Impact of hydrological and anthropogenic factors on the diversity of macroinvertebrates in a temporary stream of the western highlands of Cameroon

 Corresponding author: Larry Nathaniel Lactio Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Impact of hydrological and anthropogenic factors on the diversity of macroinvertebrates in a temporary stream of the western highlands of Cameroon Larry Nathaniel Lactio 1, *, Samuel Menbohan Foto 1, Gideon Ajeagah Aghaindum 1, Jean Dzavi 1, 2, Wilfreid Christiane Noël Besti 1 and Miranda Egbe Awo 3 1 Department of Animal Bology and Physilogy, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. BOX 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon. 2 Water and Climate Change Research Centre, Institute of Geological and Mining Research, P.O. Box 4110, Yaoundé, Cameroon. 3 Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. BOX 63, Buéa, Cameroon. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 Publication history: Received on 27 September 2025; revised on 05 November 2025; accepted on 08 November 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.28.2.3636 Abstract The Toela River, a temporary mountain stream, is difficult to access due to the steepness of its catchment area. However, increasing settlement and market gardening activities, sustained by irrigation from the river, have caused significant water stress, contributing to the temporary nature of the aquatic environment. This study aimed to assess the impact of such anthropogenic activities on the diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates in the Toela River. Environmental variables were measured using standard methods, and benthic macroinvertebrates were collected through a multihabitat sampling approach. The results revealed strong spatio-temporal variability in physico-chemical parameters. Water temperature remained generally low, while dissolved oxygen reached up to 75% saturation during the rainy season. The acidic pH reflected the volcanic nature of the soils, and high orthophosphate concentrations indicated nutrient pollution of anthropogenic origin. A total of 743 specimens, representing 47 taxa, were identified, mainly arthropods (Diptera, Hemiptera), annelids, and platyhelminths, it is typical of tropical African freshwater systems. Species richness and diversity were significantly lower during the dry season, suggesting organic pollution. EPT taxa and Chironomidae exhibited clear seasonal and spatial variations linked to anthropogenic inputs and fluctuating hydrological conditions. Multivariate analyses highlighted pronounced ecological heterogeneity, distinguishing the downstream station (T3), with better ecological integrity, from the more impacted upstream stations (T1 and T2). Overall, the findings emphasise the combined influence of hydrological and anthropogenic factors in structuring benthic communities and the importance of sustainably managing water resources to preserve aquatic biodiversity in the Toela catchment. Keywords: Biodiversity; Benthic macroinvertebrates; Anthropogenic pressures; Temporary stream; Ecological quality; Western Cameroon. 1. Introduction Biodiversity represents a natural capital resulting from several billion years of evolution, characterised by an extraordinarily complex organisation and functioning. It is essential for assessing the condition of aquatic environments, monitoring their evolution, and defining priority actions required for their protection [1]. Among this biological diversity, benthic macroinvertebrates constitute a key component of aquatic ecosystems due to their rapid response to environmental disturbances and their relatively sedentary nature [2]. This characteristic enables them to integrate the cumulative effects of physical, chemical, and biological disturbances experienced within their habitats. As a crucial link in the food chain, they support a wide diversity of aquatic species such as amphibians, birds, and fish [3]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 963 These organisms, abundant and relatively easy to collect, have a sufficiently long lifespan (ranging from several months to several