User Experience Design in Virtual Reality Mental Health Applications

 Corresponding author: Is-mail Muntaka Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. User Experience Design in Virtual Reality Mental Health Applications Oluwaseun Esho 1 and Is-mail Muntaka 2, * 1 School of Creative Technologies, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, U.S.A. 2 Department of Chemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 Publication history: Received on 15 September 2025; revised on 19 October 2025; accepted on 22 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.28.1.3604 Abstract This paper examines the critical role of user experience (UX) design in virtual reality (VR) mental health applications, emphasizing its national importance in addressing mental health challenges such as accessibility, stigma, and resource shortages. VR technology has emerged as a transformative tool in mental health care, offering immersive and controlled environments for therapeutic interventions. Applications like exposure therapy, mindfulness training, and social skills development have demonstrated significant success in treating conditions such as anxiety, PTSD, and depression. The methodology involves a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature to identify key factors influencing UX design, including usability, accessibility, engagement, and patient outcomes. The findings highlight the importance of designing inclusive and adaptable VR systems that cater to diverse populations while integrating evidence-based psychological frameworks. Challenges such as technological limitations, ethical concerns around data privacy, and issues like cybersickness are also discussed. Future directions include advancements in AI-driven personalization, multisensory integration, affordable hardware, and collaborative virtual environments. These innovations have the potential to enhance UX design while addressing systemic barriers in mental health care delivery. By prioritizing user-centered approaches and leveraging emerging technologies, VR applications can improve therapeutic outcomes and expand access to care. In conclusion, advancing UX design in VR mental health applications is essential for improving patient outcomes and aligning with national priorities to make mental health care more accessible, effective, and equitable. This paper underscores the need for multidisciplinary collaboration to harness the full potential of VR in transforming mental health treatment. Keywords: Virtual Reality; User Experience; Mental Health; Depression; Var Therapy 1. Introduction Virtual reality (VR) technology has emerged as a transformative tool in mental health care, offering immersive and interactive environments that enhance therapeutic outcomes [1]. By simulating real-world scenarios, VR enables individuals to confront fears, practice coping strategies, and engage in mindfulness-based interventions in controlled and customizable settings [2]. Its applications range from treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and phobias to managing stress and anxiety, demonstrating its versatility and potential to address diverse mental health challenges. However, the effectiveness of VR mental health applications hinges on the quality of their user experience (UX) design. UX design ensures these applications are intuitive, engaging, and accessible to diverse populations [2]. Poorly designed interfaces can lead to user frustration, reduced engagement, and suboptimal therapeutic outcomes. For instance, immersive environments with high usability and personalization have increased patient satisfaction and adherence to therapy. Furthermore, UX design directly impacts the sense of "presence," or the feeling of being immersed in a virtual environment, which is critical for the success of VR-based interventions. The importance of UX design aligns with national priorities to improve mental health care accessibility and innovation. In the United States, mental health challenges such as stigma, limited access to care, and disparities in treatment availability persist. VR applications can World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1952 bridge these gaps by providing scalable, cost-effective solutions that reach underserved populations. For example, studies have shown that individuals reluctant to seek traditional therapy may be more willing to engage with VR-based interventions [3]. Additionally, as VR technology becomes more affordable and widespread, its potential to revolutionize mental health care grows exponentially [4]. Virtual reality (VR) technology has evolved significantly since its inception, transitioning from niche applications in entertainment to transformative uses in healthcare. Early developments in VR can be traced back to the 20th century, with advancements in computer graphics and simulation technologies laying the foundation for immersive environments [5]. By the mid-1980s, NASA’s Virtual Environment Workstation (VIEW) project pioneered the development of low-cost simulation environments, marking a turning point for VR adoption across various industries, including healthcare [4]. Today, VR leverages fully immersive simulations, enabling users to engage