Towards a resilient and prosperous Himalayan Region: a critical analysis of the development paradigms

Journal of Social Sciences Vol. VIII, no. 3 (2025), pp. 6 - 18 Fascicle Social Science ISSN 2587-3490 Topic Economics Policy and Economic Policies eISSN 2587-3504 Journal of Social Sciences September 2025, Vol. 8 https://doi.org/10.52326/jss.utm.2025.8(3).01 CZU 614.8.084:551:504(1-925.36) TOWARDS A RESILIENT AND PROSPEROUS HIMALAYAN REGION: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DEVELOPMENT PARADIGMS Piyoosh Rautela 1*, ORCID: 0000-0001-7280-4655, Meenakshi Bist 2, ORCID: 0000-0002-6066-0954, Deepshikha Rawat Bhatt 3, ORCID: 0000-0002-8666-0346 1 Disaster Management Initiatives and Convergence Society, Hyderabad, Telangana, India 2 School of Computer Application, IMS Unison University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India 3 Advisory Support Group, Chief Minister’s Office, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India * Corresponding author: Piyoosh Rautela, [email protected] Received: 06. 27. 2025 Accepted: 08. 29. 2025 Abstract. The increasing frequency and magnitude of disasters in the Himalayan region are not solely attributable to natural forces. The prevailing development paradigm, characterized by unsustainable tourism, large-scale hydropower projects, and a disregard for traditional ecological knowledge, has exacerbated the region's vulnerability. While technocrats and experts often advocate for investment in warning systems after each devastating event, such solutions alone cannot ensure the safety and security of communities in the Himalayan region. This paper argues for a paradigm shift in Himalayan development, one that prioritizes disaster risk reduction (DRR) and embraces a flexible, participatory approach. This new framework must integrate local knowledge, aspirations, and an understanding of the region's inherent fragility to foster both resilience and vibrant economic growth. Keywords: Himalayas, Development paradigm, Disasters risk reduction, Sustainability. Rezumat. Frecvența și magnitudinea tot mai mari ale dezastrelor din regiunea Himalaya nu sunt atribuibile exclusiv forțelor naturale. Paradigma de dezvoltare predominantă, caracterizată prin turism nesustenabil, proiecte hidroenergetice la scară largă și o ignorare a cunoștințelor ecologice tradiționale a exacerbat vulnerabilitatea regiunii. Deși tehnocrații și experții pledează adesea pentru investiții în sisteme de avertizare după fiecare eveniment devastator, astfel de soluții singure nu pot asigura siguranța și securitatea comunităților din regiunea Himalaya. Această lucrare pledează pentru o schimbare de paradigmă în dezvoltarea Himalayei, una care să prioritizeze reducerea riscului de dezastre și să adopte o abordare flexibilă și participativă. Acest nou cadru trebuie să integreze cunoștințele locale, aspirațiile și înțelegerea fragilității inerente a regiunii pentru a promova atât reziliența, cât și o creștere economică vibrantă. Cuvinte cheie: Himalaya, Paradigmă de dezvoltare, Reducerea riscului de dezastre, Sustenabilitate. P. Rautela, M. Bist, D.R. Bhatt 7 Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 1. Introduction The Himalayan region, characterized by its rugged terrain and limited arable land, has always supported a sparsely populated and dispersed settlement pattern. The habitations in this terrain are often located in the proximity of geomorphologically favourable sites formed by landslides where water and agricultural land are available. These resources are however not abundant and can support limited population size. Moreover, the steep topography, deep gorges, and fast-flowing rivers limit interaction between communities residing in this region, fostering a self-sufficient and self-contained lifestyle, and a unique cultural identity. This relative isolation, coupled with the region's natural beauty, has long attracted people seeking respite from urban life, further shaping its development trajectory. Recent decades have however witnessed a shift towards emulating Western development models that prioritize connectivity, infrastructure, and economic indicators [1] and accordingly the Himalayan region was labelled as "underdeveloped" and its inhabitants "backward", a narrative reinforced by popular media portrayals. Globalization and increasing international pressure have further fuelled this drive for development, often at the expense of local knowledge, environmental sustainability, and disaster risk reduction. Policymakers, eager to shed the stigma of backwardness, have often rushed to implement development schemes ill-suited to the region's unique challenges and fragilities. This paper argues that such a conventional approach to development has contributed to the increasing frequency and magnitude of disasters in the Himalayan region, besides deteriorating the quality of life of its inhabitants. A critical re-evaluation and realignment of the development paradigm is therefore needed, one that prioritizes local wisdom, environmental sustainability, and disaster risk reduction while fostering genuine economic growth. 