Trade, Islam, and Property Rights: A 500-Year Path Dependency

AUGUST 9, 2012 The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Luis Lugo, Director Alan Cooperman, Associate Director, Research James Bell, Director of International Survey Research Erin O’Connell Associate Director, Communications Sandra Stencel Associate Director, Editorial (202) 419-4562 www.pewforum.org FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Associate Director, Research Director of International Survey Research Associate Director, Communications Associate Director, Editorial www.pewforum.org 2 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org About the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life This report was produced by the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. The Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that provides information on the issues, attitudes and trends shaping America and the world. The center conducts public opinion polling, demographic studies, content analysis and other empirical social science research. It does not take positions on policy issues. The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life is a project of the Pew Research Center; it delivers timely, impartial information on the issues at the intersection of religion and public affairs in the U.S. and around the world. The Pew Research Center is an independently operated subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts. The report is a collaborative effort based on the input and analysis of the following individuals: Primary Researcher James Bell, Director of International Survey Research, Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life Pew Forum Luis Lugo, Director Research Alan Cooperman, Associate Director, Research Jessica Hamar Martinez, Besheer Mohamed, Michael Robbins, Neha Sahgal and Katie Simmons, Research Associates Noble Kuriakose and Elizabeth P. Sciupac, Research Analysts Editorial Sandra Stencel, Associate Director, Editorial Diana Yoo, Graphic Designer Tracy Miller, Copy Editor Hilary Ramp, Assistant Editor Communications and Web Publishing Erin O’Connell, Associate Director, Communications Stacy Rosenberg, Digital Project Manager Liga Plaveniece and Jemila Woodson, Communications Associates Joseph Liu, Web Producer 3 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Pew Research Center Andrew Kohut, President Paul Taylor, Executive Vice President Elizabeth Mueller Gross, Vice President Scott Keeter, Director of Survey Research Leah Christian, Senior Researcher, Pew Research Center for the People & the Press Visit http://www.pewforum.org/Muslim/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity.aspx to see the online version of the report. Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life 1615 L St., NW, Suite 700 Washington, D.C. 20036-5610 Phone (202) 419-4550 Fax (202) 419-4559 www.pewforum.org © 2012 Pew Research Center 4 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Table of Contents PAGE Preface 5 Executive Summary 7 Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation 27 Chapter 2: Religious Commitment 36 Chapter 3: Articles of Faith 57 Chapter 4: Other Beliefs and Practices 67 Chapter 5: Boundaries of Religious Identity 83 Chapter 6: Boundaries of Religious Practice 95 Appendix A: U.S. Muslims 106 Appendix B: Glossary 112 Appendix C: Survey Methodology 117 Appendix D: Topline 128 5 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org PREFACE From its origin on the Arabian Peninsula in the seventh century C.E., Islam has grown into a worldwide religion with more than 1.6 billion adherents – nearly a quarter of the world’s population.1 Today, Muslims live on all inhabited continents and embody a wide range of races, ethnicities and cultures. What beliefs and practices unite these diverse peoples into a single religious community, or ummah? And how do their religious convictions and observances vary? This report by the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life seeks to describe both the unity and the diversity of Islam around the globe. It is based on more than 38,000 face-to-face interviews conducted in over 80 languages with Muslims in 39 countries and territories that collectively are home to roughly two-thirds (67%) of all Muslims in the world. The survey includes every country that has a Muslim population of more than 10 million, except those (such as China, India, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Syria) where political sensitivities or security concerns prevented opinion research among Muslims. Unity and diversity are themes that emerge naturally from the survey results. On what are often considered Islam’s articles of faith and “pillars” of practice, there is much commonality among Muslims around the world. But on other important questions, such as whether Islam is open to more than one correct interpretation or which groups should be considered part of the Muslim community, there are substantial differences of opinion. The survey also suggests that many Muslims do not see themselves as belonging to any particular sect: Fully a quarter of the Muslims surveyed identify themselves neither as Sunni nor as Shia but as “just a Muslim.” The survey was conducted in two waves. Fifteen sub-Saharan African countries with substantial Muslim populations were surveyed in 2008-2009, and some of those findings previously were analyzed in the Pew Forum report “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” An additional 24 countries in Africa, Asia and Europe were surveyed in 2011-2012; those results are published here for the first time. This report on religious beliefs and practices, however, is just the first of two planned analyses of the survey data. The Pew Forum plans to issue a second report, focusing on Muslims’ social and political attitudes, in late 2012 or early 2013. The Pew Forum’s global survey of Islam is part of a larger effort, the Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures project, which analyzes religious change and its impact on societies around 1 For further information on the global and regional distribution of Muslims, see the Pew Forum’s 2011 report “The Future of the Global Muslim Population” and 2009 report “Mapping the Global Muslim Population.” 6 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org the world. Previous studies produced under the Pew-Templeton initiative, jointly funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts and the John Templeton Foundation, include “Faith on the Move: The Religious Affiliation of International Migrants” (March 2012), “Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population” (December 2011), “Rising Restrictions on Religion” (August 2011), “Global Survey of Evangelical Protestant Leaders” (June 2011), “The Future of the Global Muslim Population: Projections for 20102030” (January 2011), “Global Restrictions on Religion” (December 2009), “Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population” (October 2009) and “Spirit and Power: A 10-Country Survey of Pentecostals” (October 2006). The primary researcher for “The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity” was James Bell, the Pew Forum’s director of international survey research. He received valuable research assistance from Michael Robbins, Neha Sahgal and Katie Simmons. Fieldwork was carried out under the direction of Princeton Survey Research Associates International and Opinion Research Business; we particularly wish to thank Mary McIntosh and Jonathan Best of PSRAI and Johnny Heald and Cara Carter at ORB. Amaney Jamal, Associate Professor of Politics at Princeton University, served as a special adviser. In the design of the survey questions and preparation of this report, the Pew Forum also was fortunate to be able to call on the expertise of several other academic experts, including Asma Afsaruddin of Indiana University, Xavier Bougarel of The National Centre for Scientific Research (Paris), Michael Cook of Princeton University, David Damrel of the University of South Carolina, Nile Green of the University of California, Los Angeles, Robert Hefner of Boston University, Marcia Hermansen of Loyola University Chicago, Leonard Lewisohn of the University of Exeter (United Kingdom), Peter Mandaville of George Mason University, Vali Nasr of Tufts University, Steven Prothero of Boston University, Asifa Quraishi of University of the Wisconsin Law School, Farid Senzai of Santa Clara University and Shibley Telhami of the University of Maryland. While the survey design was guided by the counsel of our advisers, contractors and consultants, the Pew Forum is solely responsible for the interpretation and reporting of the data. Luis Lugo, Director Alan Cooperman, Associate Director for Research 7 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 100 98 97 97 96 85 Middle East-North Africa Southeast Asia South Asia Central Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Southern-Eastern Europe EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The world’s 1.6 billion Muslims are united in their belief in God and the Prophet Muhammad and are bound together by such religious practices as fasting during the holy month of Ramadan and almsgiving to assist people in need. But they have widely differing views about many other aspects of their faith, including how important religion is to their lives, who counts as a Muslim and what practices are