MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF THE NIGERIAN DIASPORA

Danish Scientific Journal No102, 2025 79 SOCIAL SCIENCES MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF THE NIGERIAN DIASPORA Francis Amagoh Department of Public Administration KIMEP University Almaty, Kazakhstan Nadeem Naqvi Department of Economics KIMEP University Almaty, Kazakhstan https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17740996 Abstract This paper explores policy measures the Nigerian government can deploy for better mobilization of its diaspora for national development. The paper uses both a systematic literature review and the results of primary sources. Responses from a questionnaire survey (n=117) were analyzed to identify policy responses that would leverage diasporic engagement in the country. Findings reveal that such measures would include constant electricity supply, reduction of insecurity, good infrastructure, quality healthcare system, and so on. The study highlights the importance of diasporas as change agents when appropriate policies are in place to leverage their skills and capabilities. Keywords: Migration, diaspora, economic development, knowledge diffusion, Nigeria 1. Introduction The international migration of people through cross-border movements constitutes the core of the diaspora phenomenon and is regarded as the main driver of human capital flight. Diasporas can be defined by their commitments and actions, their strong connection to their homeland, and transnational engagements (Meyer & Shera, 2017). Generally speaking, diasporas’ engagement with the homeland is unique because they are directly affected by the suffering of family and friends at home, and have access to resources that can be readily mobilized for their assistance. The impact of outward increased migration on a country’s human capital can be quite significant. While the home country becomes deficient in skilled labor, the host country benefits through the addition of skilled professionals to its labor force. For Nigeria (a country plagued by high unemployment, rising poverty, and other socio-economic challenges), the loss of human capital due to the migration of skilled professionals has been enormous. The Nigerian government has realized that its skilled migrants can contribute to the development of the homeland (Akanle & Ola-Lawson, 2022). It is also suggested that with the right policies, and the mobilization and diffusion of requisite diaspora skills and knowledge to the home country, the emigrated human capital can act as a bridge between Nigeria and host countries (Tabassum et al., 2017). Consequently, this study focuses on how the Nigerian government can mobilize the capabilities of its diaspora for the development of the homeland by creating the right mix of policies. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. The next section is “Theoretical Framework and Related Studies”. This is followed by the “Methodology” section. The third section is “Results and Analysis” which is followed by the “Discussion and Conclusion” section. 2. Theoretical Framework and Related Studies There are two major schools of thought regarding human capital flight from developing countries with regard to brain drain and brain gain syndromes (Bredtmann et al., 2019; Mayer et al., 2015). These schools of thought focus mainly on the return option and the diaspora option (Saxenian, 2006; Ellerman, 2006). The return option was regarded as a remedy to the brain drain from developing countries and involved the physical return of the diaspora to the country of origin in order to contribute to the development of the homeland. Various countries, including India, Korea, China, and Singapore have successfully practiced the return option. On the other hand, the diaspora option sees brain drain as a potential brain gain for the home country. The diaspora option cultivates and nurtures links between migrants and their countries of origin through carefully calibrated policies and strategies that facilitate, motivate, and encourage the diaspora to invest in the homeland (Mayer et al., 2015; Ellerman, 2006). Several studies have been conducted on the role of migrants in the development of their homeland based on the diaspora option. The study by Singh and Koiri (2018) on the impacts of India’s diaspora on the homeland found that the Indian government uses a multipronged approach to harness the contributions of its diaspora. The study concluded that the Indian government strategically embarks on diaspora policies that target direct investments, remittances, technology transfer, market openings, and outsourcing opportunities. Due to emotional attachments and a sense of nostalgia and altruism, diasporas are known to play significant roles in assisting their homelands during periods of conflict and global pandemics. In this regard, Parry (2023) analyzed the impacts of