2. The Quest for Development Availability of water and land for agriculture, together with proximity to the forest and pastures decided suitability of a place in the Himalayan region for human habitation, and the magnitude of these resources decided the population size of these habitations. Distribution of these resources not being uniform and continuous, population in the Himalayan region has been sparsely distributed and geomorphic constrains imposed by the terrain resulted in limited connectivity and communication between the inhabitants of these habitations as also poorly developed infrastructure and public amenities. The drive to develop the Himalayan region has thus been interwoven intricately around the quest to overcome these constraints imposed by nature. 2.1 Water With the topography promoting prompt runoff and the water of glacier fed rivers being unfit for human consumption during summers [2], inhabitants of the Himalayan region have always faced scarcity of water despite ample rains since the stabilisation of south-west monsoon over the Indian subcontinent [3]. The quantity of available water thus had a major influence on the size of the habitations in the region. To overcome the limitations imposed by water availability on population growth, ambitious schemes were implemented to pump drinking water, often from distant sources. These projects however frequently overlooked the socio-cultural, hydrological and ecological consequences of such large-scale water transfer. With piped water readily available, traditional water sources were gradually neglected by both the state and communities that now required these only for ritualistic purposes. 8 Towards a resilient and prosperous Himalayan region: a critical analysis of the development paradigms Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 This shift severed the age-old bonds between the communities and their water sources, including the crucial recharge zones, disrupting the socio-ecological services these sources provided. Consequently, many traditional water sources became unproductive and were even encroached upon [4]. This had far-reaching implications for the hydrology and stability of the Himalayan region. Firstly, it disrupted the delicate water balance of the exploited watersheds, leading to water scarcity in those areas. This, in turn, triggered a cascade effect, with water being transferred from one watershed to another with little consideration for hydrological or geological impacts. Secondly, the recipient watershed now had water far in excess of its capacity for safe disposal, which had adverse impact on slope stability. Thirdly, the decay of traditional water sources led to increased groundwater retention. Previously, subsurface water would naturally discharge through these sources, maintaining the pore water pressure within safe limits. However, with encroachment and reduced outflow, pore water pressure has increased, rendering hillsides more susceptible to landslides and instability. 2.2 Housing The geomorphic constraints of the Himalayan region traditionally limited horizontal expansion of settlements, resulting in compact habitations with predominantly one or twostory structures. This constraint was however challenged with the promotion of multi-storied, reinforced cement concrete (RCC) buildings. The damage inflicted on traditional houses during the 1991 Uttarkashi and 1999 Chamoli earthquakes in Uttarakhand [5] fuelled the perception that the traditional structures were inherently weak and unsafe [6]. This perception unfortunately overlooked the underlying causes of seismic losses, leading to the wholesale dismissal of traditional building practices without proper investigation. The RCC houses, were however constructed initially by affluent families with outside exposure, and these became symbols of social status [6]. This led to widespread imitation, even among those who could not afford proper construction, with many replacing traditional light weight slated roofs with heavy RCC slabs that the walls of the traditional houses were not designed to support. While the 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake exposed the risks of such poorly modified and constructed buildings, the lessons learned were not effectively retained due to what psychologists call the Fading Affect Bias [7] - the tendency to forget the emotional impact of previous traumatic incidences over time. Compounding the problem is the lack of accessible structural engineering advice and the absence of institutional mechanisms to train local masons in safe construction practices using new materials. Most construction workers, including bar-benders and masons, are selftaught, and there exists no system to ensure the engagement of certified professionals. This has resulted in a proliferation of non-engineered structures with questionable seismic safety [8]. Paradoxically, awareness programs promoting earthquake-safe construction practices have inadvertently reinforced the belief in the invincibility of beam-column structures. This has emboldened residents, relying on the expertise of self-taught masons, to append additional stories to their homes and even encroach upon previously avoided areas, such as those near drainage lines, steep slopes and over agricultural land. The cumulative effect of these factors is a significant increase in seismic vulnerability and risk across the Himalayan region. The replacement of traditional earthquake-resistant P. Rautela, M. Bist, D.R. Bhatt 9 Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 construction [9] with multi-storied houses built with dubious seismic safety has amplified the potential for catastrophic damage. Moreover, the increased population density due to multi-storied buildings and the extensive use of concrete have led to greater wastewater discharge and surface runoff. This, coupled with inadequate drainage systems, further elevates pore water pressure and piping of fines from the old landslide debris over which most habitations are presently located, leading to ground instability and landslides. The recent instability of Joshimath town in Uttarakhand serves as a stark reminder of these interconnected challenges [10]. 