acceptable in Islam, according to a worldwide survey by the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. The survey, which involved more than 38,000 face-to-face interviews in over 80 languages, finds that in addition to the widespread conviction that there is only one God and that Muhammad is His Prophet, large percentages of Muslims around the world share other articles of faith, including belief in angels, heaven, hell and fate (or predestination). While there is broad agreement on the core tenets of Islam, however, Muslims across the 39 countries and territories surveyed differ significantly in their levels of religious commitment, openness to multiple interpretations of their faith and acceptance of various sects and movements. Some of these differences are apparent at a regional level. For example, at least eight-in-ten Muslims in every country surveyed in subSaharan Africa, Southeast Asia and South Asia say that religion is very important in their lives. Across the Middle East and North Africa, roughly six-in-ten or more say the same. And in the United States, a 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that nearly seven-in-ten Muslims (69%) say religion is very important to them. (For more comparisons with U.S. Muslims, see Appendix A, page 106.) But religion plays a much less central role for some Muslims, particularly in nations that only recently have emerged from communism. No more than half of those surveyed in Russia, the Balkans and the former Soviet republics of Central Asia say religion is very important in their lives. The one exception across this broad swath of Eastern Europe, Southern Europe and Central Asia is Turkey, which never came under communist rule; fully two-thirds of Turkish Muslims (67%) say religion is very important to them. Belief in God and Muhammad Nearly Universal Median % in region who believe in one God and the Prophet Muhammad N represents the number of Muslims interviewed in each region. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43j. N 4,111 9,233 7,189 4,134 4,877 8,647 8 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 44 44 36 15 67 50 49 36 30 18 95 93 93 94 92 81 89 85 85 82 78 75 59 98 97 96 95 95 95 94 94 93 93 92 91 91 87 87 86 Kosovo Russia Bosnia-Herz. Albania Turkey Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Azerbaijan Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Morocco Jordan Palestinian terr. Iraq Tunisia Egypt Lebanon Senegal Ghana Cameroon Guinea Bissau Kenya Tanzania Mali Mozambique Nigeria Uganda Chad DR Congo Liberia Djibouti Ethiopia Niger Generational differences are also apparent. Across the Middle East and North Africa, for example, Muslims 35 and older tend to place greater emphasis on religion and to exhibit higher levels of religious commitment than do Muslims between the ages of 18 and 34. In all seven countries surveyed in the region, older Muslims are more likely to report that they attend mosque, read the Quran (also spelled Koran) on a daily basis and pray multiple times each day. Outside of the Middle East and North Africa, the generational differences are not as sharp. And the survey finds that in one country – Russia – the general pattern is reversed and younger Muslims are significantly more observant than their elders. There are also differences in how male and female Muslims practice their faith. In most of the 39 countries surveyed, men are more likely than women to attend mosque. This is especially true in Central Asia and South Asia, where majorities of women in most of the countries surveyed say they never attend mosque. However, this disparity appears to result from cultural norms or local customs that constrain women from attending mosque, rather than from differences in the importance that Muslim women and men place on religion. In most countries surveyed, for example, women are about as likely as men to read (or listen to readings from) the Quran on a daily basis. And there are no consistent differences between men and women when it comes to the frequency of prayer or participation in annual rites, such as almsgiving and fasting during Ramadan. How Much Religion Matters % saying religion is very important in their lives *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q36. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 9 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 82 77 54 46 42 38 37 14 21 41 43 53 40 50 Iraq Lebanon Tunisia Jordan Egypt Palestinian terr. Morocco Shias are Muslims Shias are not Muslims Sectarian Differences The survey asked Muslims whether they identify with various branches of Islam and about their attitudes toward other branches or subgroups. While these sectarian differences are important in some countries, the survey suggests that many Muslims around the world either do not know or do not care about them. Muslims in the Middle East and North Africa tend to be most keenly aware of the distinction between the two main branches of Islam, Sunni and Shia.2 (See text box on page 22 for definitions.) In most countries surveyed in the region, at least 40% of Sunnis do not accept Shias as fellow Muslims. In many cases, even greater percentages do not believe that some practices common among Shias, such as visiting the shrines of saints, are acceptable as part of Islamic tradition. Only in Lebanon and Iraq – nations where sizable populations of Sunnis and Shias live side by side – do large majorities of Sunnis recognize Shias as fellow Muslims and accept their distinctive practices as part of Islam. Outside of the Middle East and North Africa, the distinction between Sunni and Shia appears to be of lesser consequence. In many of the countries surveyed in Central Asia, for instance, most Muslims do not identify with either branch of Islam, saying instead that they are “just a Muslim.” A similar pattern prevails in Southern and Eastern Europe, where pluralities or majorities in all countries identify as “just a Muslim.” In some of these countries, decades of communist rule may have made sectarian distinctions unfamiliar. But identification as “just a Muslim” is also prevalent in many countries without a communist legacy. For example, in Indonesia, which has the world’s largest Muslim population, 26% of Muslims describe themselves as Sunnis, compared with 56% who say they are “just a Muslim” and 13% who do not give a definite response. 2 According to Pew Forum estimates, 87-90% of the world’s Muslims are Sunnis, while 10-13% are Shias. For country-by-country estimates of the percentage of Sunnis and Shias, see the Pew Forum’s 2009 report “Mapping the Global Muslim Population,” page 38. Sunnis in Iraq, Lebanon More Accepting of Shias % of Sunnis in the Middle East-North Africa who say … Figures exclude respondents who identify as Shia, “just a Muslim,” “Something else” or Don’t know/Nothing in particular. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q41b. 16 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org majorities in Central Asia (69%) and Southern and Eastern Europe (56%) say they practice annual almsgiving. One Faith, Different Levels of Commitment These common practices and shared beliefs help to explain why, to many Muslims, the principles of Islam seem both clear and universal. As mentioned above, half or more in most of the 39 countries surveyed agree that there is only one way to interpret the teachings of Islam. But even though the idea of a single faith is widespread, the survey finds that Muslims differ significantly in their assessments of the importance of religion in their lives, as well as in their views about the forms of worship that should be accepted as part of the Islamic faith. Central Asia along with Southern and Eastern Europe have relatively low levels of religious commitment, both in terms of the lower importance that Muslims in those regions place on religion and in terms of self-reported religious practices. With the exception of Turkey, where two-thirds of Muslims say religion is very important in their lives, half or fewer across these two regions say religion is personally very important to them. This includes Kazakhstan and Albania, where just 18% and 15%, respectively, say religion is central to their lives. (See chart on page 8.) Along with the lower percentages who say religion is very important in their lives, Muslims in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe also report lower levels of religious practice than Muslims in other regions. For instance, only in Azerbaijan does a majority (70%) pray more than once a day. Elsewhere in these two regions, the number of Muslims who say they pray several times a day ranges from slightly more than four-in-ten in Kosovo (43%), Muslims in Central Asia, SouthernEastern Europe: Less Personally Engaged, But Many Observe Key Rituals % who … Pray several times a day Attend mosque once a week or more Give alms annually (zakat) Fast during Ramadan SouthernEastern Europe 28 21 56 66 Kosovo 43 22 69 76 Russia 36 19 39 56 Bosnia-Herz. 19 30 81 75 Albania 7 5 43 44 Central Asia 30 17 69 52 Azerbaijan 70 1 59 43 Turkey 43 44 72 84 Tajikistan 42 30 66 88 Kyrgyzstan 18 23 77 53 Uzbekistan 18 9 73 50 Kazakhstan 4 10 36 30 Median % for regions; total % for individual countries. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q61, Q34 & Q64e-f. 17 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Turkey (43%) and Tajikistan (42%) to fewer than one-in-ten in Albania (7%) and Kazakhstan (4%). In other regions included in the study, daily prayer is much more common among Muslims. In Southeast Asia, for example, at least three-quarters pray more than once a day, while in the Middle East and North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, majorities in most countries report the same. Muslims in Central Asia, as well as in Southern and Eastern Europe, also tend to be less observant than their counterparts in other regions when it comes to mosque attendance. Just over four-in-ten Turkish Muslims (44%) say they visit their local mosque once a week or more, while three-in-ten do the same in Tajikistan and Bosnia-Herzegovina. In the remaining countries, fewer than a quarter of Muslims say they go to worship services at least once a week. By contrast, outside Central Asia and the Southern-Eastern Europe region, substantially larger percentages of Muslims say they attend mosque once a week or more, although only in subSaharan Africa do broad majorities in all countries display this high level of religious commitment. It is important to keep in mind, however, that despite lower levels of religious commitment on some measures, majorities of Muslims across most of Central Asia and Southern and Eastern Europe nonetheless subscribe to core tenets of Islam, and many also report that they observe such pillars of the faith as fasting during Ramadan and annual almsgiving to the poor. 18 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Generational Differences in Religious Commitment Of all the countries surveyed, only in Russia do Muslims ages 18-34 place significantly more importance on religion than Muslims 35 and older (48% vs. 41%). Younger Muslims in Russia also tend to pray more frequently (48% do so once a day or more, compared with 41% of older Muslims). Elsewhere in Southern and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the older generation of Muslims generally places a greater emphasis on religion and engages more often in prayer. For example, Muslims ages 35 and older are more likely than younger Muslims to pray several times a day in Uzbekistan (+18 percentage points), Tajikistan (+16) and Kyrgyzstan (+8). The biggest generational differences are found in the Middle East and North Africa. In Lebanon, for example, Muslims ages 35 and older are 28 percentage points more likely than younger Muslims to pray several times a day, 20 points more likely to attend mosque at least weekly and 18 points more likely to read the Quran daily. On each of these measures, age gaps of 10 points or more also are found in the Palestinian territories, Morocco and Tunisia. And somewhat smaller but statistically significant differences are observed as well in Jordan and Egypt. Older Generation More Religiously Committed in Middle East-North Africa % who say religion is very important in their lives Ages 18-34 Ages 35+ Diff. Lebanon 42 71 +29 Palestinian territories 80 92 +12 Tunisia 73 82 +9 Iraq 79 87 +8 Jordan 82 88 +6 Morocco 88 91 +3 Egypt 74 76 +2 % who pray several times a day 18-34 35+ Diff. Lebanon 47 75 +28 Palestinian territories 64 87 +23 Tunisia 55 74 +19 Morocco 61 79 +18 Jordan 63 74 +11 Iraq 82 90 +8 Egypt 57 65 +8 % who attend mosque once a week or more 18-34 35+ Diff. Lebanon 24 44 +20 Tunisia 38 55 +17 Morocco 47 62 +15 Egypt 54 69 +15 Jordan 58 71 +13 Palestinian territories 50 61 +11 Iraq 37 43 +6 % who read or listen to Quran daily 18-34 35+ Diff. Morocco 30 49 +19 Palestinian territories 43 62 +19 Lebanon 21 39 +18 Iraq 40 54 +14 Jordan 46 59 +13 Tunisia 45 57 +12 Egypt 45 53 +8 PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q61, Q34, Q36 & Q65. 19 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Women and Men Similar, Except in Mosque Attendance Across the six regions included in the survey, women and men tend to be very similar in terms of the role religion plays in daily life. This holds true for the importance that both sexes place on religion, as well as for the frequency with which they observe daily rituals, such as prayer and reading (or listening to) the Quran. For example, among the countries surveyed in Central Asia, a median of 43% of Muslim women say religion is very important in their lives, compared with 42% of men. When it comes to prayer, medians of 31% of women and 28% of men in Central Asia pray several times a day. And nearly equal percentages of women (8%) and men (6%) across the region say they read or listen to the Quran daily. The one exception to this pattern is mosque attendance: women are much more likely than men to say they never visit their local mosque. This gender gap is largest in South Asia and Central Asia. In South Asia, including Pakistan, a median of about three-quarters of women (77%) say they never attend mosque, compared with just 1% of men. In Central Asia, the comparable figures are 74% and 20%. Gender differences in mosque attendance are smaller, though still significant, in Southern and Eastern Europe (+27 percentage points) and the Middle EastNorth Africa region (+26 points). There is little or no gap, however, in Southeast Asia (+4) and sub-Saharan Africa (+1). Women and Men Equally Committed; But Differences in Mosque Attendance Median % in region who say religion is very important in their lives Men Women Diff. Southern-Eastern Europe 38 42 +4 Southeast Asia 93 94 +1 Middle East-North Africa 82 83 +1 Central Asia 42 43 +1 Sub-Saharan Africa* 94 93 -1 South Asia 93 90 -3 Median % in region who pray several times a day Men Women Diff. Middle East-North Africa 65 69 +4 Central Asia 28 31 +3 Southern-Eastern Europe 26 28 +2 Southeast Asia 77 78 +1 Sub-Saharan Africa* 84 84 0 South Asia 52 48 -4 Median % in region who read or listen to Quran daily** Men Women Diff. South Asia 26 33 +7 Central Asia 6 8 +2 Southeast Asia 36 38 +2 Middle East-North Africa 48 49 +1 Southern-Eastern Europe 9 6 -3 Median % in region who never attend mosque Men Women Diff. South Asia 1 77 +76 Central Asia 20 74 +54 Southern-Eastern Europe 22 49 +27 Middle East-North Africa 7 33 +26 Southeast Asia 0 4 +4 Sub-Saharan Africa* 1 2 +1 *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” **Not asked in sub-Saharan African countries. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q34, Q36, Q61 & Q65. 20 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 56 50 23 18 12 4 Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Sub-Saharan Africa* Southeast Asia Middle-East and North Africa South Asia Sectarian Differences Vary in Importance The survey finds that sectarian identities, especially the distinction between Sunni and Shia Muslims, seem to be unfamiliar or unimportant to many Muslims. This is especially true across Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as in Central Asia, where medians of at least 50% describe themselves as “just a Muslim” rather than as a follower of any particular branch of Islam. Substantial minorities in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia also identify as “just a Muslim” (regional medians of 23% and 18%). Sectarian identities appear to be particularly relevant in South Asia and the Middle EastNorth Africa region, where majorities identify as Sunnis or Shias. In the Middle East and North Africa, moreover, widespread identification with the Sunni sect is often coupled with mixed views about whether Shias are Muslims. In five of seven countries surveyed in the Middle East and North Africa, at least four-inten or more Sunnis say Shias are not Muslims.6 Only in Iraq and Lebanon do overwhelming majorities of Sunnis accept Shias as members of the same faith. Indeed, Sunnis in these two countries are at least 23 to 28 percentage points more likely than Sunnis elsewhere in the region to recognize Shias as Muslims.7 6 Questions about views of Muslim sects were not asked in sub-Saharan Africa. 7 All figures for Shia and Sunni subgroups within countries are based on self-identification in response to a multi-part survey question that first asked if an individual was Muslim (Q28 and Q28b), and if yes, if they were Sunni, Shia or “something else” (Q31). The percentage of Shias and Sunnis identified by the survey may diverge from country estimates reported in the Pew Regional Medians for Those Saying They are “Just a Muslim” Median % in region who self-identify as “Just a Muslim” *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q31. Sunnis More Accepting of Shias in Iraq and Lebanon % of Sunnis who say… Shias are Muslim Shias are not Muslims Diff. Iraq 82 14 +68 Lebanon 77 21 +56 Tunisia 54 41 +13 Jordan 46 43 +3 Egypt 42 53 -11 Morocco 37 50 -13 Palestinian terr. 38 40 -2 PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q41b. 21 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 99 98 98 65 Lebanon Iraq Shias Sunnis 43 36 29 4 3 Palestinian terr. Tunisia Morocco Egypt Jordan This greater willingness of Sunnis in Iraq and Lebanon to accept Shias as fellow Muslims extends as well to attitudes about forms of worship traditionally associated with Shias. For example, while most Sunnis in the Middle East and North Africa view pilgrimages to the shrines of saints as falling outside Islamic tradition, majorities of Sunnis in Lebanon (98%) and Iraq (65%) believe this practice is acceptable in Islam. In this regard, Sunnis in these two countries resemble their fellow Shia countrymen more than they resemble Sunnis in neighboring countries such as Egypt and Jordan. In Lebanon sectarian attitudes vary significantly by age. Lebanese