India’s diaspora remittances and the roles of organizations that emerged to assist the homeland during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study found that remittances and humanitarian ac- 80 Danish Scientific Journal No102, 2025 tions by India’s diasporas during the COVID-19 pandemic were significant in reducing the otherwise devasting impact of the pandemic on the country’s population. In their study about the impact of the diaspora on homeland development, Cruz and Fromm (2019) investigated the history of a social enterprise network (Honduras Global Europa) founded by highly skilled members of the Honduras diaspora in Europe. The study found that Honduras Global Europa made immense economic and non-economic contributions to Honduras’s development. Diaspora capital, in the form of targeted remittances, has been significant in reviving certain sectors of the economy in developing countries. In a panel study conducted in six developing countries, Meyer and Shera (2017) found a positive impact of remittances on economic growth, with the impact increasing at higher levels of remittances compared to the gross domestic product (GDP). Similar findings by Tabassum et al. (2017), and Asad et al. (2016) confirmed a long-run relationship between diaspora remittances and economic growth. With regard to Nigeria, a study by Adeosun and Popogbe (2021) about outward migration from the country identified an increasing population growth rate, poor living standards, and poor governance as major causes of increased migration from the country. Didia and Tahir (2022) investigated the impacts of diaspora remittances in stimulating economic growth in Nigeria and concluded that remittances in isolation with weak government policies cannot address the migration of skilled professionals from the country. According to the study, long-term policy interventions that seek to address the underlying economic problems of the country are the only means to attain sustainable economic growth and mitigate human capital flight from the country. Finally, using the concept of social network theory, Akanle and Ola-Lawson (2022) examined the impacts of the Nigerian Diaspora Networks (NDNs) on investments in the homeland. The study found that while some diasporas use social networks (such as family members and friends) in their investment-making decisions, others have mistrust for such networks, with implications for investment and entrepreneurial choices and eventual outcomes. 3. Methodology This paper used a combination of secondary and primary sources. The secondary sources consist of a systematic review of the relevant literature on international migration, diaspora entrepreneurship, and investments in the homeland. According to Briner and Walshe (2015), a systematic literature review focuses on specific and practice-relevant questions related to the study. Additionally, a systematic review of the literature provides an opportunity to synthesize information and reflect on prior studies on the subject. Primary data were collected through survey questionnaires that were sent out to 179 Nigerians who migrated abroad. Out of 179 questionnaires that were sent out, 117 were accurately completed (a response rate of 65.3 percent). The surveys were conducted between September 2022 and February 2023. A sample of the survey questionnaire is shown in Appendix 1. 4. Results and Analysis Results of this study from the questionnaire survey show that the top five host countries for Nigerians in the diaspora are the United States (16.2 percent); the United Kingdom (12.8 percent); Canada (9.4 percent); Germany (7.7 percent); and the Netherlands (6.8 percent) (See Table 1). Typical push factors include low salary; no career prospects; insecurity; political instability; poor economy; lack of adequate infrastructure; and poor medical facilities. Similarly, pull factors include better education for self and children; better medical facilities; better infrastructure; and in search for a better life. The average monthly remittance of respondents was 1,733.5 USD. The majority of the respondents work in the health sector (26.5 percent), followed by education (21.4 percent); and the hospitality and service industry (19.6 percent). Engineering and lowskilled migrant workers came last at 18 percent and 14.5 percent respectively (See Table 2). Table 1: Host Countries of Respondents Country No. of Respondents % of Total Responses United States of America 19 16.2 United Kingdom 15 12.8 Canada 11 9.4 Germany 9 7.7 The Netherlands 8 6.8 Italy 7 6.0 South Korea 6 5.1 Norway 5 4.3 Finland 5 4.3 Sweden 5 4.3 Australia 4 3.4 Belgium 4 3.4 France 4 3.4 Thailand 3 2.6 Singapore 3 2.6 United Arab Emirates 3 2.6 Saudi Arabia 3 2.6 Poland 2 1.7 Bulgaria 1 0.8 Total 117 100 Danish Scientific Journal No102, 2025 81 Table 2: Categories of Respondents (n=117) Category No. of Questionnaires Correctly