years) to provide a reliable record of environmental quality, making them excellent bioindicators of river health [4]. A thorough understanding of these organisms and their functioning is therefore indispensable for the effective management of aquatic ecosystems. However, ecological imbalances, largely driven by anthropogenic pressures such as point and diffuse pollution, overexploitation of resources, hydrological modifications, and climate change, represent major threats that exacerbate biodiversity loss in many regions of the world [1]. Moreover, the rapid demographic growth observed in most developing countries amplifies the negative effects of these pressures on the diversity and structure of benthic macroinvertebrate populations, leading to a significant decline in the ecosystem services provided by rivers [5,6]. Understanding these organisms thus allows for a concrete assessment of the impacts of pollution and alterations to aquatic and riparian habitats [7]. The municipality of Babadjou, located in the western part of the Bamboutos Division, is drained by several rivers, including the Lasségue, Tsoumbang, Mogoho, Tsé Deng, and Toela. These rivers are used by local populations for various daily activities such as water consumption, cooking, laundry, dishwashing, crop irrigation, and livestock watering. However, in recent years, there has been a gradual increase in polluting activities, notably the deforestation of hillsides for intensive market gardening, driven partly by demographic pressure. These activities threaten aquatic ecosystems, which have consequently become degraded, with significant repercussions on aquatic biodiversity (Ndi & Wang, 2024). Benthic macroinvertebrates, which serve as reference organisms in assessing the quality of aquatic ecosystems, have already been the subject of numerous studies in various localities across Cameroon, such as Abong-Mbang [8], Mbalmayo [9], Monatélé [10], and Boussibelika [12], among others. However, these aquatic environments are all perennial systems, and few studies such as that of [13] have focused on the biological diversity of macroinvertebrates in temporary aquatic habitats. Yet, temporary streams are among the most characteristic environments of global fluvial networks, more so than permanently flowing rivers [14]. Their spatial distribution may further expand under the combined effects of land-use changes, climate change, and increasing water abstraction for human activities [15,16]. Hence, it is of particular interest to assess the benthic macroinvertebrate fauna of the Toela stream. The objectives are to first determine the abiotic parameters of the environment, then to inventory the benthic macroinvertebrates present, and finally to evaluate the ecological quality of the water based on community structure. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Site Figure 1 Map showing the location of the different study stations (WGS 84, OSM) This study was conducted in the municipality of Babadjou, located in the Bamboutos Division, Western Region of Cameroon, at geographical coordinates 5°40'43'' N and 10°12'17'' E. The study area is characterised by a humid tropical equatorial climate with two distinct seasons (dry and rainy), an average temperature of approximately 22 °C, and mean annual rainfall of 916.6 mm. Various soil types occur in this area, including volcanic, sandy–clayey, hydromorphic, and ferralitic soils, along with intertropical vegetation dominated by a humid montane forest [17,18]. The locality is drained World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 964 by an extensive hydrographic network, notably including the Toela stream. This stream originates on the summit of Mount Bamboutos, flows through the village of Bamélo, and runs west–east through a heavily anthropised catchment, mainly characterised by intensive market gardening with extensive use of agrochemicals. Three sampling stations were selected along the stream according to their accessibility and proximity to pollution sources. Station T1, located closest to the source, is bordered by pepper plantations. Station T2, about 2 km downstream from T1, lies in the heart of a market gardening zone, while Station T3, approximately 10 km downstream from T2, is characterised by fallow riverbanks providing some degree of ecological integrity despite occasional laundry activities (Figure 1). Sampling was carried out over a one-year period, from August 2023 to July 2024, at a monthly frequency. The period of water permanence (April–October) corresponds to the rainy season, whereas the phase of strong hydric stress and stream desiccation (November–March) corresponds to the dry season. 