Teacher Expertise as a Mediator Between Household Skills Education and High School Student Independence

ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 Teacher Expertise as a Mediator Between Household Skills Education and High School Student Independence Ruthelo P. Teng Abstract. This study investigated the mediating role of teacher expertise in the relationship between household skills education and student independence among junior high school students in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City using a non-experimental quantitative design with descriptive-correlational technique and Baron and Kenny’s (1986) mediation method. Results revealed that household skills education is moderately extensive, particularly in resourcefulness, while time management remains the least developed aspect. Student independence was found to be extensive overall, though self-management lagged in consistency. Teacher expertise was likewise moderately extensive, with strengths in classroom motivation and instructional materials, and weaknesses in differentiated instruction and facilitation of critical thinking. A strong and significant relationship was observed between household skills education and both teacher expertise and student independence, while teacher expertise and student independence also shared a moderate, significant connection. Mediation analysis showed that teacher expertise served as a suppressor variable, slightly weakening the positive effect of household skills education on student independence. It is recommended that DepEd officials, school heads, and teachers prioritize differentiated instruction, autonomy-building strategies, and sustainability education. At the same time, future research should explore the nuanced interplay between teacher behaviors and student independence across various learning contexts. KEY WORDS 1. Household skills education 2. student independence 3. teacher expertise 4. mediation analysis 5. instructional balance Date Received: August 15, 2025 — Date Reviewed: September 20, 2025 — Date Published: October 10, 2025 1. Introduction Student independence is a critical aspect of academic success, yet it remains a problematic issue in many educational settings. Many students struggle to manage their learning effectively, often relying heavily on teachers and external support for direction rather than taking ownership of their educational journey. This lack of independence can manifest in poor time management, ineffective decision-making, and underdeveloped problem-solving skills, all of which are crucial for academic and personal growth. The issue is further compounded by the fact that many educational systems emphasize rote learning and standardized testing over selfdirected learning, leaving students ill-prepared to navigate complex, real-world challenges. As NIJSE (2025) - a result, students often lack the confidence and autonomy needed to thrive in academic and life settings. To address this issue, it is essential to explore factors such as household skills education and teacher expertise as potential contributors to improving student independence. Household skills education, which teaches students practical life skills such as time management, problem-solving, and resourcefulness, can play a pivotal role in fostering self-reliance. Similarly, teacher expertise in guiding and facilitating independent learning through effective instructional strategies is crucial. Teachers who possess high levels of pedagogical knowledge and adaptive teaching methods can create learning environments that encourage students to take initiative and develop autonomy. By focusing on these contributing factors, educators can cultivate an educational experience that equips students with both the academic and practical skills necessary for greater independence. Issues regarding students’ lack of learning independence across various countries, including the USA, the UK, the Arabian Peninsula, Asia, and the Philippines, have been a growing concern in educational discourse. In the USA, Gaffney and Jesson (2019) emphasized the importance of students being aware of their learning progress to sustain independence. They argued that students must actively engage with their learning material and assessments to develop the necessary skills for independent learning. However, many students in the USA struggle with this level of engagement, leading them to rely on teacher guidance and feedback. Mazenod et al. (2019) further investigated the issue in the UK, noting that teachers often perceive students in lower-attainment groups as dependent learners, thereby reinforcing patterns of dependency rather than fostering independence. This approach hinders students’ ability to take ownership of their learning and contributes to a cycle of underachievement. In Arabian countries, cultural and social dynamics also play a role in limiting student independence. Anas (2020) explored Saudi students’ perceptions of blended learning environments, noting that while technology can foster autonomy, many students still rely heavily on teacher direction due to traditional educational practices. Similarly, Denman and Al-Mahrooqi (2019) examined the use of English as a medium of instruction in higher education institutions in Oman. They found that students often depend on teachers for language support, inhibiting their ability to engage independently with academic content. The reliance on teacher guidance in language learning contexts often stifles students’ ability to develop the autonomy needed for broader academic success. In the Asian context, the transition from teacherdirected to self-directed learning presents significant challenges. Yasmin et al. (2019) identified key barriers to this transition in Pakistan, highlighting the lack of institutional support and the traditional focus on rote learning. These factors prevent students from developing the critical thinking and problem-solving skills necessary for independent learning. Similarly, Faragher et al. (2021) reported on the challenges faced by students with intellectual disabilities in Asian countries, where inclusive education policies often fail to equip students with the skills needed for autonomy. These systemic issues highlight the need for educational reforms that prioritize student independence and self-management. In the Philippines, the shift to online distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated student dependence. Manalo et al. (2022) explored the challenges faced by students in a public secondary school. They found that many struggled with time management and self-discipline in the absence of direct teacher supervision. This lack of self-regulation led to decreased academic performance, underscoring the urgent need for interventions that foster independent learning skills. Trinidad (2020) also examined student-centered learning in higher education in the Philippines, noting that both 2ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - students and teachers often experience cognitive gaps that hinder the effective implementation of independent learning strategies. In higher education, the transition to independent learning can be particularly challenging for international students. Hosseini-Nezhad et al. (2019) analyzed the psychosocial adaptation of Iranian students studying in Hungary, finding that, while they longed for independence, they still relied heavily on family support, which impeded their full adaptation to an independent learning environment. McGleenon and Morison (2021) explored a similar issue in the UK and Ireland, where dental students were found to struggle with the shift from guided clinical training to independent practice. These