Completed % of Total Responses Healthcare (nurse, doctor, physical therapist, radiologist, anesthesiologist, etc.) 31 26.5 Education (school teacher, school principal, university lecturer/professor, university administrator, etc.) 25 21.4 Hospitality/service (hotel manager, restaurant manager, tour guide, travel agent, etc.) 23 19.6 Engineering (civil, electrical, mechanical, chemical, construction, petroleum, etc.) 21 18.0 Low-skilled migrant worker (janitorial, waiter/waitress, construction worker, farmworker, etc.) 17 14.5 Total 117 100 Table 3: Measures to Leverage Diaspora Contributions in Nigeria’s Development Measure % of Total Responses 1. Constant electricity supply 99.4 2. Insecurity 98.3 3. Good infrastructure 97.1 4. Quality healthcare system 93.7 5. Quality education system 89.6 6. Diaspora talent bank 77.7 7. High-profile diaspora events 68.5 8. Sister communities 62.7 Based on survey results, Table 3 identifies the measures that would harness the contributions of the Nigerian diaspora for homeland development. These measures are discussed below. Constant electricity supply Results of the survey show that 99.4 percent of respondents consider constant electricity supply critical for Nigeria’s development. Constant electricity supply improves quality of life and provides an economic climate that influences investment decisions. A reliable and constant power supply can help developing economies (such as Nigeria) achieve economic growth and development (Stern et al., 2019). A lack of constant electricity supply is strongly correlated with poor economic growth. In Nigeria, several communities lack electricity supply for several days of the week. Nigeria’s diasporas, usually find it difficult to cope with the hardship imposed by the lack of electricity supply in the country when they visit the homeland. Insecurity Based on survey results, 98.3 percent of participants want the Nigerian government to reduce the state of insecurity in the country. This shows that the diasporas desire a safe and secure environment when they visit their homeland. Insecurity reduces real per capita income, government revenue, and economic growth. The high incidence of kidnappings and killings in Nigeria makes insecurity a major concern for the diaspora. There have been cases of Nigerians in their diaspora who visit the homeland and get kidnapped or killed by bandits. Such cases limit the desires of the diasporas to visit and invest in the homeland. Good infrastructure Good infrastructures (such as roads, railways, bridges, water supply, transportation networks, waste management, etc.) are essential for economic development and improved standard of living. According to 97.1 percent of respondents, they would be willing to invest in Nigeria if there is quality infrastructure in the country. Investments in infrastructure development contribute to increased productivity and future economic growth. Infrastructure development is a key driver for progress across the African continent and a critical enabler for productivity and sustainable economic growth. The lack of good infrastructure constrains the ability of diasporas to mobilize their efforts toward Nigeria’s development. Quality healthcare system Results of the questionnaire survey show that 93.7 percent of respondents want the Nigerian government to improve the country’s healthcare system. Good healthcare (besides education) is one of the two components of human capital and leads to higher GDP, better societal cohesion, and less poverty (Didia & Tahir, 2022). Since economic growth and development depend on a country’s human capital, Nigeria needs a healthy and educated workforce for economic growth and development. The diaspora desires a quality and reliable health system that can address his/her healthcare needs when visiting the homeland. Investments in healthcare increase human capital which in turn, drives economic growth (Tabassum et al., 2017). Quality education system A good education system is important for a country’s global competitiveness and enhances economic stability and growth. Results of the study show that 89.6 percent of survey respondents identify the poor education system in Nigeria as one of the obstacles to diaspora investments in the country. Investments in education are critical for improving human capital and ending extreme poverty. Funding is one of the major reasons for the poor state of education in Nigeria. In 2022, the 82 Danish Scientific Journal No102, 2025 Nigerian government allocated less than 6 percent of its federal budget to education, far below the recommended range of 15 percent to 20 percent of national budgets recommended by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (Adeosun & Popogbe, 2021). Based on the World Economic Forum’s ranking, Nigeria ranked 124th out of 137 countries in terms of quality of primary and secondary education in 2022 (Peterside, 