Sunnis who are 35 and older are less willing than younger Sunnis to accept Shias as Muslims. The history of sectarian conflict in Lebanon in the 1970s and 1980s may help explain the generational difference. Sunnis who came of age during the conflict years are less inclined to view Shias as fellow Muslims. Yet, even with this generational difference, both younger and older Sunnis in Lebanon still are more willing than most Sunnis in the Middle East-North Africa region to say that Shias share the same faith. Not just in the Middle East and North Africa but in other regions as well, the willingness of Sunnis to accept Shia as fellow Muslims tends to be higher in countries with sizable Shia populations. For example, in Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and Russia – countries with selfidentified Shia populations ranging from 6% to 37% – clear majorities of Sunnis (both men and women, young and old) agree that Shias belong to the Islamic faith. On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say they are not. Forum’s 2009 report “Mapping the Global Muslim Population,” which are based on demographic and ethnographic analyses, as well as reviews of frequently used estimates. Sunnis in Iraq, Lebanon More Accepting of Visiting Shrines % who say visiting shrines of saints is acceptable PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42a. 22 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Sunnis and Shias Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims (also known as Shiites) comprise the two main branches of Islam. Sunni and Shia identities first formed soon after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 C.E., centering on a dispute over leadership succession. Over time, however, the political divide between the two groups broadened to include theological distinctions and differences in religious practices as well. While the two groups are similar in many ways, they differ over conceptions of religious authority and interpretation as well as the role of the Prophet Muhammad’s descendants, among other issues. Members of Sufi orders, which embrace mystical practices, can fall within either the Sunni or the Shia tradition. In some cases, Sufis may accept teachings from both traditions. For additional information regarding Sunni and Shia Islam, see John Esposito, editor. 2003. “Shii Islam” and “Sunni Islam” in “The Oxford Dictionary of Islam.” Oxford: Oxford University Press, pages 290-93 and 304-307. 23 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 77 50 32 24 18 South Asia Middle EastNorth Africa SouthernEastern Europe Southeast Asia Central Asia Views of Other Groups The survey also asked about attitudes toward Sufis and members of regionally specific groups or movements. Views of Sufis vary greatly by region. In South Asia, for example, a median of 77% consider Sufis to be Muslims; half in the Middle East and North Africa concur. However, significantly fewer Muslims in other regions surveyed accept Sufis as members of the Islamic faith. For example, in Southern and Eastern Europe (Russia and the Balkans), a median of 32% recognize Sufis as fellow Muslims, while in Southeast Asia and Central Asia the comparable figures are 24% and 18%. Especially in Central Asia, the low percentage that accepts Sufis as Muslims may be linked to a lack of knowledge about this mystical branch of Islam: majorities in most Central Asian countries surveyed say either that they have never heard of Sufis or that they do not have an opinion about whether Sufis are Muslims. Views of regionally or locally based groups and movements are mixed. For example, in South Asia and Southeast Asia, relatively few Muslims accept Ahmadiyyas as members of the Islamic faith. Only in Bangladesh do as many as four-in-ten recognize members of this movement as fellow Muslims; elsewhere in the two regions, a quarter or fewer agree. Even smaller percentages in Malaysia and Indonesia (9% and 5%, respectively) say that members of the mystical Aliran Kepercayaan movement are Muslims. (See Glossary for brief definitions of these groups, page 112.) In Turkey, most Muslims (69%) acknowledge Alevis, who are part of the Shia tradition, as fellow Muslims. Meanwhile, in Lebanon, a modest majority (57%) say members of the Alawite sect are Muslims. By comparison, only about four-in-ten Lebanese Muslims (39%) say the same about the Druze. Are Sufis Muslim? Median % in region who say yes This question was not asked in sub-Saharan Africa. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q41a. 24 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org About the Report These and other findings are discussed in more detail in the remainder of this report, which is divided into six main sections: • Religious Affiliation (begins on page 27) • Religious Commitment (begins on page 36 ) • Articles of Faith (begins on page 57) • Other Beliefs and Practices (begins on page 67) • Boundaries of Religious Identity (begins on page 83) • Boundaries of Religious Practice (begins on page 95) This report also includes an appendix with comparable results from past Pew Research Center surveys of Muslims in the United States (page 106). A glossary of key terms begins on page 112. The survey questionnaire and a topline with full results is available on page 128. The online version of the report also includes an infographic. This report covers religious affiliation, beliefs and practices. A second report will cover Muslims’ attitudes and views on a variety of social and political questions. The Pew Forum’s survey of the world’s Muslims includes every nation with a Muslim population of more than 10 million except Algeria, China, India, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen. Together, the 39 countries and territories included in the survey are home to about two-thirds of all Muslims in the world. The surveys that are the basis for this report were conducted across multiple years. Fifteen sub-Saharan countries with substantial Muslim populations were surveyed in 2008-2009 as part of a larger project that examined religion in that region. The methods employed in those countries – as well as some of the findings – are detailed in the Pew Forum report “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” An additional 24 countries and territories were surveyed in 2011-2012. In 21 of these countries, Muslims make up a majority of the population. In these cases, nationally representative samples of at least 1,000 respondents were fielded. The number of self-identified Muslims interviewed in these countries ranged from 551 in Lebanon to 1,918 in Bangladesh. In Russia and Bosnia- 25 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Herzegovina, where Muslims are a minority, oversamples were employed to ensure adequate representation of Muslims; in both cases, at least 1,000 Muslims were interviewed. Meanwhile, in Thailand, the survey was limited to the country’s five southern provinces, each with substantial Muslim populations; more than 1,000 interviews with Muslims were conducted across these provinces. Appendix C (page 117) provides greater detail on the 2011-2012 survey’s methodology. Countries Surveyed in 2011-2012 and Sample Sizes Country Muslims in Sample Total Sample Size Afghanistan 1,509 1,509 Albania 788 1,032 Azerbaijan 996 1,000 Bangladesh 1,918 2,196 Bosnia-Herzegovina 1,007 1,605 Egypt 1,798 2,000 Indonesia 1,880 2,000 Iraq 1,416 1,490 Jordan 966 1,000 Kazakhstan 998 1,469 Kosovo 1,266 1,485 Kyrgyzstan 1,292 1,500 Lebanon 551 979 Malaysia 1,244 1,983 Morocco 1,472 1,474 Niger 946 1,002 Pakistan 1,450 1,512 Palestinian territories 994 1,002 Russia 1,050 2,704 Tajikistan 1,453 1,470 Thailand 1,010 1,010 Tunisia 1,450 1,454 Turkey 1,485 1,501 Uzbekistan 965 1,000 The Bosnia-Herzegovina and Russia surveys included oversamples of Muslim respondents. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, interviews were conducted among a nationally representative sample of 1,100 respondents and supplemented with 505 additional interviews among Muslims. The Russia survey was conducted among a nationally representative sample of 1,810 respondents and supplemented with 894 additional interviews among Muslims. The survey in Thailand was conducted among Muslims in five southern provinces: Narathiwat, Pattani, Satun, Songkhla and Yala. It is representative of Muslims only in these provinces. 32 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org orders are prominent in individual countries, including the Naqshbandiyya in Tajikistan (16% of all Muslims), Chistiyya in Bangladesh (12%) and Bektashiyya in Albania (12%). 