with threedimensional environments through specialized equipment like headsets and gloves [2]. In healthcare, VR has become a versatile tool with applications ranging from surgical training and pain management to mental health therapies [2]. For instance, VR is widely used for medical education by creating realistic simulations that allow practitioners to refine their skills without risk to patients. Similarly, VR-based interventions have proven effective in managing chronic pain by immersing patients in calming virtual environments that reduce their perception of pain. These advancements highlight how VR is reshaping healthcare delivery by improving outcomes and enhancing patient experiences. Despite these technological strides, mental health care in the United States continues to face significant challenges. Accessibility remains a critical issue, with millions of Americans experiencing barriers to receiving timely and adequate mental health services. According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), approximately one in five adults in the U.S. lives with a mental illness, yet many do not seek treatment due to stigma or lack of resources. The stigma surrounding mental health further exacerbates these challenges by discouraging individuals from seeking help or adhering to treatment plans. VR offers innovative solutions to mitigate these issues. By providing accessible and scalable therapeutic interventions, VR can address gaps in traditional mental health care [6]. For example, VR-based exposure therapy allows patients to confront fears or traumatic memories in a controlled and private setting, reducing the stigma associated with seeking help. Additionally, VR applications can be tailored to individual needs, making them suitable for diverse populations and conditions. The immersive nature of VR also enhances engagement and adherence to therapy, leading to improved outcomes compared to conventional methods [7]. These developments underscore the potential of VR not only as a therapeutic tool but also as a means of addressing systemic barriers in mental health care. By integrating VR into care pathways, healthcare providers can offer innovative solutions that align with national priorities to improve accessibility and reduce stigma [8]. 2. Methodology This review paper employs a systematic approach to synthesize existing literature on user experience (UX) design in virtual reality (VR) mental health applications. The methodology includes the following steps: 2.1. Literature Search A comprehensive search was conducted across reputable academic databases, including PubMed, Frontiers, and PMC, to identify peer-reviewed articles and systematic reviews published between 2015 and 2025. Keywords such as "virtual reality," "mental health," "user experience design," "mental health applications," and "VR therapy" were used in combination with Boolean operators (e.g., AND, OR, NOT). The search was limited to English-language articles to ensure accessibility and clarity. 2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria To ensure the relevance and quality of the sources • Inclusion Criteria: Articles were included if they focused on VR-based interventions for mental health, discussed UX design principles, or highlighted challenges and opportunities in VR applications for mental health care. Studies with empirical data, case studies, or systematic reviews were prioritized. • Exclusion Criteria: Articles that discussed non-mental health-related VR applications or lacked a specific focus on UX design were excluded. 2.3. Data Extraction Relevant data were extracted from the selected studies, including World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1953 • Study objectives and methodologies. • Key findings related to the effectiveness of VR interventions in mental health. • Insights into UX design principles, challenges, and best practices. • Case studies demonstrating successful implementation of VR mental health applications. 2.4. Analysis The extracted data were analyzed thematically to identify recurring patterns, trends, and gaps in the literature. Particular attention was given to studies that emphasized the role of UX design in enhancing patient engagement, accessibility, and therapeutic outcomes. 2.5. Ethical Considerations This review adheres to ethical research practices by accurately citing all references and avoiding duplication or misrepresentation of data. No human subjects were involved directly in this study. Limitations The review is limited by potential publication bias as only peer-reviewed articles were included. Additionally, the exclusion of non-English articles may have omitted relevant findings from other regions. 2.6. Key Findings 2.6.1. Importance of User Experience Design in VR for Mental Health User experience (UX) design is critical to the effectiveness of virtual reality (VR) applications for mental health. It ensures that these applications are accessible, engaging, and tailored to meet the needs of diverse users, ultimately improving therapeutic outcomes. Poor UX design can lead to frustration, disengagement, or even adverse effects on mental health, underscoring the need for thoughtful and evidence-based approaches (9; 2]. 