2.2. Anthropogenic Activities Related to Market Gardening Figure 2 (A) Market gardening in the locality; (B) Insecticides and pesticides used; (C) Network of irrigation pipes; (D) Crop irrigation; (E) Stream desiccation between January and March Market gardening in Babadjou (Figure 2A), as in many other localities, is characterised by the use of fertilisers, insecticides, pesticides, and fungicides (Figure 2B), which have severe environmental consequences. Among these are soil degradation, loss of forest cover, and particularly the pollution of watercourses, resulting in a significant decline in aquatic biodiversity. In this region, crop irrigation poses a major threat to biodiversity, as the pumping systems installed World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 965 at the source greatly reduce stream discharge during the dry season, leading to partial or complete desiccation between January and March and the disappearance of many aquatic microhabitats (Figures 2C, 2D and 2E). 2.3. Measurement of Abiotic Parameters Geographical coordinates and altitude were recorded in the field using a Garmin 60 S GPS. Physico-chemical analyses were conducted both in the field and in the laboratory following standard recommendations [19,20]. In the field, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, salinity, and temperature were measured using a HANNA HI 98130 multimeter (Hanna Instrument LTD, Eden Way, Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire LU7 4AD, United Kingdom), while dissolved oxygen was measured using a HANNA HI 9147 oxymeter. For laboratory analyses, water samples were collected during each field campaign at each station in double-capped 1 000 mL polyethylene bottles. Laboratory measurements included suspended solids, turbidity, orthophosphates, and nitrogenous compounds. 2.4. Sampling of Benthic Macroinvertebrates In the field, benthic macroinvertebrates were collected using a square-frame D-net (30 cm × 30 cm) equipped with a conical net of 500 µm mesh size and 50 cm depth, following a multi-habitat sampling approach [21]. At each station, approximately 20 net sweeps were performed along a stretch equivalent to ten times the stream width, covering an area of about 3 m², across different habitats defined by substrate/flow-velocity combinations. During periods of severe hydric stress (more pronounced at stations T1 and T2), samples were collected from permanent water pockets. The retained organisms were carefully picked with fine forceps and preserved in 10% formalin. In the laboratory, specimens were rinsed with tap water to remove formalin and stored in 50 mL vials containing 70% ethanol. They were sorted into Petri dishes according to size and morphology and identified at least to the family level under a Bresser HG878513 stereomicroscope using appropriate identification keys [22,23,24]. 2.5. Data Analysis The Friedman and Wilcoxon tests, performed using R software (version 4.4.1), were used to determine whether differences between seasons and sampling stations were statistically significant represented on graphs as different letters (a–b = significant, a–a = non-significant). The Shannon–Weaver and Simpson indices were used to assess variations in taxonomic diversity, while Pielou’s evenness index was used to evaluate the equitable distribution of individuals within communities. To assess the impact of hydric stress during stream desiccation on the diversity of collected organisms, the frequency of occurrence of taxa was calculated based on their presence during both the wet and dry periods at each station. The Hilsenhoff Family Biotic Index (FBI, 1988), which accounts for the tolerance range assigned to each taxon, was used to determine pollution levels at the different sampling stations [25,26,27]: 𝐹𝐵𝐼 = ∑𝑥ᵢ. 