33 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 100 99 95 92 100 99 98 96 95 89 100 100 97 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 99 99 99 99 98 98 97 97 95 94 92 91 89 89 75 Kosovo Bosnia-Herz. Albania Russia Azerbaijan Turkey Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Djibouti Guinea Bissau Niger Senegal Chad Mali Ethiopia Nigeria Tanzania Ghana Liberia Cameroon Kenya Uganda DR Congo Low Rates of Religious Switching The survey finds that the vast majority of adult Muslims were raised as Muslims. Nine-in-ten or more in all but four countries surveyed indicate that they had the same faith as children. In South Asia and across the Middle East and North Africa, nearly 100% of adult Muslims surveyed say they were raised in the Islamic faith. In Southeast Asia, conversion to Islam is similarly rare. Evidence of religious switching is found only in Thailand, where 3% of Muslims report growing up as Buddhists. In Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe, conversion to Islam is more common, with 10% of adult Muslims in Kazakhstan, 7% in Russia, 6% in Uzbekistan and 5% in Albania stating they were not raised in the faith. Nearly all these instances of switching involve people who were brought up as atheists, agnostics or “nothing in particular” and later adopted Islam as their faith. In the 15 countries where the question was asked in sub-Saharan Africa, rates of conversion are similar to those in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe. The one exception is the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where 24% of those who are currently Muslim say they were raised in another faith. Unlike in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe, most converts to Islam in this part of the world report switching from Christianity or traditional African religions. For example, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, roughly a fifth of Muslims (22%) say they were raised Christian, as do 11% of Muslims in Kenya and 10% in Uganda. Muslim in Childhood % saying they were raised Muslim *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q44/Q44b. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 34 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Intra-Religious Switching Changing from Sunni to Shia, or vice versa, is relatively rare. In the case of Shias, only in Azerbaijan does the percentage of respondents who were raised Shia and who are currently Shia differ by as much as five points. Elsewhere the difference is two percentage points or less. Similarly, in all but three countries, the percentage of respondents who were raised Sunni and who are currently Sunni differs by five points or less. A slightly larger difference is found in Liberia, where 30% of Muslims were raised Sunni but 38% now identify as Sunni. In Nigeria and Niger, meanwhile, the percentage of adult Muslims who say they are Sunni is seven and six percentage points higher, respectively, than the percentage brought up as Sunni. Most respondents who currently identify as “just a Muslim” recall being raised as “just a Muslim.” In 35 of the 38 countries where the question was asked, the percentage that were “just a Muslim” as a child and the percentage that are “just a Muslim” now differ by five percentage points or less. The largest disparity is found in Kosovo, where 58% state they are now “just a Muslim,” while 41% report growing up with this identity, though a substantial percentage of Kosovar Muslims say they don’t know their childhood affiliation. In both Azerbaijan and Uganda, by contrast, the percentage that says they are “just a Muslim” as an adult is six points lower than the percentage that was raised as “just a Muslim.” 35 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Low Rates of Religious Switching % who were/are … Sunni Shia “Just a Muslim” Raised Currently Net Change Raised Currently Net Change Raised Currently Net Change Predominately Sunni Jordan 94 93 -1 0 0 0 6 7 +1 Bangladesh 91 92 +1 2 2 0 5 4 -1 Afghanistan 91 90 -1 6 7 +1 2 3 +1 Turkey 89 89 0 1 1 0 1 2 +1 Egypt 92 88 -4 0 0 0 7 12 +5 Tajikistan 82 87 +5 3 3 0 11 7 -4 Thailand^ 82 87 +5 0 0 0 4 3 -1 Palestinian terr. 85 85 0 0 0 0 14 15 +1 Pakistan 82 81 -1 6 6 0 11 12 +1 Djibouti* 78 77 -1 1 2 +1 8 8 0 Malaysia 70 75 +5 0 0 0 20 18 -2 Kenya* 68 73 +5 6 8 +2 10 8 -2 Ethiopia* 63 68 +5 1 2 +1 26 23 -3 Morocco 65 67 +2 0 0 0 33 30 -3 Niger 53 59 +6 8 7 -1 20 20 0 Tunisia 59 58 -1 0 0 0 38 40 +2 Senegal* 55 55 0 1 0 -1 29 27 -2 Ghana* 50 51 +1 8 8 0 15 13 -2 DR Congo* 47 50 +3 11 10 -1 13 14 +1 Chad* 50 48 -2 21 21 0 22 23 +1 Mix of Sunni and Shia Lebanon 51 52 +1 46 48 +2 2 0 -2 Iraq 40 42 +2 50 51 +1 8 5 -3 Predominately “Just a Muslim” Kazakhstan 15 16 +1 2 1 -1 75 74 -1 Albania 10 10 0 0 0 0 68 65 -3 Kyrgyzstan 18 23 +5 0 0 0 67 64 -3 Kosovo 23 24 +1 1 1 0 41 58 +17 Indonesia 26 26 0 0 0 0 55 56 +1 Mali* 21 20 -1 0 0 0 57 55 -2 Bosnia-Herz. 35 38 +3 0 0 0 57 54 -3 Uzbekistan 15 18 +3 1 1 0 59 54 -5 Russia 32 30 -2 5 6 +1 44 45 +1 Azerbaijan 14 16 +2 32 37 +5 51 45 -6 Multiple religious identities Guinea Bissau* 40 40 0 5 6 +1 36 36 0 Tanzania* 40 40 0 19 20 +1 22 20 -2 Uganda* 39 40 +1 5 7 +2 39 33 -6 Liberia* 30 38 +8 10 9 -1 23 22 -1 Nigeria* 31 38 +7 11 12 +1 46 42 -4 Cameroon* 27 27 0 1 3 +2 37 40 +3 Not all categories shown. Percentages based on self-identification by survey respondents. *Data from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q31 & Q46. 36 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org CHAPTER 2: RELIGIOUS COMMITMENT The vast majority of Muslims surveyed subscribe to the basic tenets of Islam – that there is only one God and that Muhammad is His Prophet. Acceptance of these central articles of the Islamic faith forms the foundation of a global ummah, or community of believers. But it does not necessarily follow that religion plays an equally prominent role in the lives of all Muslims. Indeed, the survey finds that religion’s importance in Muslims’ daily lives varies greatly across the six major geographic regions included in the study. In sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and South Asia, at least eight-in-ten Muslims in every country surveyed say that religion is very important in their lives, while in the Middle East and North Africa the comparable percentages range from 59% in Lebanon to 89% in Morocco. In Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe (Russia and the Balkans), no more than half of Muslims describe religion as central to their lives in any country surveyed except Turkey, where 67% say religion is very important to them. Other measures of religious commitment follow a similar pattern. In four of the six regions included in the study – the Middle East and North Africa, Southeast Asia, South Asia and subSaharan Africa – a majority of Muslims in most countries surveyed pray several times a day, including three-quarters or more in 12 countries who say they perform all five salat daily. By contrast, across Central Asia and in the four countries with substantial Muslim populations surveyed in Southern and Eastern Europe, only in Azerbaijan do a majority of Muslims (70%) report praying several times a day (including 21% who say they perform all five salat). In the other countries in these two regions, far fewer Muslims, including 7% in Albania and 4% in Kazakhstan, say they pray several times a day. Because having the opportunity to pray is generally unrelated to gender, income or literacy, it is perhaps the most universal measure of religious commitment among Muslims. The survey also explored other forms of religious engagement, including mosque attendance and reading or listening to the Quran, which may not be equally available to all Muslims. In both instances, the same pattern holds: levels of commitment tend to be significantly lower among Muslims in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe. It is only when it comes to almsgiving and fasting during Ramadan that there are less pronounced differences between Muslims in Central Asia and in Southern and Eastern Europe and those in other regions. For example, the percentage of Muslims who say they give zakat, or annual donations to benefit the poor and less fortunate, is as high in countries such as Bosnia- 37 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Herzegovina (81%), Kyrgyzstan (77%), Uzbekistan (73%) and Turkey (72%) as it is in many other nations surveyed. Five Pillars of Islam All Muslims, regardless of sect, trace their religious heritage to the Arabian Peninsula in the seventh century C.E., when the Prophet Muhammad lived and Islam was born. Since that time, the Quran and traditions associated with Muhammad have defined five core rituals through which individuals can profess and confirm their adherence to the Islamic faith. Collectively, these practices are known as the Five Pillars: • Profession of faith, or shahadah. By testifying that there is one God, and Muhammad is His Prophet, an individual distinguishes himself or herself as a Muslim. • Praying, or salat. Muslims are supposed to pray five times a day – at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset and evening. The shahadah is repeated at each call to prayer and closes each prayer as well. • Giving of alms, or zakat. All adult Muslims who are able to do so are required to make an annual donation to assist the poor or less fortunate. The amount is typically 2.5% of a person’s total wealth, not just annual income. • Fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, or sawm. Throughout the month of Ramadan, when the Quran was first revealed, all physically fit Muslim adults are to abstain from food, drink, smoking and sexual activity from dawn to dusk. • Pilgrimage to Mecca, or hajj. At least once in a lifetime, Muslims who are physically and financially capable of making the journey are expected to visit Islam’s holiest city, Mecca, and perform rituals associated with the hajj. 38 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 96 89 81 72 99 98 97 97 94 83 100 98 98 98 96 100 100 100 100 99 98 98 99 99 98 98 97 96 96 96 95 93 90 90 89 87 87 85 Bosnia-Herz. Russia Kosovo Albania Tajikistan Azerbaijan Turkey Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Pakistan Bangladesh Egypt Iraq Jordan Tunisia