2.7. Usability Usability is a cornerstone of effective UX design in VR mental health applications. It ensures that users can easily navigate and interact with the virtual environment without cognitive overload or technical difficulties. Intuitive interfaces and seamless interactions are particularly important for individuals with mental health conditions, as they may already face challenges such as anxiety or reduced concentration. Studies have shown that VR applications with user-friendly controls and clear instructions enhance patient satisfaction and adherence to therapy. For instance, exposure therapy for anxiety disorders has been more effective when the VR environment is easy to navigate, allowing patients to focus on the therapeutic process rather than the mechanics of the technology [10]. 2.8. Accessibility Accessibility in UX design ensures that individuals with varying levels of digital literacy, physical abilities, and socioeconomic backgrounds can use VR applications. This is particularly important in mental health care, where barriers such as stigma and limited access to traditional therapy persist. VR's ability to provide remote and private therapeutic environments makes it a valuable tool for reaching underserved populations. For example, individuals reluctant to seek in-person counselling may find VR-based interventions more acceptable and less intimidating. Additionally, designing for accessibility involves incorporating features like adjustable text sizes, voice commands, and compatibility with assistive devices, ensuring inclusivity for all users [11; 12]. 2.9. Engagement Engagement is another critical factor influenced by UX design. Immersive and interactive VR environments can enhance user engagement by creating a sense of presence and "being there" within the virtual world. High levels of presence have been linked to improved therapeutic outcomes as they help users stay focused and emotionally invested in their treatment. Gamification elements such as rewards or progress tracking can increase engagement by making therapy sessions more enjoyable and motivating. For instance, mindfulness-based VR interventions have been described as "relaxing" and "calming," with visual and auditory elements helping users anchor their attention and reduce mindwandering [11; 12]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1954 2.10. Patient Outcomes Ultimately, the quality of UX design directly impacts patient outcomes. Well-designed VR applications can improve symptom management, increase adherence to treatment protocols, and enhance overall satisfaction with care. For example, studies have demonstrated that patients undergoing VR exposure therapy report higher satisfaction rates compared to traditional methods due to the controlled and customizable nature of the virtual environment. Furthermore, real-time data collection enabled by VR allows clinicians to monitor progress and adjust interventions as needed, contributing to more personalized and effective care [9]. 2.11. Current Applications of VR in Mental Health Virtual reality (VR) has become a transformative tool in mental health care, offering innovative solutions for conditions such as anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and phobias. By creating immersive and controlled environments, VR enables patients to confront fears, practice coping strategies, and engage in therapeutic activities in a safe and customizable setting. Below is a table summarizing key applications of VR in mental health, along with evidence-based outcomes and successful case studies. Table 1 Practical VR applications in real time Application Description Evidence-Based Outcomes References Exposure Therapy (VRET) Gradual exposure to feared stimuli in a controlled VR environment to treat anxiety disorders, phobias, and PTSD. VRET has shown comparable effectiveness to traditional in vivo exposure therapy with reduced dropout rates and higher patient acceptability. [5; 13] Mindfulness Training Immersive environments are designed to promote relaxation and mindfulness for stress and anxiety management. Patients report reduced stress levels and improved emotional regulation after engaging with calming virtual environments. [14] Trauma Treatment Simulations tailored for PTSD patients to safely revisit and reframe traumatic experiences. Significant reductions in PTSD symptoms have been observed, with improved coping mechanisms over time. [15] Social Skills Training Simulated social interactions for individuals with social anxiety or autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Enhanced social confidence and reduced anxiety during real-life interactions after repeated VR practice. [11] Cognitive Rehabilitation Tasks are designed to improve cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and problem-solving. Effective for patients recovering from traumatic brain injury (TBI) or stroke, leading to measurable cognitive improvements. [2] 3. Key Examples of VR Applications 3.1. Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) VRET is widely used for treating anxiety disorders, phobias, and PTSD. For example, patients with a fear of heights can use VR scenarios to simulate high-altitude environments, gradually reducing their discomfort through repeated exposure. Studies have shown that VRET achieves outcomes comparable to traditional in vivo exposure therapy but is more acceptable to patients due to the controlled nature of the experience [1]. A meta-analysis concluded that VRET has a large effect size compared to control groups and is equally effective as traditional methods while offering logistical advantages like therapist control over stimuli [16] 3.2. Mindfulness-Based Interventions VR mindfulness applications immerse users in calming environments, such as serene forests or beaches. These interventions have been shown to reduce stress levels significantly and improve emotional regulation among users. Patients describe these experiences as deeply relaxing and effective for anchoring attention during therapy sessions [14]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1955 3.3. Trauma-Focused VR Therapy For PTSD patients, VR allows a safe confrontation of trauma-related triggers. For instance, veterans with combat-related PTSD can engage with simulations that mimic battlefield scenarios under the guidance of a therapist. Over time, this helps reduce avoidance behaviors and emotional distress associated with the trauma [15]. 3.4. Social Anxiety Treatment VR simulations of social settings help individuals practice communication skills and reduce anxiety associated with realworld interactions. For example, individuals with social anxiety can rehearse public speaking or job interviews in virtual environments before facing these challenges in real life [5]. 4. Challenges in UX Design for VR Mental Health Applications User experience (UX) design is essential for the success of virtual reality (VR) mental health applications as it directly impacts usability, accessibility, and therapeutic outcomes. However, several challenges hinder the effective implementation of UX design in this field. These challenges include technological limitations, ethical concerns such as data privacy, and user-specific barriers like cybersickness and cognitive overload [17]. 4.1. Technological Limitations One significant barrier to effective UX design in VR mental health applications is the technological limitations of current hardware and software. VR systems often require expensive equipment, such as high-performance headsets and controllers, which can limit accessibility for underserved populations. Additionally, hardware constraints like low resolution or latency issues can reduce the sense of immersion, which is critical for therapeutic success. For instance, older VR devices may fail to provide smooth interactions or realistic environments, leading to frustration and disengagement among users [2]. Another limitation is the lack of standardization in VR platforms. Developers often face difficulties ensuring compatibility across different devices and operating systems. This fragmentation can complicate the development of universally accessible applications and increase costs [4]. 4.2. Ethical Concerns: Data Privacy and Security Ethical concerns surrounding data privacy and security are another major challenge in UX design for VR mental health. VR applications often collect sensitive user data, including physiological responses (e.g., heart rate) and behavioral patterns within virtual environments. If improperly handled, this data could be misused or exposed to breaches, raising serious ethical implications. For instance, a poorly designed application that lacks robust encryption protocols could inadvertently compromise patient confidentiality [15]. Moreover, the immersive nature of VR raises unique ethical questions about informed consent. Users may not fully understand how their data is being collected or used during therapy sessions. Addressing these concerns requires transparent data policies and compliance with regulations like HIPAA for healthcare-related applications [18]. 4.3. Cybersickness and Physical Discomfort Cybersickness, a form of motion sickness caused by discrepancies between visual stimuli and physical movement, is a common issue in VR applications. Symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, and eye strain can significantly hinder user engagement and limit the duration of therapy sessions. Studies have shown that poorly designed VR environments with unnatural movements or rapid transitions exacerbate these symptoms [1]. To mitigate cybersickness, UX designers must carefully consider factors like frame rate consistency, field-of-view adjustments, and ergonomic headset design. For example, applications that allow users to control their pace of movement tend to reduce symptoms compared to those with pre-programmed navigation paths [1]. 4.4. Cognitive Overload Cognitive overload occurs when users are overwhelmed by complex interfaces or excessive stimuli within a virtual environment. This is particularly problematic for individuals with mental health conditions who may already struggle with reduced attention spans or heightened anxiety. For example, an application with cluttered menus or confusing navigation can distract users from therapeutic tasks and diminish the effectiveness of the intervention [12]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1956 Designing intuitive interfaces that prioritize simplicity and clarity is crucial to overcoming this challenge. Techniques such as progressive disclosure, revealing information gradually rather than all at once, can help minimize cognitive load while maintaining user engagement [19]. 