findings underscore the need for more structured support systems that gradually prepare students for independent learning while recognizing the cultural and institutional factors that influence student autonomy. Meanwhile, the research gap that led to the study stems from the limited investigation into how practical life skills, such as household education, intersect with teacher expertise to promote student independence in learning. While numerous studies have examined the direct influence of household skills education on student outcomes, few have explored the mediating role of teacher expertise in this relationship. Teacher expertise is a critical component that can either enhance or diminish the effectiveness of household skills education, yet this factor remains underexplored in educational research. Moreover, much of the existing literature tends to focus on either teacher quality or life skills education in isolation, rather than considering how they work together to foster student autonomy and independence. This study seeks to address this gap by investigating the combined influence of these variables on high school students, providing insights that can inform both curriculum development and teaching strategies. Moreover, the urgency to conduct this study in the Cluster 2 public secondary schools in Davao City, where the researcher is stationed, is heightened by the growing demand to foster student independence in an increasingly complex and competitive educational environment. Local schools are facing challenges in preparing students to be self-reliant learners who can manage their academic responsibilities alongside personal development. This is particularly relevant in Davao City, where students may face additional socioeconomic challenges that can affect their ability to develop essential life skills. By focusing on teacher expertise as a mediator, this study will provide valuable insights into how educators in this region can enhance their teaching practices to better support students in becoming independent learners. The findings will offer practical implications for improving both household skills education and teacher professional development, thereby contributing to overall improvements in educational outcomes in the region. 1.1. Review of Significant Literature— 1.1.1. Household Skills Education— Household skills education develops practical abilities—cooking, cleaning, budgeting, and household maintenance—that support independence and real-life competence. Research consistently shows that moderate exposure to these skills helps students build self-reliance, adaptability, and problem-solving (Gyimah Sampson, 2019; Burke Cleaver, 2019; Basal, 2022). In the context of TLE, structured but balanced instruction enables learners to connect theory with hands-on tasks, strengthening both academic and personal development (Elli Ricafort, 2020; Hancock Hollamby, 2020; Berkova et al., 2019). Household responsibilities also foster independence by requiring students to manage tasks alongside academic obligations. Studies show that taking part in household duties develops responsibility, autonomy, and self-regulation, especially among first-generation or highly involved family learners (Covarrubias et al., 2019; 3ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Dettmers et al., 2019). For learners with diverse needs, such as autistic students, life-skills education enhances functional independence and daily living skills (Zatz Harrison, 2024). Integrating digital tools into household learning further promotes autonomy and personalized learning (Schmid Petko, 2019). 1.1.2. Effective Time Management—Time management is central to household skills education. It includes scheduling chores, prioritizing responsibilities, and creating structured routines. Research confirms that moderate time management competence predicts better academic performance, self-regulated learning, and independence (Afsaneh et al., 2019; Alvarez Sainz et al., 2019). Students who practice consistent household routines develop discipline and are better able to manage academic workloads (Wolters Brady, 2021; Adams Blair, 2019). Time management skills also reduce stress, improve productivity, and support learners’ ability to balance personal and academic tasks (Alani et al., 2020). Thus, integrating time management into household skills programs promotes both academic success and life-readiness. 1.1.3. Problem-Solving in Practical Tasks—Problem-solving in household contexts involves identifying issues, analyzing possible solutions, and applying practical knowledge. Studies show that high levels of handson engagement—such as fixing appliances, managing resources, or resolving household issues—strengthen critical thinking and adaptive reasoning (Argelag ´ os et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2019). Collaborative tasks and structured planning further increase students’ ability to solve real-world challenges (Rojas et al., 2021). Digital task analysis and computational thinking approaches also support practical problem-solving, building confidence and selfefficacy (Karaoglan Yilmaz, 2022; Eickelmann et al., 2019). Overall, household skills education serves as a meaningful platform for developing transferable problem-solving abilities. 1.1.4. Resourcefulness in Using Household Items—Resourcefulness entails using available materials creatively, repurposing items, and completing tasks efficiently. Studies show that moderate proficiency in household tasks strengthens resilience, adaptability, and practical problem-solving (Dison et al., 2019; Li et al., 2018). This skill fosters flexibility in unfamiliar situations and promotes innovative thinking—qualities linked to academic success and real-life functioning. Resourcefulness also supports overall life balance and academic engagement (Kennett et al., 2019; Reed et al., 2019). Students who are accustomed to navigating constraints at home demonstrate stronger coping mechanisms and greater capacity to manage school demands. 1.1.5. Adherence to Safety and Hygiene Practices—Safety and hygiene skills—proper handling of tools, sanitation, accident prevention, and maintaining cleanliness—are essential components of household education. Research shows that moderate training substantially improves compliance with hygiene protocols and safe work practices (Erasmus et al., 2020; Moghnia et al., 2021; Sandbekken et al., 2022). These competencies are especially critical in contexts involving food preparation and infection control. Moreover, safety instruction lowers health risks and builds awareness of personal and communal responsibility (Bekele et al., 2020; Mbroh, 2019). Such practices extend beyond the household, equipping students with habits that enhance well-being and preparedness in educational and professional environments. 1.1.6. Student Independence—Student independence refers to a learner’s ability to selfmonitor, plan, and make decisions about their learning without relying excessively on others (Zackariasson, 2020). Research emphasizes the importance of moderate independence, where students are guided but also given freedom 4ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - to develop autonomy. Independence strengthens critical thinking, decision-making, and selfmanagement (Magnusson Zackariasson, 2019; Thompson et al., 2021). Independent learning improves engagement, comprehension, and adaptability across different learning contexts, including flipped classrooms and remote learning (Pejuan Antonijuan, 2019; Fox Docherty, 2019). Independence also enhances prosocial behavior and resilience in changing environments (Yulianto et al., 2019; Daar, 2020). 