2.3 Wider Roads Historically, distances in the Himalayan region were measured in travel time rather than physical distance, which reflects the challenges put forth by terrain and limited road infrastructure. The desire to reduce the travel times and align the connectivity standards with other regions however fuelled a drive for wider and straighter roads. This pursuit of faster connectivity has often come at a steep environmental and social cost. Road construction and widening projects necessitate extensive excavation and cutting into fragile hillsides, destabilizing slopes that had been stable for decades. Despite claims of safe and scientific debris disposal, much of the excavated material is often dumped downslope, triggering new landslides and reactivating old ones. This not only poses a direct threat to water sources, settlements and infrastructure but also increases the volume of debris available for mobilization during flash floods, transforming these into devastating mudflows. Furthermore, the push for increased connectivity has extended to railway construction, with extensive tunnelling and blasting through the fragile Himalayan landscape. While these projects aim to boost economic activity and accessibility, these raise serious concerns about the long-term impacts of vibrations induced by train movements on slope stability. The potential of these vibrations to trigger landslides and exacerbate existing geological weaknesses cannot be ignored. 2.4 Harnessing Hydropower Hydropower is often touted as a renewable and green energy source, and the Himalayan region, with its steep gradients and abundant water resources, appears to be an ideal location for harnessing this potential. Consequently, numerous small and large dams and barrages have been constructed throughout the region [11]. However, the construction of these dams and the subsequent regulation of river flows can have significant downstream impacts. Reduced discharge adversely affect the sediment transport capacity of rivers, leading to increased deposition of sediments in the upper reaches. This process of riverbed aggradation results in raised riverbed level, increasing the risk of flooding in areas previously considered safe. Uttarkashi town in Uttarakhand is currently grappling with the consequences of riverbed aggradation caused by upstream and downstream dams [12]. Furthermore, the construction of hydropower projects often involves blasting and excavation, which can destabilize slopes and trigger landslides. The impoundment of water behind dams can also induce seismic activity, increasing the risk of earthquakes in the region [13,14]. Therefore, while hydropower can contribute to clean energy generation, it is essential to carefully consider the potential environmental and geological consequences of large-scale hydropower development in the fragile Himalayan ecosystem. A comprehensive assessment 10 Towards a resilient and prosperous Himalayan region: a critical analysis of the development paradigms Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 of the risks and benefits is crucial to ensure that such projects do not inadvertently increase the vulnerability of communities to disasters. 2.5 Unchecked Tourism While tourism can contribute to economic growth and development, unchecked tourism in ecologically fragile regions like the Himalayas is having detrimental consequences. The very infrastructure development intended to promote tourism – wider roads, recreational amenities, and luxury hotels – are exacerbating these negative impacts. The focus on attracting large numbers of tourists, often weekend thrill-seekers, has already started to strain the carrying capacity of popular destinations, leading to overcrowding, traffic congestion, environmental degradation, and resource depletion. This trend is often further amplified by state policies that prioritize tourist headcount as a measure of success, rather than promoting sustainable tourism practices that prioritize environmental protection and community well-being [15]. The influx of tourists also disrupts local cultures and traditions, leading to social tensions and the erosion of traditional values. Furthermore, the concentration of tourists in specific areas increases the vulnerability of these areas to disasters, as large crowds hinder evacuation and emergency response efforts [16,17]. Therefore, it is crucial to adopt a more balanced approach to tourism development in the Himalayan region, one that prioritizes sustainability, respects local communities, and minimizes environmental impacts. This may involve implementing measures to regulate tourist numbers, promote responsible tourism practices, and diversify tourism activities to reduce pressure on popular destinations. 