2023). The low priority given to education by the Nigerian government has led to incessant strikes by university lecturers and staff on an almost yearly basis. Diaspora talent bank A diaspora talent bank is a database that houses information about diasporas, including their talents and skills. Such a database would assist the Nigerian government to identify and mobilize the country’s diaspora capabilities. According to 77.7% of respondents, a diaspora talent bank would help the Nigerian government identify diaspora capabilities that are needed to fill the skill gaps in the country. Diaspora talent bank is essential for creating skills mapping of Nigerians in the diaspora for effective engagement of their human and capital resources for the country’s development (The Cable, 2022). High-profile diaspora events High-profile events that link policymakers with members of the diaspora community can be important for networking and the exchange of ideas between the two groups. According to 68.5 percent of study participants, such events can create awareness in the diaspora community about investment and entrepreneurial opportunities in the homeland. Typical development areas for discussion in such events should include science and technology, agriculture, manufacturing and industry, energy, infrastructure development, economic development, healthcare, education, and so on. Sister communities The concept of a sister community is based on a long-term partnership between two communities in two countries. In this case, sister communities could be cities, municipalities, or states that have significant Nigerian diaspora populations. Such arrangements can promote cross-cultural understanding, technical cooperation, and economic development opportunities. Results of the survey showed that 62.7 percent of respondents believe that sister community connections between Nigeria and host countries would help to induce the interests of the diaspora in Nigeria’s development. For example, the Dutch municipality of Zeist which has a large Moroccan population advises the sister municipality of Berkane, Morocco on how to improve waste management and the overall efficiency of municipal operations with inputs from the Moroccan diaspora community in the country. 5. Discussion and Conclusion This study used the results of survey questionnaires to identify policy measures that should be taken by the Nigerian government to mobilize the skills and talents of its diaspora for homeland development. A total of 117 survey responses were used for analysis. The major push factors identified by respondents include low salaries; lack of career prospects; insecurity; and so on. Similarly, the pull factors include education of self and children; better medical facilities; and so on. In addition, 8 measures were identified by respondents as necessary for effective diaspora engagements in Nigeria’s development. These measures consist of the following: constant electricity supply; insecurity; good infrastructure; quality healthcare system; quality education system; diaspora talent bank; highprofile diaspora events; and sister communities. One of Nigeria’s greatest challenges in attracting diaspora investments is a lack of constant electricity supply. Various studies have identified the impacts of a lack of reliable electricity supply on economic development (Adeosun & Popogbe, 2021; Stern et al., 2019). The Nigerian government should collaborate with the private sector to make the necessary investments in the power sector that would guarantee a constant and reliable electricity supply. The high state of insecurity was considered by respondents as an obstacle to diaspora investment in the homeland. This means that Nigerian migrants abroad are willing to engage in business and other entrepreneurial activities at home if the high state of insecurity in the country is addressed by the government. Consequently, the government of Nigeria should take all necessary steps to ensure a safe and secure environment for its citizens in all parts of the country. Good infrastructure (e.g., transportation system; sewage system, communication system, etc.) was considered by study participants as important for diaspora contributions to Nigeria’s development. Thus, if the Nigerian government makes the needed investments in the country’s dilapidated infrastructure, its diaspora would be willing to invest in the homeland. While investments in infrastructure can be costly and capitalintensive, they can also be a significant driver of a country’s economic revitalization (Akanle & OlaLawson, 2022; Didia & Tahir, 2022). Quality healthcare was identified by respondents as necessary for diaspora engagement in Nigeria. Substandard healthcare discourages the diaspora from visiting Nigeria because of possible health problems that may occur when they visit the country. Efforts should be made by the government to ensure