land reclamation, and infrastructure projects should be encouraged to minimize direct deposition on agricultural land. 2. Regulated and Scientific Application of Fly Ash Although limited fly ash application can improve soil texture and nutrient content, its agricultural use must adhere to scientifically approved protocols. Continuous evaluation of soil PH, electrical conductivity, and heavy metal concentration is essential to ensure that the potential benefits do not outweigh environmental and food safety risks. 3. Upgrading Effluent Treatment Processes Effluents from thermal plants should be subjected to thorough treatment to reduce salinity and eliminate heavy metal contaminants before release. In regions with limited resources, cost-effective and eco-friendly technologies such as constructed wetlands and biochar-based filtration systems can serve as sustainable treatment alternatives. 4. Use of Microbial and Enzymatic Indicators in Soil Monitoring Integrating microbial diversity assessments and enzymatic activities such as urease, dehydrogenase, and phosphatase into soil monitoring programs can provide early warnings of declining soil health. These biological indicators are often more responsive and sensitive to pollution stress than conventional chemical analyses. Journal of Research and Development Peer Reviewed International, Open Access Journal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Website: https://jrdrvb.org Volume-17, Issue-10(IV)| October2025 97 5. Promotion of Agroecological Remediation Strategies The incorporation of organic matter, biochar, and metal-tolerant rhizobacteria can help reduce heavy metal bioavailability, restore microbial activity, and enhance soil enzymatic balance. Further research should focus on how microbial consortia contribute to detoxification processes while improving crop tolerance to contamination. 6. Cropand Site-Specific Risk Evaluation Agricultural management near power plants should be guided by localized risk assessments. Crop planning should emphasize species known for minimal heavy metal accumulation and higher resistance to saline or oxidative conditions, thus limiting the transfer of contaminants into the food chain. 7. Policy Reinforcement and Farmer Education Stricter enforcement of environmental standards governing emissions and waste disposal from power plants is essential. Alongside policy measures, awareness campaigns and training programs should educate farmers on safe irrigation methods, soil conservation practices, and techniques for reducing contamination risks. 8. Future Research Comprehensive, long-term studies across multiple agroecological regions are needed to assess how soil, microbial, and crop systems respond collectively to contamination. 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