𝑡ᵢ 𝑛 where xᵢ = number of individuals of the ith taxon, tᵢ = tolerance value of the ith taxon, and n = total number of individuals in the sample. Table 1 Evaluation of water quality using the Family-level biotic index (FBI) [25] Family biotic index Water quality Degree of organic pollution 0.00-3.75 Excellent Organic pollution unlikely 3.76-4.25 Very good Possible slight organic pollution 4.26-5.00 Good Some organic pollution probable 5.01-5.75 Fair Fairly substantial pollution likely 5.76-6.50 Fairly poor Substantial pollution likely 6.51-7.25 Poor Very substantial pollution 7.26-10.00 Very poor Severe organic pollution likely World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 966 Spearman’s rank correlations, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and principal component analysis (PCA) were also performed using R software to determine the influence of abiotic parameters on the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages. 3. Results 3.1. Abiotic Parameters 3.1.1. Physico-chemical Variables The analysis revealed notable fluctuations in the various measured variables, both temporally (between seasons) and spatially (between stations) along the Toela stream during the study period. The lowest temperature values were recorded during the dry season at stations T1 and T2, while T3 showed slightly higher readings. In the rainy season, temperatures rose slightly at all stations, with a more pronounced increase at T3, reaching up to 20 °C (Figure 3A). The Friedman and Wilcoxon tests indicated no significant spatial differences (p > 0.05), but a significant temporal difference (p < 0.05) between seasons. The percentage of oxygen saturation remained low during the dry season, particularly at station T1, whereas T2 and T3 exhibited higher values ranging from 65% to 75%. In the rainy season, a clear improvement was observed at all stations, with maximum values around 80–100% at T2 and T3 (Figure 3B). Statistical analyses showed no significant spatio-temporal differences (p > 0.05). pH values were generally higher during the dry season, oscillating around neutrality (6.8–7.5 U.C.), with median values close to 7 at all stations. During the rainy season, a marked decrease was observed, with values mainly between 5.8 and 6.5, indicating a tendency towards acidification (Figure 3C). The Friedman and Wilcoxon tests revealed no significant spatio-temporal differences (p > 0.05). Nitrogenous compound concentrations fluctuated both seasonally and spatially. Nitrate levels (Figure 3E) were higher in the rainy season, particularly at T2 and T3. Ammonium nitrogen (Figure 3F) also increased at T2 and T3 during the rainy season, though its concentrations remained lower than those of nitrates. Nitrite levels (Figure 3D) were low overall, with a slight increase at T2 during the rainy season. No significant spatio-temporal differences were observed (p > 0.05). Orthophosphate concentrations were low (< 1 mg/L) during the dry season at all stations. In the rainy season, values increased markedly, particularly at T2 and T3, sometimes exceeding 3 mg/L (Figure 3G). No significant spatiotemporal differences were detected (p > 0.05). Electrical conductivity was higher in the dry season across all stations, with median values of 45 µS/cm at T1, 43 µS/cm at T2, and 32 µS/cm at T3. Conversely, conductivity decreased significantly in the rainy season, with respective medians of 32 µS/cm (T1), 35 µS/cm (T2), and 29 µS/cm (T3) (Figure 3H). The Friedman and Wilcoxon tests revealed significant seasonal differences (p < 0.05). Total dissolved solids (TDS) were also higher during the dry season, with medians around 22 mg/L at T1 and 19 mg/L at T2, compared to 16 mg/L at T3. During the rainy season, a significant decrease was observed, particularly at T1 (median ≈ 16 mg/L), while T2 and T3 showed moderate levels (14–18 mg/L) (Figure 3I). Seasonal differences were significant (p < 0.05). Salinity was higher in the dry season, with T1 showing the lowest value (0.01 mg/L), and