1.2. Self-Management—Self-management includes goal setting, emotional regulation, task organization, and persistence. Studies show that moderate self-management support helps learners maintain motivation, improve readiness, and regulate their behavior in independent learning environments (Zhu et al., 2020; Niu Niemi, 2020). Effective interventions reduce behavioral issues and strengthen academic focus (Smith et al., 2022). In online and blended learning, guided selfmanagement enhances student readiness and performance (Hamutoglu et al., 2021). Peersupported self-management initiatives also benefit diverse learners, including those with ASD (Roberts et al., 2019). 1.2.1. Decision-Making Skills—Decisionmaking involves evaluating choices, predicting outcomes, and selecting strategies that support learning. Research shows that giving students structured autonomy strengthens decisionmaking and enhances independence (Spatz et al., 2019; Sever Ersoy, 2019). Decision-making is closely tied to critical thinking, problemsolving, and academic engagement (Orhan, 2022). Collaborative reasoning and curriculumbased interventions improve students’ ability to make informed choices (Bayat et al., 2022; Shelton et al., 2023). These studies highlight that moderate decision-making opportunities promote deeper understanding and responsible learning. 1.2.2. Problem-Solving Abilities—Students with moderate autonomy in solving academic and real-life problems perform better across cognitive tasks. Structured learning models—such as PBL, STEM-based approaches, and reflective problem-solving frameworks—improve both metacognition and academic performance (Mahanal et al., 2022; Simatupang et al., 2019; Topsakal et al., 2022). Independence strengthens analytical thinking and strategy selection ( ˙ Idawati et al., 2020; Shanta Wells, 2022). 1.2.3. Teacher Expertise—Teacher expertise involves mastery of pedagogy, subject knowledge, adaptive teaching, and the ability to foster active learning (Bostock, 2019). High levels of teacher expertise directly enhance instructional quality, student engagement, and independent learning. Studies highlight frameworks such as TPeCS and PCK integration, which demonstrate how expert teachers effectively combine content, pedagogy, and technology to support student growth (Kali et al., 2019; Kind Chan, 2019; N ´ ı R ´ ıord ´ ain et al., 2019). Teacher expertise also influences adaptability, reflective teaching, and responsiveness to student needs (M¨ annikk¨ o Husu, 2019; Vilppu et al., 2019). Expert teachers create environments that promote independence, self-regulation, and practical skill development. Their competence mediates student outcomes, satisfaction, and autonomy (Bl ¨ omeke et al., 2022; Klemenz et al., 2019; Bruggeman et al., 2021; Herodotou et al., 2019). Effective instructors also ensure that household skills education is meaningful by integrating competence-based and technologyenhanced approaches (Theelen et al., 2019; Van Griethuijsen et al., 2020; Murillo-Zamorano et al., 2019). Teacher expertise mediates safety, creativity, instructional quality, and even emotion-based learning, supporting students’ independence 5ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - and capacity to apply practical skills (Fauth et al., 2019; Georgiou et al., 2020; Cai et al., 2022; Supermane, 2019). 1.3. SYnthesis—Household Skills Education was defined as the process of equipping individuals with essential life skills for effectively managing a home, including cooking, cleaning, budgeting, and basic repairs (Gyimah Sampson, 2019). This type of education plays a crucial role in fostering independence by allowing learners to apply practical skills in their daily lives, thereby contributing to both their personal and social development. Studies like that of Burke and Cleaver (2019) highlight the importance of moderate exposure to household tasks, as it helps students engage in real-life problemsolving, enhancing their overall growth and adaptability. This balanced approach to household skills education is vital in helping students integrate these skills into their academic and personal development. The importance of household skills education, particularly within structured programs such as Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE), is emphasized in studies such as Basal’s (2022). Moderate exposure to practical tasks helps students build a foundation of self-sufficiency while preparing them for future challenges. Elli and Ricafort (2020) further elaborate on the essential role of TLE teachers in providing both theoretical and practical education, which balances academic learning with essential life skills. This structured approach enables students to manage household responsibilities, which are critical for fostering independence and preparing them for life beyond the classroom. Additional research supports integrating household skills education into students’ learning processes. For instance, Hancock and Hollamby (2020) argue that moderate instruction in practical tasks helps students bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and realworld application. Additionally, Berkova et al. (2019) argue that household skills education can be directly linked to employability, as it prepares students to handle practical workplace challenges. This combined approach of moderate exposure to household tasks and the development of vocational competencies illustrates the broad applicability of household skills education in both personal and professional settings, ultimately fostering student independence and preparedness for future roles. 1.4. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework— This study was anchored on the Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977), the Constructivist Theory (Piaget, 1969), and the Self-Determination Theory (Deci Ryan, 1985). Social Learning Theory posits that individuals learn behaviors, skills, and attitudes by observing and imitating others, particularly authority figures or role models. In the educational context, teachers play a key role in modeling behaviors and facilitating skill acquisition through demonstration and interaction. This theory was appropriate for the study because it highlights the importance of teacher expertise as a central factor in shaping students’ household skills. The theory also aligns with the idea that teacher modeling and feedback can mediate the effectiveness of household skills education, ultimately influencing students’ independence. Since students often mimic the problem-solving strategies and time-management skills demonstrated by their teachers, Social Learning Theory provides a solid foundation for understanding how teacher expertise impacts these outcomes. In support of this, Constructivist Theory suggests that learners actively construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experience and reflection. In this approach, teachers serve as facilitators who guide students in applying learned skills to real-world problems, thereby promoting autonomy and independence. This theory was relevant to the study, as it underscores students’ active role in household skills education. Teacher expertise, in this context, serves as a mediator, helping students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills and 6ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - enabling them to become independent learners. The constructivist approach also supports the notion that student independence was cultivated through guided learning, making it a strong theoretical basis for examining the relationship between household skills education and student autonomy. Also, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering intrinsic motivation and independence. According to SDT, individuals become more self-sufficient when they feel competent and are given opportunities to make independent decisions. This theory is suitable for the study because it aligns with the idea that teacher expertise can enhance students’ sense of competence in household skills, thereby promoting greater independence. By providing appropriate guidance and support, teachers can foster a learning environment that encourages students to take responsibility for their learning and problem-solving. SDT’s focus on autonomy and competence directly correlates with the study’s aim of understanding how household skills education impacts student independence through the mediation of teacher expertise. Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework of the study, which helped the researcher summarize and briefly state the concept of the study. The independent variable is household skills education, or the process of teaching individuals the practical skills needed to manage and maintain a home effectively, including tasks like cooking, cleaning, budgeting, and basic repairs. The measures of household skills education are effective time management or the ability of students to efficiently allocate time for household tasks alongside academic and extracurricular activities; problem-solving in practical tasks or the students’ ability to identify, analyze, and resolve challenges encountered in everyday household activities; resourcefulness in using household items or students’ ability to creatively and efficiently utilize available household materials to complete tasks or solve problems; and adherence to safety and hygiene practices or students’ ability to consistently follow safety guidelines and maintain cleanliness while performing household tasks. The dependent variable of the study is student independence or the student’s ability to take responsibility for organizing, planning, and controlling their own learning activities. The measures of student independence are self-management, or the student’s ability to effectively regulate their learning process skills, including setting goals, managing time, and maintaining focus; decision-making skills, or the student’s ability to make informed choices regarding their learning strategies, tasks, and academic goals; and problem-solving abilities, or the student’s capacity to identify challenges or obstacles in their learning process and develop effective solutions. It involves critical thinking, creativity, and the application of knowledge to overcome academic difficulties and enhance learning outcomes. Moreover, the mediating variable is teacher expertise, defined as the ability to effectively guide, support, and enhance students’ learning experiences through mastery of instructional techniques, subject knowledge, and classroom strategies. 1.5. Statement of the Problem—The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the mediating role of teacher expertise on the relationship between household skills education and student independence in Cluster 2 public secondary schools in Davao City. Therefore, the study sought to answer the following questions: (1) What is the extent of household skills education in terms of: (1) Effective time management 7ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Fig. 1. The Conceptual Framework of the Study 8ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - (2) Problem-solving in practical tasks (3) resourcefulness in using household items; and (4) Adherence to safety and hygiene practices? (2) What is the extent of student independence in terms of: (1) self-management; (2) decision-making skills; and (3) Problem-solving abilities? (3) What is the extent of teacher expertise? (4) I s there a significant relationship among household skills education, student independence, and teacher expertise? (5) D o teacher expertise mediate the relationship between household skills education and student independence? 1.6. Hypotheses—The following hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance: H01: There is no significant relationship among household skills education, student independence, and teacher expertise. H02: Teacher expertise does not mediate the relationship between household skills education and student independence. For a more comprehensive understanding, the following terms were defined operationally: Household Skills Education It was understood conceptually as the instruction in practical abilities necessary for efficiently managing and maintaining a household. This includes everyday tasks such as cooking, cleaning, budgeting, and performing basic repairs. Its primary goal was to promote independence by providing learners with essential life skills that support both personal and social growth. In this study, household skills education serves as the independent variable, with key aspects including effective time management, problem-solving in practical tasks, resourcefulness in using household items, and adherence to safety and hygiene practices. Student Independence It was defined conceptually as the student’s ability to take responsibility for organizing, planning, and controlling their own learning activities. In this study, the dependent variable is described in terms of self-management, decision-making skills, and problem-solving abilities. Teacher Expertise This was described as the ability to skillfully guide and enhance students’ learning by applying a deep understanding of instructional methods, subject matter, and classroom strategies. It involves adapting teaching techniques to address students’ diverse needs while fostering a learning environment that encourages independence and active participation. In this study, teacher expertise serves as a mediating variable, expected to clarify the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. 2. Methodology This section contained the research design, research respondents, research ethics, research instrument, research procedure, data collection, and data analysis. 2.1. Research Design—This study employed a quantitative research approach, specifically the descriptive-correlational technique with mediation analysis, to gather relevant data and insights. According to Ahmad et al. (2019), a quantitative research design involves the struc9ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - dence and productivity. 3.2. Household Skills Education in Terms of Problem-Solving in Practical Tasks —In Table 2, the mean for household skills education among junior high school students in problemsolving in practical tasks was 3.36, indicating a moderately extensive level. This indicates that students sometimes demonstrate the ability to address and resolve household-related challenges, though the consistency of these behaviors remains limited. The moderately extensive rating indicates that, while learners demonstrate emerging competence in practical problem-solving, they still need guided exposure and structured practice to develop these skills further. As emphasized by Argelag ´ os et al. (2022), cultivating problem-solving abilities in real-life settings equips students with essential cognitive and decision-making skills. In parallel, Zhang et al. (2019) highlighted the importance of experiential learning in enhancing adaptability and resilience, especially in managing domestic tasks and unpredictable household scenarios. The statement ”Overcoming difficulties in performing household-related duties” had the highest mean of 3.46, indicating that students are relatively adept at confronting and managing challenges in household work. In contrast, the statement Evaluating the best approach to complete a household task registered the lowest mean at 3.24, indicating a need for improvement in strategic decision-making and task assessment. This disparity implied that while students can persist through tasks, they may lack refined judgment in selecting optimal methods. Karaoglan Yilmaz (2022) noted that adolescents often rely on trial-and-error rather than planned strategies, underscoring the need for structured interventions that teach critical evaluation skills. Consequently, schools and families are encouraged to provide learners with more opportunities to reflect on task performance and practice solution-oriented thinking within supportive environments. Table 2. Household Skills Education in Terms of Problem-Solving in Practical Tasks No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Identifying solutions to household problems (e.g., fixing a broken item). 