3. The Consequences The Himalayan region is inherently vulnerable to a range of natural hazards [18,19] and the prevailing development paradigm, as discussed in the previous sections, has exacerbated this vulnerability, increasing the risk faced by communities. This is evidenced by a series of recent disasters across the Himalayan region, including the Kedarnath flood in 2013 [19], the Dhauliganga flood in 2021 [20], the Amarnath flash flood in 2022 [21], the Joshimath ground subsidence in 2023, the Kullu-Manali-Mandi floods in 2023, and the South Lhonak glacial lake outburst flood in 2023 [22]. These events highlight the urgent need to critically evaluate and realign the development trajectory in the Himalayan region. A new paradigm is required - one that acknowledges the region's unique geological fragility, incorporates traditional knowledge and practices, and prioritizes the aspirations of local communities [23,24]. This paradigm shift needs to focus on (i) integrating DRR into all development planning and implementation processes, (ii) prioritizing environmental protection and sustainable resource management, (iii) ensuring meaningful participation of local communities in decision-making processes, and (iv) respecting and preserving the unique cultural heritage of the Himalayan region. By adopting a more holistic and sustainable approach to development, the Himalayan region can build resilience to disasters and ensure a more secure and prosperous future for its inhabitants. 4. Navigating the Complexities of Himalayan Development 4.1 Strategic Considerations and Development The construction of wider and straighter roads in the Himalayan region is often justified on strategic grounds, citing the need to match infrastructure development on the P. Rautela, M. Bist, D.R. Bhatt 11 Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 other side of the border. This argument however overlooks the significant geological and geomorphological differences between the Indian and Chinese sides of the Himalayas. The Himalaya on the Indian side is characterized by steep gradients, narrow valleys, high relative relief, and highly disturbed rock mass [25,26], making large-scale infrastructure development inherently challenging and prone to triggering landslides and other hazards. In contrast, the Tibetan Plateau, across the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, exhibits lower relative relief, a more plain-like geomorphology, and relatively stable ground conditions [27,28], making infrastructure development less hazardous. Therefore, simply comparing infrastructure development strategies in these two distinct geological environments is misleading and can result in misguided policies. While China is able to construct and maintain extensive road networks in the Tibetan Plateau [29], replicating such an approach in the Indian Himalayas could have severe environmental and social consequences. Instead of focusing solely on road infrastructure, India needs to explore alternative strategies to address strategic considerations in an environmentally sustainable manner. This could involve leveraging the heavy airlift capabilities of the Indian Air Force and developing airfields and logistics facilities at strategic locations near the border, so as to minimize the need for extensive road networks that disrupt fragile ecosystems. 4.2 Quality Over Quantity: Redefining Tourism Led Growth The second narrative attached to wider roads emphasises tourism development often putting forth increased visitor numbers as a key indicator of success and economic growth. This approach however overlooks the crucial distinction between visitor numbers and actual economic gains. While increased tourist arrivals can generate economic activity, the true measure of success lies in the amount of money tourists spend on local products and services during their stay. In other words, the duration of stay and spending pattern of tourists are more important indicators of economic benefits than mere headcount. From this perspective, the focus on wider and straighter roads aimed at facilitating faster travel may actually be counterproductive. By reducing travel time and encouraging tourists to bypass traditional halting stations, such infrastructure development can lead to decreased economic benefits for local communities. This trend is already evident in Uttarakhand, where traditional halting stations along the Char Dham Yatra route, such as Devprayag, Srinagar, Rudraprayag, and Chamoli, are experiencing declining economic activity due to reduced tourist stays [30,31]. Instead of prioritizing speed and volume, a more sustainable approach to tourism development needs to focus on attracting visitors who are genuinely interested in experiencing the unique culture and natural beauty of the Himalayan region and who are willing to spend more time and money on local amenities. This could involve promoting ecotourism, cultural tourism, and other forms of sustainable tourism that prioritize quality over quantity 4.3 Recognising and Mitigating Risks Asi Ganga flood of August 2012 as also Dhauliganga flood of February 2021, in Uttarakhand tragically demonstrated the devastating consequences of inadequate risk assessment and mitigation in hydropower development. These floods, triggered respectively 12 Towards a resilient and prosperous Himalayan region: a critical analysis of the development paradigms Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 by cloudburst and avalanche, devastated hydropower project