decreased during the rainy season (Figure 3J). No significant spatio-temporal differences were observed (p > 0.05). Suspended solid concentrations remained low (< 20 mg/L) during the dry season, but increased markedly during the rainy season at T2 and T3, where values ranged from 50 mg/L to 400 mg/L (Figure 3K). These variations were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Finally, turbidity followed a similar seasonal pattern, with very low values during the dry season and high values during the rainy season, especially at T2 and T3 (Figure 3L). The Friedman and Wilcoxon tests indicated significant spatio-temporal differences (p < 0.05). World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 967 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 968 Figure 3 Seasonal variation of temperature (A), dissolved oxygen (B), pH (C), nitrite (D), nitrate (E), ammonium nitrogen (F), orthophosphate (G), electrical conductivity (H), TDS (I), salinity (J), suspended solids (K), and turbidity (L) in the Toela stream during the study period 3.2. Benthic Macroinvertebrates Figure 4 Variation in the percentage of phyla (A), order abundance (B), species richness and abundance by station (C), and seasonal variation (D) of benthic macroinvertebrates in the Toela stream during the study period A total of 743 specimens were collected, belonging to four phyla, five classes, eleven orders, thirty-two families, and over forty-seven taxa. The phylum Arthropoda predominated, comprising 23 families and 91.4% relative abundance, followed by Annelida (five families, 5.78%), Mollusca (two families, 0.67%), and Plathelminthes (one family, 2.15%) (Figure 4A). Among classes, Insecta was dominant with 23 families (91.4% relative abundance), followed by Oligochaeta (three families, 3.9%). The orders Diptera and Hemiptera were the most represented, with eleven and six families, respectively, corresponding to 43% and 41% of total abundance (Figure 4B). The families Baetidae and Chironomidae World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 969 were the most abundant, with three and seven species respectively, representing 37% and 32.2% relative abundance, and were present at all stations. Overall, abundance decreased progressively from upstream (39% at T1) to downstream (25% at T3), while species richness increased from upstream (15 families) to downstream (26 families) (Figure 4C). Statistical analyses revealed significant seasonal differences (p < 0.05) (Figure 4D). Total Taxonomic Richness (TTR) in the Toela stream reached 43 families: 15 at T1, 21 at T2, and 26 at T3. Insect Taxonomic Richness (TRI) was highest upstream (T1), whereas Dipteran Taxonomic Richness (DTR) peaked downstream (T3). The proportion of Chironomidae was highest at T2. The Hilsenhoff Index ranged from 4.83 (T3) to 5.29 (T1), indicating water quality varying from “good” to “fair”, corresponding to probable to substantial organic pollution (Table 2). Table 2 Variation of metrics describing the structure of benthic macroinvertebrates during the study period. Metrics T1 T2 T3 TTR 15 21 26 TRI 12 11 10 DTR 17 20 24 %chiro 74,23 82,11 53,13 H’ 1,69 1,64 2,2 E 0,62 0,54 0,68 FBI 5,29 5,17 4,83 TTRTotal Taxonomic Richness; TRITaxonomic Richness of Insects; DTRDipterian Taxonomic Richness; %chiroPercentage of chironomidae; H’- Shannon diversity index; EPielou index; FBIHillsenhoff index. Simpson, Shannon–Weaver, and Pielou indices showed generally low values, with a slight increase during the dry season from T1 (H′ = 1,54 bit/ind) to T2 (H′ = 2 bit/ind), before decreasing downstream at T3 (H′ = 1,78 bit/ind). In the rainy season, values increased progressively from upstream (H′ = 2,2 bit/ind at T1) to downstream (H′ = 2,7 bit/ind at T3) (Figure 5). Figure 5 Variation of Simpson (1–D), Shannon–Weaver (H′), and Pielou’s Evenness (J) indices across study stations by season The frequency of occurrence showed that most taxa were rare (< 25%). Baetis sp. was the most frequent species (25– 50%). The frequency of EPT and Chironomidae groups varied by station (53% EPT at T3 vs. 44% Chironomidae at T1) and by season (54% EPT and 33% Chironomidae in the dry