Palestinian terr. Lebanon Morocco Cameroon Senegal Kenya Tanzania Niger Chad Ethiopia Mali Ghana Nigeria Liberia DR Congo Djibouti Mozambique Uganda Guinea Bissau Profession of Faith The shahadah, or testimony that there is only one God and that Muhammad is His Prophet, is the first and most basic of the Five Pillars of Islam. Bearing witness to this belief is the traditional means by which an individual becomes a Muslim, and it is the foundation on which the other pillars are built. (See text box on the Five Pillars of Islam on page 37.) To gauge the degree to which the shahadah is central to Muslim identity, the survey asked, “Do you believe in one God, Allah, and His Prophet Muhammad?” In the majority of countries surveyed, overwhelming percentages confirm that they subscribe to this belief. In the Middle East and North Africa, the profession of faith is an almost universal creed among self-identified Muslims, with no fewer than 98% in all seven of the countries surveyed saying they believe in God and His Prophet Muhammad. Similarly high percentages in Southeast Asia and South Asia share in this core profession of faith. Among Muslims in sub-Saharan Africa, belief that there is only one God and that Muhammad is His Prophet is nearly unanimous in nine of the 16 countries surveyed: Cameroon (99%), Senegal (99%), Kenya (98%), Tanzania (98%), Niger (97%), Chad (96%), Ethiopia (96%), Mali (96%) and Ghana (95%). In the other seven Belief in God and Muhammad % who say they believe in one God and the Prophet Muhammad *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43j. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 39 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org countries surveyed in the region, at least eight-in-ten Muslims say they believe in the traditional Muslim profession of faith. Across Central Asia, nearly all Muslims in Tajikistan (99%), Azerbaijan (98%), Turkey (97%) and Uzbekistan (97%) profess their faith in God and the Prophet Muhammad. Slightly fewer Muslims in Kyrgyzstan (94%) share this belief, as do 83% of Muslims in Kazakhstan. In Southern and Eastern Europe, nearly all Muslims in Bosnia-Herzegovina (96%) affirm the conviction that there is only one God and that Muhammad is His Prophet. Among selfidentified Muslims in Russia, about nine-in-ten (89%) share this belief. In Kosovo, 81% of Muslims surveyed embrace the shahadah, while 5% do not and 14% are unsure. And in Albania, 72% of Muslims profess their faith in one God and Muhammad as His Prophet, while 21% reject this core belief and 7% do not have a definite opinion. 40 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 44 44 36 15 67 50 49 36 30 18 95 93 93 94 92 81 89 85 85 82 78 75 59 98 97 96 95 95 95 94 94 93 93 92 91 91 87 87 86 Kosovo Russia Bosnia-Herz. Albania Turkey Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Azerbaijan Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Morocco Jordan Palestinian terr. Iraq Tunisia Egypt Lebanon Senegal Ghana Cameroon Guinea Bissau Kenya Tanzania Mali Mozambique Nigeria Uganda Chad DR Congo Liberia Djibouti Ethiopia Niger Importance of Religion Belief in only one God and Muhammad as His Prophet is a unifying foundation for Muslim identity around the globe. However, this common belief does not necessarily mean that religion is equally important to the lives of all Muslims. The importance Muslims place on religion varies significantly by region. In addition, in some countries younger and more highly educated Muslims assign less importance to religion than do older and less educated Muslims. In sub-Saharan Africa, overwhelming percentages say religion is very important to them. In Senegal, Ghana, Cameroon, Guinea Bissau, Kenya and Tanzania, fully 95% or more share this assessment. In the other countries surveyed in the region, no fewer than 86% of Muslims describe religion as very important in their lives. Similar attitudes are widespread among Muslims in Southeast Asia, where nine-in-ten or more in Thailand (95%), Indonesia (93%) and Malaysia (93%) attest to the centrality of religion in their lives. In the South Asian countries of Pakistan and Afghanistan, overwhelming percentages (94% and 92%, respectively) say religion is very important to them. Fewer Bangladeshis (81%) say the same. Among Muslims in the Middle East and North Africa, solid majorities describe religion as very important. But overall the levels are not as high in the Middle East and North Africa as they are in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and How Much Religion Matters % who say religion is very important in their lives *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q36. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 41 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org South Asia. About nine-in-ten Moroccan Muslims (89%) say religion is very important to them, followed by Muslims in Jordan (85%), the Palestinian territories (85%), Iraq (82%) and Tunisia (78%). Three-quarters of Muslims in Egypt also describe religion as very important in their lives, but significantly fewer in Lebanon (59%) say the same. Views on the importance of religion vary considerably in Central Asia. Turkey stands out from other countries in the region, with two-thirds of its Muslims saying religion is very important in their lives. In Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, about half (50% and 49%, respectively) share this view, while fewer in Azerbaijan (36%) and Uzbekistan (30%) feel the same. Just 18% of Muslims in Kazakhstan say religion is very important in their lives. In Southern and Eastern Europe, the role of religion is also relatively muted. In both Russia and Kosovo, fewer than half of Muslims (44%) say religion has a very important place in their lives, while roughly a third (36%) in Bosnia-Herzegovina agree. Albanian Muslims place the least emphasis on their faith, with only 15% describing religion as very important to them. In most countries, there are few consistent differences by age, gender or education when it comes to the importance of religion in Muslims’ lives. However, the importance placed on religion varies by age in a few nations. The most striking example is Lebanon, where 42% of Muslims ages 18-34 say religion is very important in their lives, compared with 71% of those 35 and older. Several other countries in the Middle East and North Africa exhibit a similar, though not as dramatic, divergence in the importance of religion for younger and older generations of Muslims. In the Palestinian territories, for instance, 80% of those ages 18-34 say religion is central to their lives, compared with 92% among those 35 and older. In Tunisia, there is a difference of nine percentage points in the importance of religion among Muslims 18-34 and those 35+ (73% vs. 82%), and in Iraq there is an eight-point difference (79% vs. 87%). Older Muslims also tend to place somewhat greater importance on religion in some of the former communist countries of Central Asia and Southern and Eastern Europe. In Tajikistan, for instance, 45% of those ages 18-34 say religion is very important in their lives, while 55% of those 35 and older say the same. Likewise, in Albania, just 11% of young adult Muslims say religion is integral to their lives, compared with 19% of the 35-and-older cohort. And in Uzbekistan, the comparable percentages are 25% and 33%. 48 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Gender Gap in Mosque Attendance % who never attend mosque Men Women Difference Southern-Eastern Europe Kosovo 22 57 +35 Russia 21 45 +24 Albania 36 52 +16 Bosnia-Herz. 8 13 +5 Central Asia Tajikistan 14 93 +79 Kyrgyzstan 18 83 +65 Uzbekistan 39 93 +54 Turkey 8 37 +29 Kazakhstan 21 41 +20 Azerbaijan 65 64 -1 Southeast Asia Malaysia 0 6 +6 Indonesia 1 4 +3 Thailand^ 0 2 +2 South Asia Afghanistan 1 79 +78 Bangladesh 2 77 +75 Pakistan 1 55 +54 Middle East-North Africa Iraq 7 63 +56 Lebanon 14 44 +30 Palestinian terr. 10 34 +24 Jordan 4 17 +13 Tunisia 22 33 +11 Morocco 7 9 +2 Egypt 3 5 +2 Sub-Saharan Africa Senegal* 1 26 +25 Cameroon* 0 18 +18 Niger 0 16 +16 Chad* 0 13 +13 Nigeria* 0 6 +6 Mali* 2 4 +2 Djibouti* 1 2 +1 Liberia* 0 1 +1 Mozambique* 2 2 0 Ghana* 0 0 0 Kenya* 0 0 0 Tanzania* 4 3 -1 Uganda* 2 1 -1 Guinea Bissau* 1 0 -1 Ethiopia* 1 0 -1 *Data from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q34. Across the three countries surveyed in South Asia, more than a quarter say they never attend mosque. In the Middle East and North Africa, the percentage that says they never frequent their local mosque ranges from 4% in Egypt to 34% in Iraq. Overall rates of mosque attendance can disguise the fact that in some countries women are constrained by custom or other considerations from visiting their local mosque. Countries in Central Asia and South Asia stand out in this regard. For example, Tajik women are 79 percentage points more likely to say they never attend mosque than Tajik men (93% vs. 14%). Women are also much more likely to say they never attend mosque in Afghanistan (+78 points), Bangladesh (+75), Kyrgyzstan (+65), Uzbekistan (+54) and Pakistan (+54). In the Middle East and North Africa, the gap between women and men who never attend mosque ranges from 56 percentage points in Iraq to two points in Egypt and Morocco. In sub-Saharan Africa, the gender differences in non-attendance are generally smaller: six points or less in 12 of the 16 countries surveyed. However, sizable gaps are found in Senegal (+25 percentage points), Cameroon (+18), Niger (+16) and Chad (+13). The survey finds that age can also be a factor in mosque attendance. For instance, across the seven countries surveyed in the Middle East and North Africa, Muslims ages 35 and older are consistently more likely than those ages 18- 49 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 34 to attend mosque at least once a week. The largest age gaps in mosque attendance are found in Lebanon (+20 percentage points), followed by Tunisia (+17), Egypt (+15), Morocco (+15) and Jordan (+13). In Southeast Asia, similar age gaps in mosque attendance are found in Thailand (+14 percentage points) and Indonesia (+11). In other regions, age is not a consistent factor in mosque attendance. 