4.5. Examples of Challenges in Practice • Cybersickness in PTSD Treatment: A study on VR exposure therapy for PTSD reported that some participants experienced severe dizziness and nausea due to poorly optimized motion settings in the virtual environment [2]. • Data Privacy Concerns: In a review of VR mental health applications, researchers highlighted instances where sensitive user data was inadequately protected due to weak encryption protocols. • Technological Barriers in Social Anxiety Therapy: Applications designed for social skills training often failed to run smoothly on older devices, leading to reduced immersion and engagement among users with limited access to high-end hardware. 4.6. Best Practices for UX Design in VR Mental Health Applications Designing effective virtual reality (VR) applications for mental health requires adherence to specific UX design principles and frameworks. These practices ensure that the applications are accessible, engaging, and tailored to meet the diverse needs of users. Below is a table summarizing key best practices for UX design in VR mental health applications, followed by a detailed discussion. Table 2 Virtual Reality Priorities for Mental Health Population Principle Description Examples/Applications Inclusivity Design for diverse populations, including individuals with varying physical, cognitive, and emotional needs [2]. Incorporate adjustable text sizes, voice commands, and compatibility with assistive devices. Adaptability It allows the customization of VR environments to suit individual therapeutic goals and preferences. Tailor exposure therapy scenarios for PTSD patients based on their personal trauma triggers. Evidence-Based Design Integrate proven psychological principles and therapeutic frameworks into VR applications [14]. Use cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques within immersive environments. User-Centered Design Prioritize user needs by conducting research and usability testing during development [20]. Perform iterative testing with target users to refine navigation and interaction elements. Minimize Cognitive Load Simplify interfaces and reduce distractions to help users focus on therapeutic tasks [15]. Use progressive disclosure to present information gradually rather than overwhelm users. Immersion and Presence Create realistic and engaging environments to enhance the sense of presence and emotional involvement [13; 1]. It employs high-resolution graphics, natural interactions, and consistent frame rates. Ethical Transparency Ensure clear communication about data collection, privacy, and consent to build user trust [21]. Comply with regulations like HIPAA for healthcare-related applications. 4.7. Future Directions and Opportunities Advancements in technology are poised to revolutionize user experience (UX) design in virtual reality (VR) mental health applications, addressing national mental health priorities such as accessibility, affordability, and effectiveness. Emerging innovations in VR and extended reality (XR) technologies, including automation, multisensory integration, and the use of the metaverse, present significant opportunities for enhancing mental health care delivery. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1957 4.7.1. Automated and AI-Driven Therapies Automated VR therapies, such as the game Change program designed for individuals with severe agoraphobia, demonstrate how artificial intelligence (AI) can reduce reliance on human therapists. These systems feature virtual coaches or avatars that guide users through therapeutic scenarios, making mental health care more scalable and accessible. For example, gameChange showed significant reductions in anxiety and distress among participants with schizophrenia during a large-scale trial involving 346 individuals. Such automation can address the shortage of trained mental health professionals while expanding access to underserved populations [22]. 4.7.2. Multisensory and Multimodal Experiences Future VR applications are likely to incorporate multisensory interactions, including haptic feedback, auditory cues, and even olfactory stimuli, to create more immersive therapeutic environments. These enhancements can improve user engagement and emotional connection with the virtual setting. For instance, integrating biofeedback mechanisms like heart rate monitoring into VR environments could help users track their physiological responses during therapy sessions and adjust their behavior accordingly. Multisensory approaches are particularly promising for disorders like PTSD, where realistic simulations can help patients process trauma more effectively [19]. 