season vs. 34% and 28% respectively in the rainy season). These groups were therefore more abundant during hydric stress (Table 3). World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 970 Table 3 Frequency of occurrence of benthic macroinvertebrates collected from the Toela stream. Families Species T1 T2 T3 Dry Rainy Dry Rainy Dry Rainy Lymnaeidae Biomphalaria pfeifferi 0 0 0 1 (1%) 0 0 Planorbidae Gyraulus sp 0 3 (2%) 1 (1%) 0 0 0 Blaberidae //////////// 0 0 0 1 (1%) 0 0 Leptophlebii dae Adenophlebia sylvatica 2 (2%) 5 (3%) 0 0 0 3 (3%) Adenophlebiodes sp 0 0 0 0 1 (1%) 0 Baetidae Acentrella siniaca 2 (2%) 10 (5%) 4 (4%) 6 (3%) 33 (34%) 1 (1%) Baetis sp 34 (35%) 35 (16%) 33 (36%) 59 (34%) 33 (34%) 17 (19%) Cleon sp 0 0 0 5 (3%) 0 3 (3%) Caenidae Afrcaenis sp 8 (8%) 3 (2%) 2 (2%) 2 (1%) 4 (4%) 2 (2%) Hydropsychi dae Hydropsyche sp 0 0 0 3 (2%) 0 2 (2%) Hydroptilidae Tricholeiochiton sp 0 0 0 0 0 2 (2%) Chironomida e Chironomus flaviplumus 1 (1%) 8 (4%) 23 (25%) 10 (6%) 1 (1%) 0 Cryptochironomus sp 0 1 (1%) 0 0 0 0 Ablabesmyia monilis 4 (5%) 6 (3%) 2 (2%) 19 (10%) 2 (2%) 3 (3%) Polypedilum sp 36 (37%) 1 (1%) 10 (12%) 9 (5%) 9 (10%) 2 (2%) Cricotopus sylvestris 1 (1%) 60 (32%) 0 24 (14%) 0 0 Procladius choreus 0 0 3 (3%) 1 (1%) 0 0 Paratrichocladius tamaater 0 3 (2%) 0 0 0 0 Simulidae Prosimuliini sp 0 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 4 (2%) 2 (2%) 0 Rhagionidae /////////// 0 0 0 0 0 1 (1%) Athericidae Atrichops crassipes 0 0 0 0 0 3 (3%) Tipulidae Hexatoma sp 0 5 (3%) 0 1 (1%) 3 (3%) 0 Tipula furca 0 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 0 0 Anthomyidae Limnophora sp 0 0 0 0 0 3 (3%) Empididae Empididae 0 0 0 0 1 (1%) 0 Culicidae Culex sp 0 0 1 (1%) 0 0 0 Thaumaleida e Thaumalea sp 0 32 (16%) 0 11 (6%) 0 2 (2%) Sciomyzidae Anticheata borealis 0 1 (1%) 0 2 (1%) 0 0 Helodidae Cyphon sp 0 1 (1%) 0 0 0 0 Gyrinidae Orectogyrus Régimbart 0 0 0 0 0 6 (7%) World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 977 [23] De Moor I.J. & Day J.A. Guides to the Freshwater Invertebrates of Southern Africa, Volume 6: Arachnida & Mollusca. Chapter 3: Mollusca. Water Research Commission Report, No. TT 182/02, Pretoria-South Africa, pp 42125, 2002. [24] Tachet H., Richoux P., Bournaud M. And Usseglio-Polatera P. Freshwater invertebrates: systematics, biology and ecology. CNRS édition, Paris, France, 588p, 2010. [25] Hilsenhoff, W. L. Rapid field assessment of organic pollution with a family-level biotic index. Journal of the North American benthological society. 1988; 7(1), 65-68. [26] Bode, R.W., M.A. Novak et L.E. Abele. Quality Assurance Work Plan for Biological Stream Monitoring in New York State. NYS Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY, 89p, 1996. [27] Bode, R.W., M.A. Novak, L.E. Abele, D.L. Heitzman et A.J. Smith. Quality Assurance Work Plan for Biological Stream Monitoring in New York State, Albany (New York). Stream Biomonitoring Unit Bureau of Water Assessment and Management Division of Water, NYS Department of Environmental Conservation, 41p; 2002. [28] Buhungu S., Montchowui E., Barankanira E., Sibomana C, Ntakimazi G. & Bonou C. Caractérisation spatiotemporelle de la qualité de l’eau de la rivière Kinyankonge, affluent du Lac Tanganyika, Burundi. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences. 2018 ; 12(1) : 576-595. [29] Rodier, J., B. Legube, N. Marlet et R. Brunet. L’analyse de l’eau. 9e édition, DUNOD, Paris, 1579p ; 2009. [30] Nyame M, D, L. Taxonomie et diversité des Blattaria semi-aquatiques dans trois bassins versants (Mvila, HautNyong, Mefou) de la zone forestière du Cameroun et leur rôle dans la bioindication (Doctoral dissertation université de Yaoundé 1) ; 2025. [31] Nyamsi T. Macroinvertébrés Benthiques du réseau hydrographique de la Méfou : habitat, diversité et dynamique des peuplements, évaluation de l’intégrité biologique des cours d’eau. Thèse de Doctorat/Ph. D, Université de Yaoundé I, Cameroun 251p ; 2018. [32] Jarvie et al. Phosphorus and nitrogen limitation and impairment of headwater streams relative to rivers in Great Britain: A national perspective on eutrophication. Science of the Total Environment. 