that the healthcare provided in the country is of high quality and that it meets global standards. Quality education was identified by respondents as a predictor of diaspora contributions to Nigeria. With the dilapidated facilities in most of the educational institutions, and the constant strikes embarked on by their faculty and staff, the diaspora lacks confidence in the country’s education system. This is consistent with studies conducted by Ellerman, 2006; and Wapmuk, 2021. The government should embark on a comprehensive overhaul of the country’s education system by providing adequate funding to upgrade the educational infrastructure. A competitive compensation package should be provided for the faculty and staff of all educational institutions. Establishing a diaspora talent bank was identified as important for diaspora contributions to Nigeria. Such a talent bank has been used in various countries (such Danish Scientific Journal No102, 2025 83 as China, India, Israel, and so on) with significant success. The Nigerian government is currently in the process of establishing a similar database with the hope that it would help to fill some of the skill gaps in the country. Additionally, the Nigerian government should organize high-profile diaspora events that link diaspora members with policymakers in the country. Finally, the Nigerian government should encourage states, local governments, and cities to establish sister communities with host countries that have significant Nigerian populations. It should be mentioned that important drivers of diaspora engagement in the homeland include their philanthropic and altruistic endeavors motivated by the willingness to invest in community projects that would revitalize local capabilities. These intrinsic motivations can be optimally harnessed when there are policy measures that address major problems plaguing the country, such as endemic corruption, poverty, bad governance, and so on. This study’s findings are in line with previous studies (Bredtmann et al., 2019; Singh and Koiri, 2018) on the role of the diaspora in the development of the homeland. Consequently, there is a need for the Nigerian government to take proactive steps that would involve the active collaboration of the government, private sector, and the diaspora community in enacting policies that would leverage the full mobilization of diaspora capabilities for the country’s sustainable growth and development. The economic development of India, China, South Korea, and so on shows that the diaspora can play a transformative role in the development of the homeland. The economic achievements of these countries were made possible through appropriate policies and efforts that engage their diasporas (Bredtmann et al., 2019). Nigeria can learn from these countries and follow their lead if it wants to improve its development trajectory and become one of the leading economies in the world. Appendix 1: Diaspora Questionnaire Survey 1. Name (Optional): 2. Country of residence (Optional): 3. Profession/occupation (healthcare; legal; education; engineering/construction; migrant low-skill worker; other): 4. Highest level of education: 5. How many years have you emigrated from Nigeria? 6. Are you a member of any Nigerian diaspora organization? 7. If your answer to Question 4 above is “Yes”, does your diaspora organization engage in development activities in Nigeria? 8. What were the factors that made you emigrate from Nigeria? Push factors: low salary; no career prospects; insecurity; political instability; poor economy; lack of adequate infrastructure; poor medical facilities; etc. (circle as many as may apply) Pull factors: Education of self and children abroad; better medical facilities; better infrastructure; in search of a better life; etc. (circle as many as may apply) 9. How many times do you visit Nigeria in a year? 10. How often do you send remittances to Nigeria (weekly; bi-weekly; monthly; quarterly; etc.) 11. On average, how much remittances do you send to Nigeria every month (USD)(0-500; 500-1,000; 1,000-1,500;1,500-2,000; more than 2,000) 12. Purpose/s of your remittances to Nigeria (family support; investment; building a house; retirement nest-egg; philanthropy; etc.) 13. How do you engage in Nigeria’s development (charitable causes; establishing businesses to create employment opportunities; contributing to infrastructural development e.g., drainage system, boreholes, pipe-borne water in your town/village; etc.) 14. Do you think that the Nigerian government has policies that encourage diaspora investments and contributions in the homeland? 15. If your answer to Question 14 above is “NO”, what measures do you think the government can take in order to better harness the talents and skills of its diaspora for national development? References: 1. Adeosun, O. & Popogbe, O. (2021). 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