on Asi Ganga, Rishiganga and Dhauliganga rivers [20,32]. Geological evidences of historical damming and flood along Rishiganga and Dhauliganga rivers were ignored while planning major projects along these rivers [20]. Similarly, the glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) risk of South Lhonak Lake in the Teesta valley [33,34] was ignored while planning the Teesta III Dam that was devastated by the breach of South Lhonak Lake in October 2023. These incidents underscore a critical gap in current development practices to adequately recognize, assess, and mitigate risks. Whether due to a lack of comprehensive risk assessment, downplaying of perceived risks, or inadequate implementation of mitigation measures, the consequences of such oversights can be catastrophic. To ensure the safety and sustainability of development in the Himalayan region, it is imperative to prioritize comprehensive risk assessment and implement robust mitigation measures through (i) identification of potential hazards and vulnerabilities, (ii) clear and transparent communication of risks to the decision-makers and communities, (iii) implementing effective mitigation measures to minimize potential impacts, and (iv) regularly reviewing and updating risk assessments and mitigation strategies in response to changing conditions. By acknowledging and addressing risks proactively, the Himalayan region can pursue development pathways that prioritize both economic growth and the safety and well-being of its communities. 5. Charting a Sustainable Course for the Himalayas In the context of identified causes of mounting vulnerability of the Himalayan communities and enhanced risk of hazards to which the Himalayan region is exposed, it is essential to realign the current development paradigm. 5.1 Redefining Connectivity in the Himalayan Context Given the extensive destabilization already caused by road widening projects, immediate efforts need to focus on slope stabilization and treatment to mitigate further damage. Looking ahead, both local communities and policymakers must recognize that providing road connectivity to every hamlet in the Himalayas is neither feasible nor desirable, and the pursuit of such a goal is to have disastrous consequences for the fragile mountain ecosystem. Instead of expanding the road network further, the focus should shift to maintaining existing roads and ensuring their safety and resilience. This requires a paradigm shift in road construction practices, prioritizing stability and disaster risk reduction over speed and connectivity by (i) undertaking detailed geo-tectonic assessments before planning road alignments to avoid unstable zones and minimize the risk of landslides, (ii) aligning new roads at higher elevations and away from streams and rivers to minimize disruptions to hydrological systems and reduce the risk of flood damage, and (iii) involving local communities in road planning and maintenance to ensure that the infrastructure development aligns with their needs and priorities. By adopting a more cautious and sustainable approach to connectivity, the Himalayan region can ensure safe and reliable access while preserving its fragile environment and reducing disaster risk. P. Rautela, M. Bist, D.R. Bhatt 13 Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 5.2 Regulating Construction for Safety and Sustainability Unregulated and haphazard construction on fragile Himalayan slopes has contributed to numerous disasters, highlighting the urgent need for stricter regulations and contextsensitive building practices. The unique geological conditions, slope gradients, drainage patterns, and soil depths of each site in the Himalayan region demand a nuanced approach to construction. Generalized building codes and bye-laws, developed for and suiting less dynamic environments, are often inadequate and result in unsafe and unsustainable built environment. Therefore, it is crucial to invest in detailed geological and geotechnical investigations to inform the development of locally relevant building codes that essentially incorporate earthquake, landslide and flash flood safety measures. These codes should also promote the use of local building materials, traditional architectural styles, and the skills of local artisans [2,6,35]. Besides enhancing safety and sustainability this approach promises to preserves the unique cultural heritage of the region that in turn is sure to promote tourism. Furthermore, given the high seismic vulnerability of the Himalayan region [5,8,36], special emphasis must be placed on promoting earthquake-resistant construction practices. This requires establishing institutional mechanisms for training construction workers, particularly masons and bar-benders, in the latest seismic design and construction techniques. By adopting a more controlled and context-sensitive approach to construction, the Himalayan region can ensure the safety and resilience of its built environment while preserving its unique character and promoting sustainable development. 