2018; 621, 849-862. [33] Mboye, R.., Foto Menbohan, S., Mbega, J. & Biram A. Influence of the Granulometric parameters on the Diversity and Distribution of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in the Mabounié Watershed (Central West Gabon). International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences. 2018; 5(7) : 252-270. [34] Mbete, V. C., Ibala-Zamba, A., Mbete, P Et Mamonékéné, V. Inventaire et distribution des macroinvertébrés benthiques de la lagune Loya, dans Le Département de Pointe-Noire au Congo Brazzaville, in Afrique SCIENCE. 2020 ; 17(5), pp : 124 – 136. [35] CHAIB, S. Variation intraspécifique des macroinvertébrés benthiques le long d’un gradient environnemental dans les zones humides des Hauts Plateaux de l’Est algérien (Oum El Bouaghi et Khenchela) (Doctoral dissertation), 2025. [36] SOUMAORO, G. M., SOUMAORO, G. P., CONDE, S., TENKIANO, N. S. D., BARRY, A., & SIMMY, P. L. Identification des différents groupes de macroinvertébrés benthiques de la rivière Limbo dans la Préfecture de Kankan, République de Guinée. Afrique SCIENCE. 2025 ; 26(3), 22-34. [37] Djene, K. R., Allouko, J. R., & Koné, K. Bony KY. Influence of Physico-Chemical Parameters on The Diversity of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in the Rivers of Odienne Departement in Northwest Côte d’Ivoire. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 2025 ; 16 (4), 681, 694. [38] Foto Menbohan, S., S.H. Zébazé Togouet, N.L. Nyamsi Tchatcho et T. Njiné. Macroinvertébrés benthiques du cours d’eau Nga : Essai de caractérisation d’un référentiel par des analyses biologiques. European J. Scientific Res. 2010; 43(1): 96-106. [39] Foto Menbohan S., E. Koji, G.A. Ajeagah, C.F. Bilong Bilong et T. Njiné. Impact of dam construction on the diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates community in a peri-urban stream in Cameroon. International Journal of Biosciences. 2012; 11: 137-145. [40] Foto Menbohan, S., S. Tchakonte, G.A. Ajeagah, S.H. Zébazé Togouet, C.F Bilong Bilong. et T. Njiné. Water quality assessment using benthic macroinvertebrates in a periurban stream (Cameroon). International Journal of Biotechnology. 2013; 2(5), 91-104. [41] Foto Menbohan, S. Nyame, M, D. Gwos, S, R. Nwaha, M. Tchouta, U, G. Temgoua, Z, M, A. Biram, A, N, E, B. Qualité écologique de quelques cours d’eau du bassin hydrologique de la Mefou par les macroinvertébrés benthiques. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 962-978 978 Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) e-ISSN:2319-2402, pISSN: 2319-2399. Volume 17, Issue 1 Ser. II (January 2023), P76-88. [42] Ajeagah, G. A., Yogback, G. E., Menbohan, S. F., Tchakonté, S., & Djieto-Lordon, C. Facteurs environnementaux et répartition spatiale des crustacés dans un cours d'eau peu anthropisé à Makak (Région du Centre Cameroun). Physio-Géo. Géographie physique et environnement, (Volume 11). 2017 ; 181-196. [43] Schriever, T.A., T. Bogan, M. Boersma, K.S. Cañedo-Argüelles, M. Jaeger, K.L. Olden, D.A. Lytle. Hydrology shapes taxonomic and functional structure of desert stream invertebrate communities. Freshwater Science. 2015 ; 34(2), 399-409. [44] Temgoua Zemo, M.A.; Menbohan, S.F.; Atchrimi, B.T.; Betsi, W.C.N.; Nwaha, M.; Dzavi, J.; Mavunda, C.A.; Lactio, N. Effect of Anthropogenic Pressure on the Biodiversity of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Some Urban Rivers (Yaoundé). Water. 2023; 15, 2383. https://doi.org/10.3390/ w15132383. [45] Tchakonté, S., G.A Ajeagah, A.I. Camara, D. Diomandé, N.L. Nyamsi Tchatcho et P. Ngassam. Impact of urbanization on aquatic insect assemblages in the coastal zone of Cameroon: the use of biotraits and indicator taxa to assess environmental pollution. Hydrobiologia. 2015; 749, 23p. [46] Peters, W.L. et I.C. Campbell. Chapter 16: Ephemeroptera (Mayflies). In: The Insects of Australia. 1991; (2nd ed.) Vol. 1. CSIRO Australia: 279-293. [47] Nwaha M., Foto Menbohan S., NyameMbia D., Biram à Ngon E., Temgoua Z. M.A.Water Quality Assessment of Some Forest Streams inthe South Region of Cameroon International Journal of Scientific Research and Engineering Development-– Volume 5 Issue 2. 2022; 1292-1302.a