3.36 Moderately Extensive 2 Finding alternatives when household resources are unavailable. 3.39 Moderately Extensive 3 Adapting to unexpected challenges during household chores. 3.35 Moderately Extensive 4 Evaluating the best approach to complete a household task. 3.24 Moderately Extensive 5 Overcoming difficulties in performing household-related duties. 3.46 Extensive Mean 3.36 Moderately Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Demonstrated. Extensive = Oftentimes Demonstrated. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Demonstrated. Less Extensive = Seldom Demonstrated. Not Extensive = Never Demonstrated. 3.3. Household Skills Education in Terms of Resourcefulness in Using Household Items —In Table 3, the mean for household skills education among junior high school students in terms of resourcefulness in using household items is 3.39, indicating a moderately extensive level. This suggested that students occasionally demonstrated the ability to use household items innovatively, although such behaviors are not consistently practiced. The moderately extensive rating indicates a developing awareness of resource efficiency, creativity, and sustainability, which are essential in managing domestic responsibilities. According to Wright and Richmond Mynett (2019), promoting resourcefulness among students enhances their problem16 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - solving and adaptability skills, especially in lowresource environments. Similarly, Kennett et al. (2019) asserted that fostering creativity in everyday tasks prepares learners for real-world challenges by encouraging independent thinking and environmental responsibility. Table 3. Household Skills Education in Terms of Resourcefulness in Using Household Items No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Using available household items creatively to solve tasks. 3.65 Extensive 2 Reusing household materials to minimize waste. 3.12 Moderately Extensive 3 Maximizing the utility of limited resources for household chores. 3.67 Extensive 4 Finding alternative uses for common household objects. 3.38 Moderately Extensive 5 Conserving household resources through efficient use. 3.14 Moderately Extensive Mean 3.39 Moderately Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Demonstrated. Extensive = Oftentimes Demonstrated. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Demonstrated. Less Extensive = Seldom Demonstrated. Not Extensive = Never Demonstrated. The highest-rated statement is Maximizing the utility of limited resources for household chores, with a mean of 3.67 and classified as extensive, indicating that students frequently demonstrate this ability. In contrast, the lowestrated statement was Reusing household materials to minimize waste, with a mean of 3.12, indicating it was moderately extensive, suggesting that sustainability practices like reuse were not yet firmly integrated into students’ routines. This discrepancy shows that while students may be resourceful in terms of utility, they still need to build consistent habits in sustainability-focused behaviors. As noted by Reed et al. (2019), environmental education embedded in household management can increase students’ consciousness and accountability for ecological practices. Thus, educators and parents should provide targeted activities that highlight the value of resource reuse, ecological conservation, and waste reduction in everyday household contexts. 3.4. Household Skills Education in Terms of Adherence to Safety and Hygiene Practices —In Table 4, the mean for household skills education regarding adherence to safety and hygiene practices was 3.31, indicating moderately extensive education. This rating implies that junior high school students sometimes demonstrate proper hygiene and safety behaviors during household tasks, but these practices were not consistently observed. The moderately extensive level reflects the need for stronger reinforcement of safety measures and sanitary habits in the home setting. According to Erasmus et al. (2020), teaching hygiene and safety in early adolescence was crucial to instill lifelong healthconscious behavior. Meanwhile, Sandbekken et al. (2022) emphasized that integrating practical demonstrations and role-playing enhances students’ understanding and retention of safe household practices. Among the listed indicators, the highest-rated statement was Wearing appropriate safety gear during tasks that require it, which received an extensive rating, indicating that students were often mindful of their safety when using tools or handling potentially harmful materials. In contrast, the lowest-rated statement was Observing proper hygiene practices when handling food and kitchen items, which received a moderately extensive rating, highlighting a gap in consistent food safety awareness. This suggests that while general safety may be understood, there was a specific need 17 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - to reinforce hygiene protocols, particularly in food preparation and sanitation. As noted by Moghnia et al. (2021), basic food hygiene was a cornerstone of public health education and should be deeply integrated into schooland home-based training. Therefore, schools and parents should collaborate in emphasizing personal cleanliness and food safety practices as part of students’ routine household responsibilities. Table 4. Household Skills Education in Terms of Adherence to Safety and Hygiene Practices No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Following safety protocols when handling household tools or appliances. 3.38 Moderately Extensive 2 Maintaining cleanliness while performing household chores. 3.24 Moderately Extensive 3 Wearing appropriate safety gear during tasks that require it. 3.46 Extensive 4 Disinfecting surfaces after completing household duties. 3.24 Moderately Extensive 5 Observing proper hygiene practices when handling food and kitchen items. 3.22 Moderately Extensive Mean 3.31 Moderately Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Demonstrated. Extensive = Oftentimes Demonstrated. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Demonstrated. Less Extensive = Seldom Demonstrated. Not Extensive = Never Demonstrated. 