4.7.3. The Metaverse for Mental Health The metaverse, a persistent, multi-user digital space, offers opportunities to host collective mental health interventions such as group therapy or social skills training. By combining augmented reality (AR) and VR technologies, the metaverse can create hybrid environments where users interact with both virtual and real-world elements. This approach could bridge the gap between traditional in vivo therapies and fully virtual experiences, allowing for more seamless transitions between therapeutic settings. Additionally, the metaverse’s potential for remote collaboration could enable therapists to engage with patients across geographic barriers [1]. 4.7.4. Personalization Through Adaptive Technologies Personalized medicine is becoming a cornerstone of mental health care, and VR applications are no exception. Adaptive technologies that tailor therapeutic scenarios based on individual user data such as cultural background, age, or specific symptoms can enhance the relevance and effectiveness of interventions. For example, mindfulness-based VR programs developed by Johns Hopkins and BehaVR allow users to customize their experiences to better suit their stress management needs. Similarly, XR applications leveraging cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) principles can dynamically adjust exposure levels based on user progress [23]. 4.7.5. Affordable Hardware and Democratization of Access As VR hardware becomes more affordable and portable, thanks to advancements in mixed reality (MR) head-mounted displays, mental health applications will become increasingly accessible to the general public. Affordable devices can democratize access to high-quality mental health care by reducing financial barriers for individuals who cannot afford traditional therapy sessions. Moreover, lightweight designs with reduced motion sickness risks could make these devices more comfortable for prolonged use [4]. 4.7.6. Collaborative and Social Interventions Future developments in XR technologies will enable collaborative therapeutic experiences where multiple users can interact within the same virtual environment. This capability could facilitate social interventions such as group therapy or role-playing exercises for individuals with social anxiety or autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Collaborative XR environments also allow therapists to guide multiple patients simultaneously, improving efficiency without compromising the quality of care [11]. 4.7.7. Addressing National Mental Health Priorities These advancements align closely with national priorities to improve mental health care accessibility and innovation • Scalability: Automated therapies reduce reliance on human resources while expanding access. • Affordability: Advances in hardware lower costs for end-users. • Inclusivity: Personalized and adaptive systems cater to diverse populations. • Engagement: Multisensory experiences enhance user involvement and adherence. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1958 By leveraging these emerging technologies, VR mental health applications have the potential to transform how care is delivered while addressing systemic barriers such as stigma, geographic limitations, and resource shortages. 5. Conclusion This review has highlighted the critical role of user experience (UX) design in virtual reality (VR) mental health applications. By ensuring usability, accessibility, and engagement, UX design directly impacts the effectiveness of VR interventions in addressing mental health challenges. Key applications, such as exposure therapy, mindfulness training, and social skills development, demonstrate the transformative potential of VR when paired with thoughtful UX design. However, challenges such as technological limitations, ethical concerns around data privacy, and issues like cybersickness underscore the need for continued innovation and multidisciplinary collaboration. Advancing UX design in VR mental health applications aligns with national priorities to improve mental health care accessibility and innovation. As mental health disorders remain a significant public health concern in the U.S., VR offers scalable and costeffective solutions that can reach underserved populations while reducing the stigma associated with traditional therapies. The immersive nature of VR enables patients to engage deeply with therapeutic environments, improving adherence and outcomes compared to conventional methods. Future advancements in technology, such as AI-driven personalization, multisensory integration, and affordable hardware, present opportunities to further enhance UX design. These innovations can address systemic barriers by making VR applications more inclusive, adaptable, and effective for diverse user groups. By prioritizing user-centered approaches and evidence-based practices, stakeholders can harness the full potential of VR to transform mental health care delivery. Investing in UX design for VR mental health applications is not only a technological imperative but also a societal necessity. It ensures that these tools are effective, equitable, and aligned with the broader goal of improving national well-being through innovative mental health solutions. Compliance with ethical standards Disclosure of conflict of interest No conflict of interest to be disclosed. References [1] Alves Fernandes, L. M., Cruz Matos, G., Azevedo, D., Rodrigues Nunes, R., Paredes, H., Morgado, L., … Cardoso, B. (2016). Exploring educational Immersive videogames: An empirical study with a 3D multimodal interaction prototype. Behaviour and Information Technology, 35, 907–918. doi:10.1080/0144929X.2016.1232754 [2] Anton, D., Kurillo, G., and Bajcsy, R. (2018). User experience and interaction performance in 2D/3D telecollaboration. Future Generation Computer Systems, 82, 77–88. doi:10.1016/j.future.2017.12.055 [3] Erfanian, A., Hu, Y., and Zeng, T. (2017). Framework of multiuser satisfaction for assessing interaction models within collaborative virtual environments. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems, 47, 1052–1065. doi:10.1109/THMS.2017.2700431 [4] Bhagat, K. K., Liou, W.-K., and Chang, C.-Y. (2016). A cost-effective interactive 3D virtual reality system applied to military live firing training. Virtual Reality, 20(2), 127–140. doi:10.1007/s10055-016-0284-x [5] Ahn, S. J., Fox, J., Dale, K. R., and Avant, J. A. (2015). Framing virtual experiences: Effects on environmental efficacy and behavior over time. Communication Research, 42, 839–863. doi:10.1177/0093650214534973 [6] Koźlak, M., Kurzeja, A., and Nawrat, A. (2013). Virtual reality technology for military and industry training programs. In A. Nawrat and Z. Kuś (Eds.), Vision-based systems for UAV applications (pp. 327–334). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer International Publishing. [7] Koutsabasis, P., and Vosinakis, S. (2018). Kinesthetic interactions in museums: Conveying cultural heritage by making use of ancient tools and (re-) constructing artworks. Virtual Reality, 22(2), 103–118. doi:10.1007/s10055-017-0325-0 [8] Kyriakou, M., Pan, X., and Chrysanthou, Y. (2017). Interaction with virtual crowd in immersive and semiimmersive virtual reality systems. Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds, 28, e1729. doi:10.1002/ cav.1729 [9] Pick, S., Weyers, B., Hentschel, B., and Kuhlen, T. W. (2016). Design and evaluation of data annotation workflows for CAVE-like virtual environments. IEEE Computer Society 22, 1452–1461. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1951-1959 1959 [10] Brade, J., Lorenz, M., Busch, M., Hammer, N., Tscheligi, M., and Klimant, P. (2017). Being there again – Presence in real and virtual environments and its relation to usability and user experience using a mobile navigation task. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 101, 76–87. doi:10.1016/j. ijhcs.2017.01.004 [11] Jerald, J. (2018). Human-centered VR design: Five essentials every engineer needs to know. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 38(2),15–21. doi:10.1109/MCG.2018.021951628 [12] Lau, K. W., and Lee, P. Y. (2015). The use of virtual reality for creating unusual environmental stimulation to motivate students to explore creative ideas. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(1), 3–18. doi:10.1080/10494820.2012.745426 [13] Bian, Y., Yang, C., Gao, F., Li, H., Zhou, S., Li, H., … Meng, X. (2016). A framework for physiological indicators of flow in VR games: Construction and preliminary evaluation. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 20, 821–832. doi:10.1007/s00779-016-0953-5 [14] Anthes, C., García-Hernández, R. J., Wiedemann, M., and Kranzlmüller, D. (2016). State of the art virtual reality technology. Paper presented at the Aerospace Conference, 2016 IEEE, Big Sky, MT. [15] Botella, C., Serrano, B., Baños, R. M., and Garcia-Palacios, A. (2015). Virtual reality exposure-based therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A review of its efficacy, the adequacy of the treatment protocol, and its acceptability. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 2533. doi:10.2147/NDT [16] Georgiou, T., and Demiris, Y. (2017). Adaptive user modelling in car racing games using behavioural and physiological data. User Modeling and User-adapted Interaction, 27, 267–311. doi:10.1007/ s11257-017-91923 [17] Leonardis, D., Frisoli, A., Barsotti, M., Carrozzino, M., and Bergamasco, M. (2014). Multisensory feedback can enhance embodiment within an enriched virtual walking scenario. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 23(3), 253–266. [18] Baus, O., and Bouchard, S. (2017). Exposure to an unpleasant odour increases the sense of presence in virtual reality. Virtual Reality, 21, 59–74. doi:10.1007/s10055-016-0299-3 [19] Hartson, R., and Pyla, P. S. (2012). The UX book: Process and guidelines for ensuring a quality user experience. San Francisco, CA: Elsevier. [20] S Pardini, S Gabrielli, M Dianti, C Novara (2022). The role of personalization in the user experience, preferences and engagement with virtual reality environments for relaxation Public Health, 2022 - mdpi.com [21] de Jesus Oliveira, V. A., Nedel, L., and Maciel, A. (2018). Assessment of an articulatory interface for tactile intercommunication in immersive virtual environments. Computers and Graphics, 76, 18–28. doi: 10.1016/j.cag.2018.07.007 doi:10.1109/TVCG.2012.135 [22] F Avilés-Castillo, J Buele, G Palacios-Navarro (2025). Virtual Reality and User Experience: Current Trends and Future Challenges - IEEE Access, 2025 - ieeexplore.ieee.org [23] Jin, S.-A.-A. (2013). The moderating role of sensation seeking tendency in robotic haptic interfaces. Behaviour and Information Technology, 32, 862–873. doi:10.1080/0144929X.2012.687769