5.3 Prioritising Hazard Mapping and Land Use Planning Previous disaster incidences have repeatedly highlighted the vulnerability of new settlements in the Himalayan region, which are often established in areas traditionally considered unsuitable for habitation [2,6,35]. This highlights the critical need for comprehensive hazard assessment and effective land-use planning to guide development away from high-risk areas and involves (i) undertaking in-depth mapping of all potential hazards, including landslides, floods, earthquakes, and avalanches, to identify areas at high risk, (ii) implementing measures to discourage or prohibit construction and settlement in hazard-prone areas, which can be achieved through legal notifications, public awareness campaigns, and collaboration with insurance companies to incentivize safe development, (iii) designating areas in close proximity to streams, rivers, natural springs, and traditional water sources, as well as aquifer recharge zones, as protected areas and this would help in maintaining hydrological stability, reduce erosion, and minimize flood risk, and (iv) incorporating local knowledge and traditional land-use practices into planning processes, recognising and respecting that the communities possess valuable insights into local hazards and sustainable land management techniques. By prioritizing hazard mapping and implementing effective land-use planning policies, the Himalayan region can guide development towards safer and more sustainable pathways, minimizing the risk to both human lives and the environment. 5.4 Implementing Effective Drainage Measures Inadequate drainage, coupled with the encroachment and blockage of natural drainage channels, has been a major contributing factor to several disasters in the Himalayan region, including the recent ground subsidence in Joshimath town of Uttarakhand [10]. 14 Towards a resilient and prosperous Himalayan region: a critical analysis of the development paradigms Journal of Social Sciences September, 2025, Vol. 8 To prevent such occurrences, it is crucial to (i) implement and enforce strict regulations to maintain buffer zones around drainage lines free from construction and human intervention, and this requires clear demarcation of these zones and effective monitoring mechanisms to ensure compliance, (ii) design and construct efficient drainage systems to ensure prompt and effective disposal of rainwater and household wastewater and this includes a network of well-maintained drains, culverts, and retention ponds to prevent water accumulation and soil erosion, (iii) encourage the use of permeable surfaces in construction and landscaping to allow for natural infiltration of rainwater and reduce surface runoff, which would also help in groundwater recharge and maintain soil moisture balance, and (iv) involve local communities in the planning, construction, and maintenance of drainage systems to ensure their long-term effectiveness and foster a sense of ownership. By prioritizing drainage management and implementing effective measures to control water flow and prevent erosion, the Himalayan region can significantly reduce the risk of landslides, ground subsidence, and other water-induced disasters. 5.5 Implementing a Comprehensive Debris Disposal Policy Construction and development activities in the Himalayan region inevitably generate large amount of debris. If not managed responsibly, this debris can lead to a range of environmental problems, including land and forest degradation, landslides, enhanced erosional power of floods, riverbed aggradation, and siltation of reservoirs [19,20,32]. To address this, a comprehensive Debris Disposal Policy is urgently needed and this needs to incorporate (i) responsibilities of agencies and individuals generating debris for its safe disposal with a system of accountability with penalties for non-compliance and provisions for compensating affected communities in case of negligence, (ii) identification and designation of suitable disposal sites based on detailed geological and environmental assessments ensuring these to be located away from water bodies, settlements, and ecologically sensitive areas, (iii) environmentally sound disposal methods that minimize the impact on surrounding ecosystems, (iv) promotion of recycling and reusing construction and demolition waste to minimize the volume of debris requiring disposal, and (v) a robust monitoring and enforcement mechanism to ensure compliance with the policy. By implementing a comprehensive and strictly enforced Debris Disposal Policy, the Himalayan region can minimize the negative impacts of development activities and ensure the long-term health of its environment. 5.6 Diversifying Tourism Destinations and Managing Visitor Flow Himalayan states have traditionally focused on promoting a limited number of wellknown tourist destinations, leading to overcrowding and environmental strain in these areas. While attracting tourists is important for economic development, it is equally crucial to diversify tourist destinations and manage visitor flow to ensure sustainability and minimize environmental impacts. This involves (i) identification and promotion of alternative destinations with the potential to attract diverse interests, such as ecotourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, health and wellness tourism, and spiritual tourism, supplemented by development of basic infrastructure and amenities in these areas to distribute tourist traffic more evenly and reduce pressure on popular hotspots, (ii) prioritisation of sustainable tourism infrastructure that minimizes environmental impact in remote and ecologically fragile areas by promoting ecofriendly accommodations like nature villas, tents, and homestays, as well as promoting