3.4.1. Summary on Household Skills Education in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City —In Table 5, the mean for household skills education among junior high school students across all four domains is 3.31, indicating moderately extensive education. This overall rating suggests that students sometimes demonstrate the necessary competencies in managing household tasks but do not consistently do so across different skill areas. The findings highlight the importance of reinforcing household management education to strengthen students’ practical life skills. According to Basal (2022), a moderate level of household competence indicates foundational understanding but requires structured learning and habitual reinforcement to ensure long-term application. Moreover, Burke and Cleaver (2019) emphasized that integrating real-life domestic tasks into formal and informal instruction enhances student responsibility, efficiency, and independence at home. Among the domains, Resourcefulness in Using Household Items ranks highest with a moderately extensive rating, indicating students were developing creative and efficient ways to manage limited household resources. In contrast, Effective Time Management is the lowest-rated domain, suggesting a need for focused interventions to help students prioritize, plan, and execute domestic tasks more efficiently. This discrepancy suggests that while learners show promise in creative problem-solving, they struggle to organize their time and balance responsibilities effectively. As noted by Elli and Ricafort (2020), time management is a critical life skill that supports overall productivity and reduces household-related stress among students. Therefore, both educators and parents should collaborate to model time-conscious behaviors and provide learners with tools such as chore charts or time trackers to improve their household task management. 18 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Table 5. Summary on Household Skills Education in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Effective Time Management 3.16 Moderately Extensive 2 Problem-Solving in Practical Tasks 3.36 Moderately Extensive 3 Resourcefulness in Using Household Items 3.39 Moderately Extensive 4 Adherence to Safety and Hygiene Practices 3.31 Moderately Extensive Mean 3.31 Moderately Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Demonstrated. Extensive = Oftentimes Demonstrated. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Demonstrated. Less Extensive = Seldom Demonstrated. Not Extensive = Never Demonstrated. 3.5. Student Independence in Terms of Self-management —In Table 6, the mean for student independence in self-management is 3.35, indicating moderately extensive independence. This rating implies that junior high school students sometimes demonstrate self-regulation skills such as organizing study routines, setting goals, and managing distractions, though these behaviors are not consistently evident. The moderately extensive level reflects a developing sense of academic responsibility, suggesting the need for structured support to build stronger habits of autonomy. According to Zhu et al. (2020), nurturing self-management in early adolescence fosters lifelong learning and personal accountability. Similarly, Niu and Niemi (2020) stressed that providing students with opportunities to make decisions about their learning tasks reinforces intrinsic motivation and independence. Table 6. Student Independence in Terms of Self-management No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Organizing study materials and assignments effectively. 3.24 Moderately Extensive 2 Maintaining a consistent study schedule without external reminders. 3.37 Moderately Extensive 3 Taking responsibility for completing tasks on time. 3.43 Extensive 4 Managing distractions while studying or working on school tasks. 3.39 Moderately Extensive 5 Setting personal academic goals and working towards them independently. 3.33 Moderately Extensive Mean 3.35 Moderately Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Evident. Extensive = Oftentimes Evident. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Evident. Less Extensive = Seldom Evident. Not Extensive = Never Evident. Among the statements, the highest-rated is Taking responsibility for completing tasks on time, which received an extensive rating, indicating that students are frequently dependable in meeting academic responsibilities. In contrast, the lowest-rated is Organizing study materials and assignments effectively, rated as moderately extensive, revealing a weakness in personal organization strategies. This gap highlights the importance of equipping students with tools such as planners, checklists, and digital reminders to enhance task organization. 19 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - As Smith et al. (2022) pointed out, effective organization is foundational to academic success and reduces stress associated with missed deadlines or forgotten assignments. Therefore, educators should integrate timeand materialmanagement strategies into classroom instruction, while parents can support by modeling organized behavior at home. 3.6. Student Independence in Terms of Decision-making Skills —In Table 7, the mean for student independence in decision-making skills is 3.45, indicating extensive independence. This suggests that junior high school students often demonstrate the ability to make sound academic decisions, such as selecting effective strategies and solving challenges through personal judgment. The extensive rating indicates a welldeveloped capacity for independent thinking, highlighting students’ readiness to take ownership of their learning process. According to Spatz et al. (2019), decision-making in adolescence is crucial for developing academic selfefficacy and achieving long-term goals. Likewise, Sever and Ersoy (2019) emphasized that students with stronger decision-making skills tend to exhibit greater responsibility and adaptability in educational settings. Among the indicators, the highest-rated statement is ”Weighing different options before making decisions about school tasks,” which is rated as extensive, indicating that students frequently reflect before acting. On the other hand, the lowestrated statement is Evaluating the consequences of different academic decisions, which is interpreted as moderately extensive, suggesting that students are less consistent in anticipating outcomes. This highlights a need for deeper instruction on reflective thinking and foresight when making academic choices. As noted by Bayat et al. (2022), teaching students to consider the potential outcomes of their decisions helps build critical thinking and responsible behavior. Therefore, teachers should incorporate decision-making frameworks and scenariobased discussions into lessons to reinforce learners’ evaluation skills. Table 7. Student Independence in Terms of Decision-making Skills No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Weighing different options before making decisions about school tasks. 3.71 Extensive 2 Choosing appropriate actions to solve academic challenges. 3.41 Extensive 3 Evaluating the consequences of different academic decisions. 3.23 Moderately Extensive 4 Making independent decisions regarding study habits and priorities. 3.65 Extensive 5 Identifying the most effective strategies for achieving academic success. 3.24 Moderately Extensive Mean 3.45 Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Evident. Extensive = Oftentimes Evident. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Evident. Less Extensive = Seldom Evident. Not Extensive = Never Evident. 3.7. Student Independence in Terms of Problem-solving Abilities —In Table 8, the mean for student independence in problemsolving abilities was 3.44, indicating extensive independence. This implies that students often demonstrate competence in approaching academic problems with a range of strategies and resourcefulness. The extensive rating reflects that learners are actively engaging in critical thinking and flexible planning, essen20 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - tial components for managing academic challenges. According to Mahanal et al. (2022), problem-solving is a core academic skill that promotes autonomy and builds resilience in students’ learning experiences. Similarly, Simatupang et al. (2019) asserted that students who regularly apply problem-solving strategies are more likely to perform well in both structured and unstructured learning environments. Table 8. Student Independence in Terms of Problem-solving Abilities No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Identifying problems quickly when they arise during academic tasks. 3.37 Moderately Extensive 2 Developing multiple solutions to tackle academic challenges. 3.55 Extensive 3 Adapting to unexpected changes or difficulties in schoolwork. 3.04 Moderately Extensive 4 Using available resources effectively to solve academic problems. 3.77 Extensive 5 Seeking alternative methods when faced with obstacles in learning. 3.46 Extensive Mean 3.44 Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Evident. Extensive = Oftentimes Evident. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Evident. Less Extensive = Seldom Evident. Not Extensive = Never Evident. The highest-rated statement was ”Using available resources effectively to solve academic problems,” which received an extensive rating, indicating that students frequently used tools and support systems to overcome academic hurdles. In contrast, the lowest-rated statement was Adapting to unexpected changes or difficulties in schoolwork, rated as moderately extensive, suggesting that students occasionally struggle with flexibility in the face of change. This contrast reveals a strength in resource utilization but a gap in adaptive thinking, which may hinder their problem-solving consistency. As pointed out by Topsakal et al. (2022), while students may be equipped with tools, their adaptability can be improved through exposure to varied and unpredictable tasks. Hence, educators are encouraged to incorporate problem-based learning and simulations to build resilience and adaptability in students’ problem-solving approaches. 3.8. Summary on Student Independence in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City —In Table 9, the mean for student independence among junior high school students in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City is 3.41, indicating extensive independence. This indicates that students oftentimes demonstrate independent learning behaviors, such as managing their tasks, making academic decisions, and solving problems effectively. The high level of independence suggests that learners are gradually developing the ability to work autonomously and responsibly, a vital skill for academic success and lifelong learning. According to Magnusson and Zackariasson (2019), fostering student independence enhances motivation and ownership of learning, thereby improving overall academic performance. Likewise, Thompson et al. (2021) emphasized that student independence supports the development of self-efficacy and critical decision-making, especially in complex academic situations. Among the three dimensions, Decision-making Skills received the highest rating, indicating that students often make sound, independent choices 21 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - when managing their academic responsibilities. Meanwhile, Self-management scored the lowest, albeit still rated as moderately extensive, revealing occasional lapses in organizing and regulating their study habits. This gap suggests that while students are confident in making decisions and solving problems, they still need structured support in planning, time management, and follow-through of academic tasks. As highlighted by Pejuan and Antonijuan (2019), student self-management can be strengthened through time-planning tools, routine setting, and teacher guidance. Therefore, educators are encouraged to integrate executive functioning exercises in classroom routines to reinforce further students’ ability to manage their academic responsibilities effectively. Table 9. Summary on Student Independence in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Self-management 3.35 Moderately Extensive 2 Decision-making Skills 3.45 Extensive 3 Problem-solving Abilities 3.44 Extensive Mean 3.41 Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Evident. Extensive = Oftentimes Evident. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Evident. Less Extensive = Seldom Evident. Not Extensive = Never Evident. 3.9. Summary on Teacher Expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City —In Table 10, the mean teacher expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City is 3.27, indicating moderately extensive. This suggests that while teachers sometimes demonstrate key professional competencies such as instructional clarity, adaptability, and student engagement, these practices are not consistently observed. The moderately extensive rating reflects a developing proficiency in essential teaching strategies that support student learning, indicating areas for professional enhancement. According to Kali et al. (2019), improving teacher expertise through continuous training leads to better classroom management and student outcomes. Meanwhile, Fitzpatrick et al. (2022) asserted that instructional effectiveness is strongly tied to a teacher’s ability to use differentiated approaches that cater to diverse learners’ needs. Among the indicators, the highest-rated was Using appropriate instructional materials and resources effectively, with an extensive rating, signifying that teachers frequently utilize teaching aids and resources to enhance lessons. On the other hand, the lowest-rated is Guiding students in developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills, rated as moderately extensive, indicating a need for further emphasis on higher-order thinking instruction. This disparity points to the importance of integrating more analytical and inquiry-based learning strategies in the classroom. As emphasized by N ´ ı R ´ ıord ´ ain, Paolucci, and Lyons (2019), teaching critical thinking fosters intellectual independence and prepares students for real-world challenges. Thus, school heads and DepEd officials should prioritize targeted professional development focused on advanced pedagogical techniques to elevate overall teacher expertise. 22 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Table 10. Summary on Teacher Expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City No. Statements Mean Descriptive Rating 1 Explaining complex topics in a clear and understandable manner. 3.15 Moderately Extensive 2 Providing timely and constructive feedback on students’ performance. 3.09 Moderately Extensive 3 Adapting teaching methods to suit different learning styles. 3.08 Moderately Extensive 4 Encouraging active participation and engagement in classroom discussions. 3.12 Moderately Extensive 5 Facilitating a supportive and motivating learning environment. 3.60 Extensive 6 Guiding students in developing critical thinking and problemsolving skills. 3.07 Moderately Extensive 7 Using appropriate instructional materials and resources effectively. 3.67 Extensive 8 Managing classroom time efficiently to cover all essential content. 3.38 Moderately Extensive Mean 3.27 Moderately Extensive Legend. Very Extensive = Always Demonstrated. Extensive = Oftentimes Demonstrated. Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Demonstrated. Less Extensive = Seldom Demonstrated. Not Extensive = Never Demonstrated. 3.10. Relationship Among Household Skills Education, Student Independence, and Teacher Expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City —The results of the analysis on the relationship among household skills education, student independence, and teacher expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City are presented. Bivariate correlation analysis using the Pearson product-moment correlation was used to determine the relationships among the variables mentioned. Table 11. Relationship Among Household Skills Education, Student Independence, and Teacher Expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City Variables Student Independence Teacher Expertise Household Skills Education 0.780** 0.718** 0.000 0.000 Student Independence 1 0.496** 0.000 *Significant at p<0.05. Legend. Perfect Correlation = r = 1.00. Strong Correlation = 0.7 r <1.00. Moderate Correlation = 0.3 r <0.7. Weak Correlation = 0.00 <r<0.30. No Correlation = r = 0.00. The findings reveal a strong, significant positive relationship between household skills education and student independence in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City (r = 0.780, p = 0.000), thereby rejecting the null hypothesis. This implies that as students acquire and apply more household-related skills, such as time management, decision-making, and problem-solving, they also tend to demonstrate greater independence in academic set23 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - tings. The result affirms the views of Zatz and Harrison (2024), who emphasized that functional life skills nurture personal responsibility and self-regulation among adolescents. Similarly, Dettmers et al. (2019) argued that equipping learners with practical skills promotes selfefficacy and autonomy, both at home and in school. In practice, this suggests that incorporating household tasks into formative education may significantly enhance students’ ability to manage their studies independently. There is also a moderate, significant positive relationship between teacher expertise and student independence (r = 0.496, p = 0.000), leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. This indicates that students taught by highly competent teachers who adapt their teaching styles, provide constructive feedback, and create motivating learning environments tend to develop greater self-management and independent learning skills. As posited by Klemenz, K ¨ onig, and Schaper (2019), teacher competence directly shapes students’ learning attitudes, confidence, and initiative in academic tasks. Lastly, the results show a strong, significant positive relationship between household skills education and teacher expertise (r = 0.718, p = 0.000), thereby rejecting the null hypothesis. This result suggests that when teachers exhibit greater expertise, through engaging instruction and effective classroom strategies, students are more likely to develop and demonstrate essential household management skills. According to Theelen et al. (2019), expert teachers effectively contextualize learning, making it easier for students to transfer classroom knowledge to real-life tasks such as household responsibilities. 3.11. Mediation Analysis on Household Skills Education, Student Independence, and Teacher Expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City —The results of the analysis on the mediating role of teacher expertise on the relationship between household skills education and student independence in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City are shown in Table 12. The path coefficients table reveals a strong, significant, positive direct relationship between household skills education (HSE) and student independence (SI), with an estimate of 0.898, a z-value of 18.703, and a p-value of < .001. This suggests that students who demonstrate higher competencies in household-related skills, such as time management, problem-solving, and adherence to routines, tend to exhibit more autonomous behavior in their academic responsibilities. However, teacher expertise (TE) negatively predicts student independence (estimate = -0.138, z = -2.802, p = 0.005), indicating a suppressor effect. Meanwhile, HSE positively predicts TE (estimate = 0.701, z = 19.618, p < .001), showing that greater household skill development among students was associated with perceptions of higher teacher competence. This suppression effect implies that, even though HSE enhances both TE and SI, the presence of TE may paradoxically reduce the direct benefit of HSE on SI when HSE was modeled as a mediator, reflecting a complex interaction between teacher roles and student autonomy. The parameter estimates confirm the mediation structure. The indirect effect of household skills education on student independence via teacher expertise was statistically significant and negative (estimate = -0.097, z = -2.774, p = 0.006), while the direct effect remains strongly positive and significant (estimate = 0.898, z = 18.703, p < .001). Despite this suppression, the total effect was significantly positive at 0.802 (z = 23.719, p < .001), which means that household skills education still leads to greater student independence overall. This supports the idea that developing domestic competencies independently promotes academic responsibility, 24 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17823229/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Table 12. Mediation Analysis on Household Skills Education, Student Independence, and Teacher Expertise in Cluster 2 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City Path Coefficients (Steps 1–3) Estimate Std. Error z-value p-value (Step 1) HSE →SI 0.898 0.048 18.703 <.001 (Step 2) TE →SI -0.138 0.049 -2.802 0.005 (Step 3) HSE →TE 0.701 0.036 19.618 <.001 Effect Type Parameter Estimates Estimate Std. Error z-value / pvalue Indirect Effect Components HSE →TE →SI -0.097 0.035 -2.774 / 0.006 Direct Effect HSE →SI 0.898 0.048 18.703 / <.001 Total Effect HSE →SI 0.802 0.034 23.719 / <.001 Ratio Index = -0.12094 Sobel z-test value = -2.7873, p= 0.005 Legend. HSE = Household Skills Education. SI = Student Independence. TE = Teacher Expertise. even when classroom structures mediated by teacher involvement may temporarily suppress self-directed learning. According to Fauth et al. (2019), structured independence at home nurtures resilience and responsibility, whereas Georgiou et al. (2020) found that highly directive teaching may sometimes inhibit student self-regulation when not balanced with autonomy-supportive practices. The ratio index of -0.12094 and the Sobel z-test value of -2.7873 (p = 0.005) further verify the presence of a significant suppression effect. The negative ratio signifies that the indirect path through teacher expertise weakens the otherwise strong positive influence of household skills education on student independence. Practically, this indicates that although skilled teachers contribute positively to educational outcomes, their influence may unintentionally limit the full expression of independence when they provide overly structured support. As noted by Honicke et al. (2020), such suppression effects can occur when an intervening variable introduces unintended constraints on a learner’s autonomous behavior. Therefore, teachers’ role should be to facilitate, not control, the application of students’ household-acquired skills in the classroom. These findings partially support Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory, which emphasizes learning through observation and modeling. Students likely acquire household skills by observing adults, which in turn promotes independent behavior, but the suppression effect suggests that overly structured teacher modeling can constrain autonomy. The results also align with Piaget’s Constructivist Theory (1969), as students who construct knowledge through reallife domestic tasks tend to develop problemsolving abilities that translate into academic independence. Lastly, the findings both support and challenge the Self-Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan (1985). 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