50 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 9 8 7 3 18 10 9 5 3 3 48 37 35 43 36 15 52 52 51 49 46 39 31 61 74 40 42 66 62 63 46 71 72 49 61 58 52 50 78 47 46 46 50 52 58 64 23 16 44 47 15 23 23 45 24 23 3 1 1 4 14 5 1 2 2 1 4 Russia Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Albania Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Afghanistan Pakistan Bangladesh Jordan Palestinian terr. Tunisia Egypt Iraq Morocco Lebanon Read Quran every day Read Quran, but less than once a day Never read Quran Reading or Listening to the Quran Reading from or listening to the Quran – the holy book of Islam – is another practice through which Muslims affirm their belief in God and His Messenger Muhammad. The survey asked respondents how often they read or listen to the Quran – every day, once a week or less, or never. Reading or listening to the Quran is most common in the Middle East and North Africa, where most people are native speakers of Arabic, the language of the Quran.12 About half of Muslims in Jordan (52%), the Palestinian territories (52%), Tunisia (51%) and Egypt (49%) report that they read or listen to Islam’s holy book on a daily basis. In Morocco (39%) and Lebanon (31%) at least three-in-ten say the same. In Southeast Asia, reading or listening to the Quran is somewhat less common. In Thailand, 48% of Muslims say they engage in this practice each day, compared with fewer in Indonesia (37%) and Malaysia (35%). In 12 Since the Quran is understood to be the direct word of God and was communicated in Arabic, it cannot be reliably translated into other languages. See Ruthven, Malise. 2006. “Islam in the World, third edition.” Oxford: Oxford University Press, pages 8990. Daily Quran Reading Most Prevalent in Middle East-North Africa % who … Not all categories shown. ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q65. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 51 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org South Asia, daily reading or listening to the Quran is most prevalent in Afghanistan (43%), followed by Pakistan (36%) and Bangladesh (15%). Daily reading or listening to the Quran is relatively rare in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe. The practice is most common in Kyrgyzstan, where 18% say they engage in this practice every day. In other countries surveyed in the two regions, no more than one-inten read or listen to the Quran on a daily basis. As in the case of prayer and mosque attendance, older Muslims in many cases are more likely than their younger counterparts to read or listen to the Quran. This is especially true in the Middle East and North Africa, where the percentage of those 35 and older who read or listen to the Quran daily is as much as 19 percentage points higher in the Palestinian territories and Morocco. Other significant gaps between older and younger Muslims are found in Lebanon (+18 points), Iraq (+14 points), Jordan (+13), Tunisia (+12) and Egypt (+8). Outside the Middle East and North Africa, however, reading or listening to the Quran does not vary consistently by age. In contrast with mosque attendance, the gap between women and men in terms of daily reading or listening to the Quran tends to be small or nonexistent. Only in Pakistan do significantly more women than men read or listen to Islam’s holy book each day (46% vs. 26%). Afghanistan is the one nation surveyed where significantly more men than women (51% vs. 33%) read or listen to the Quran each day. 52 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 81 69 43 39 77 73 72 66 59 36 98 93 93 91 89 78 92 84 81 79 78 74 70 89 87 83 82 81 80 80 77 77 75 72 69 66 65 60 58 Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Albania Russia Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Turkey Tajikistan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Pakistan Bangladesh Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Iraq Lebanon Jordan Egypt Liberia Kenya Chad Ethiopia Djibouti Ghana Nigeria Cameroon Niger Guinea Bissau Senegal Mali DR Congo Tanzania Uganda Mozambique Almsgiving The practice of giving zakat, or alms, is another central pillar of Islam. By tradition, all adult Muslims who are able are expected to annually contribute 2.5% of their accumulated wealth (not annual income) to aid the poor, sick and otherwise needy. In some countries, such as Malaysia and Pakistan, government agencies collect zakat, but in most cases donations are made through mosques or religious organizations.13 Impoverished individuals for whom giving zakat would be a burden are exempt from the annual alms requirement. In 36 of the 39 countries surveyed, majorities of Muslims say they engage in the traditional giving of alms. In Southeast Asia, this includes nearly all Muslims in Indonesia (98%) and more than nine-in-ten in Malaysia (93%) and Thailand (93%). Rates of annual almsgiving are nearly as high in South Asia, with roughly nine-in-ten in Afghanistan (91%) and Pakistan (89%) observing zakat. Fewer in Bangladesh (78%) report giving alms. Among the countries surveyed in the Middle East and North Africa, Morocco stands out, with 92% of Muslims saying they make annual donations to the poor. At least seven-in-ten in the Palestinian territories (84%), Tunisia (81%), Iraq (79%), Lebanon (78%), Jordan (74%) and Egypt (70%) also give alms annually. 13 See Ahmed, Habib. 2004. “The Role of Zakah and Awqaf in Poverty Alleviation.” Islamic Development Bank Group, Islamic Research & Training Institute, Occasional Paper No. 8, pages 78 and 98. Giving Alms % saying they give zakat *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q64e. Sub-Saharan Africa* Middle East-North Africa South Asia Southern-Eastern Europe Southeast Asia Central Asia 53 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Rates of zakat observance in sub-Saharan Africa range from 89% in Liberia to 58% in Mozambique. In most of the countries surveyed in the region, two-thirds or more of Muslims say they annually donate a percentage of their wealth to charity or the mosque. Although the practice of giving zakat tends to be less common in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe than in other regions, substantial percentages of Muslims living in these areas nonetheless observe this central obligation. For example, roughly two-thirds or more in Bosnia-Herzegovina (81%), Kyrgyzstan (77%), Uzbekistan (73%), Turkey (72%), Kosovo (69%) and Tajikistan (66%) say they give alms annually. Substantial minorities in Albania (43%), Russia (39%) and Kazakhstan (36%) do the same. 54 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 76 75 56 44 88 84 53 50 43 30 100 99 99 97 96 96 98 96 95 94 94 88 86 100 98 98 97 96 96 96 95 93 93 89 88 86 85 85 69 Kosovo Bosnia-Herz. Russia Albania Tajikistan Turkey Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Morocco Tunisia Egypt Palestinian terr. Iraq Lebanon Jordan Cameroon Chad Senegal Ghana Ethiopia Kenya Nigeria Niger Mali Tanzania Liberia Djibouti Mozambique Guinea Bissau Uganda DR Congo Fasting During Ramadan Abstaining from food and drink during the day and breaking the fast only after sundown is a core practice associated with the holy month of Ramadan. Observance of the annual fast is widespread across most of the countries surveyed. In Southeast Asia, for example, abstinence from food and drink during the Islamic calendar’s ninth month is nearly universal in Thailand (nearly 100%), Indonesia (99%) and Malaysia (99%). Fasting during Ramadan is also practiced by the overwhelming majority of Muslims in the South Asian countries of Pakistan (97%), Afghanistan (96%) and Bangladesh (96%). Similarly high percentages observe the annual rite in much of the Middle East and North Africa. At least eight-in-ten Muslims in every country surveyed in the region say they avoid eating and drinking during the daytime throughout Ramadan. In sub-Saharan Africa, too, a high proportion of Muslims report that they observe the annual fast. Participation ranges from 69% in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to nearly 100% in Cameroon. In Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe – where Muslims tend to pray, attend mosque and read the Quran less often than their counterparts in other regions – the annual fast also is fairly common. In Central Asia, more than eight-in-ten Muslims in Tajikistan (88%) and Turkey (84%) say they abstain from eating or drinking in the daytime Observing the Holy Month % saying they fast during the day in Ramadan *Data from all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q64f. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 55 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org during Ramadan. In Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, roughly half do so. Only in Azerbaijan (43%) and Kazakhstan (30%) do minorities of Muslims observe this annual rite. In the four Southern and Eastern European countries surveyed, majorities of Muslims fast in the month of Ramadan in all but Albania (44%). In Russia, 56% fast during the day, while about three-quarters do so in Kosovo (76%) and Bosnia-Herzegovina (75%). 56 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 17 13 8 6 3 3 Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* Southeast Asia South Asia Central Asia Southern-Eastern Europe Pilgrimage to Mecca According to Islamic tradition, all Muslim adults are required to participate in the annual hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca at least once in their lifetime unless they are physically or financially incapable of making the journey. Especially for Muslims who live far from Saudi Arabia, the pilgrimage often entails major expense and effort, and few Muslims across the 39 countries surveyed report having made the journey to Islam’s holiest city. Indeed, in no country does a majority say they have completed the hajj.14 Many pilgrims to Mecca reside in the Middle East and North Africa, with a median of 17% saying they have completed the hajj. Proximity to Saudi Arabia may be a key factor in whether an individual has made the journey. For example, Muslims in Egypt (20%), Lebanon (20%), Jordan (18%) and the Palestinian territories (17%) are much more likely to have performed the hajj than their counterparts in Morocco (6%) and Tunisia (4%). Muslim pilgrims from sub-Saharan Africa also are relatively prevalent: a median of 13% of Muslims surveyed across the region have completed the hajj. This includes about half (48%) in Djibouti, which is relatively close to the Arabian Peninsula. More than a quarter in Liberia (32%), Chad (28%) and Guinea Bissau (27%) also say they have made the pilgrimage. In the other countries surveyed in the region, roughly one-in-five or fewer has been to Mecca. Pilgrims are far rarer in Southeast Asia and South Asia. The median percentage of Muslims in Southeast Asia who have made their way to Mecca is only 8%; in South Asia, the median is 6%. In Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe, meanwhile, a median of only 3% in each region have completed the hajj. 14 In addition, in many countries, the number of people that can perform the hajj in any given year is limited by the number of visas issued by the government of Saudi Arabia. Going to Mecca a Rare Event Median % in region saying they have made pilgrimage *Data from all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q63c. Fewer Pilgrims Farther From Mecca % who have made the hajj in the Middle East-North Africa Yes No Egypt 20 80 Lebanon 20 80 Jordan 18 82 Palestinian terr. 17 82 Iraq 12 87 Morocco 6 94 Tunisia 4 96 Not all categories shown. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q63c. 57 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org CHAPTER 3: ARTICLES OF FAITH Traditionally, Muslims adhere to several articles of faith. Some of the most widely known include: There is only one God; God has sent numerous Prophets, with Muhammad being the last; God has revealed Holy Scriptures, including the Quran; God’s angels exist, even if people cannot see them; and there will be a Day of Judgment, when God will determine whether individuals are consigned to heaven or hell.15 In addition, another core tenet is that God’s will and knowledge are absolute, meaning that people are subject to predestination, or fate, though they also have free will. Belief in these articles of faith is generally widespread among Muslims. As discussed in Chapter 2, affirmation that there is one God and Muhammad is His Prophet is nearly unanimous in most of the 39 countries included in the study. Only Muslims in sub-Saharan Africa were asked whether they view the Quran as the word of God or a book written by men; across most of the African nations polled, nine-in-ten or more Muslims say that the Quran is the word of God, including more than seven-in-ten who believe it should be taken literally, word for word. Other articles of faith – belief in angels, predestination, heaven and hell – also are broadly embraced. In the countries surveyed in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East and North Africa, clear majorities of Muslims endorse these tenets. In Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe (Russia and the Balkans), however, there is more variability; in these two regions, for example, the percentage of Muslims who believe in predestination or fate ranges from fewer than half in Albania to more than nine-in-ten in Azerbaijan and Turkey. The survey also asked respondents about the imminence of two events that, according to Islamic tradition, will presage the Day of Judgment: the return of the Mahdi (the Guided One 15 Hadith of Gabriel, see Sahih al-Bukhari 2:47 and Sahih al-Muslim 1:1. Articles of Faith Widely Embraced Median % of Muslims in each region who believe in… Angels Fate Heaven Mahdi’s imminent return Southeast Asia 98 89 96 57 South Asia 97 91 98 60 Middle East-North Africa 96 93 97 51 Central Asia 83 88 90 31 Sub-Saharan Africa* 72 -- 95 -- Southern-Eastern Europe 55 57 74 18 *Data for all countries except Niger from ‘Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43a, Q43c, Q43f & Q43i. 64 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Muslims who are more religiously committed tend to express higher belief in the existence of both heaven and hell. This is especially true in Southern and Eastern Europe. For example, in Russia, among those who pray several times a day, 79% believe in heaven and 78% in hell. By contrast, among Russian Muslims who pray less frequently, 49% believe in heaven and 46% in hell. 65 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 27 20 15 14 68 41 39 22 17 13 62 57 23 83 60 29 72 67 56 51 46 41 40 Russia Albania Kosovo Bosnia-Herz. Turkey Azerbaijan Tajikistan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Malaysia Thailand^ Indonesia Afghanistan Pakistan Bangladesh Iraq Tunisia Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Jordan Egypt End Times According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi will rid the world of injustice and his return – along with the return of Jesus – will precede the Day of Judgment (see Glossary on page 112).20 The survey asked Muslims in 23 countries whether they expect the Mahdi to return in their lifetime. A similar question was asked about the return of Jesus. Return of the Mahdi In most countries surveyed in the Middle East and North Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, half or more Muslims believe they will live to see the return of the Mahdi. This expectation is most widespread in Afghanistan (83%), Iraq (72%), Tunisia (67%) and Malaysia (62%). It is least common in Bangladesh (29%) and Indonesia (23%). Outside of these three regions, belief that the return of the Mahdi is imminent is much less prevalent. Across Central Asia, no more than about four-in-ten Muslims surveyed in any country think they will live to see the Mahdi return; the exception is Turkey, where about two-thirds (68%) expect to witness his return. In Southern and Eastern Europe, only about a quarter or less share this expectation. In some countries with sizable Sunni and Shia populations, views on the Mahdi’s return differ by sect. In Iraq, for example, Shias are more likely than Sunnis to expect the Mahdi to return in their lifetime, by an 88% to 55% margin. In Azerbaijan, the difference between the two groups 20 Sahih Muslim 1:293 and Sahih Muslim 41:6931; Sunan Abu Dawud 36:4269. Belief in Mahdi’s Imminent Return % who expect Mahdi to return in their lifetime ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43i. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 66 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 23 20 15 11 65 33 31 19 19 6 54 51 8 55 14 67 64 52 48 46 39 28 Albania Kosovo Russia Bosnia-Herz. Turkey Tajikistan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Malaysia Thailand^ Indonesia Pakistan Bangladesh Tunisia Iraq Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Egypt Jordan is also large (25 percentage points). Differences between Shias and Sunnis on this issue may reflect the more central role that the Mahdi’s return plays in Shia Islam.21 Return of Jesus Belief that Jesus will return in one’s lifetime generally mirrors belief in the imminent appearance of the Mahdi. In only five of the 22 countries where the question was asked do substantially fewer Muslims believe Jesus’ return is imminent: Azerbaijan (-22 percentage points, compared with belief in the return of the Mahdi), Bangladesh (-15), Indonesia (-15), Jordan (-13) and Russia (-12). In just one country, Uzbekistan, do significantly more Muslims anticipate the return of Jesus than the Mahdi (31% vs. 22%). 21 See Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. 2007. “The Concept of Mahdi in Twelver Shi’ism.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. XIV, pages 136-143. Belief in Jesus’ Imminent Return % who expect Jesus to return in their lifetime ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43h. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 67 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org CHAPTER 4: OTHER BELIEFS AND PRACTICES Both the Quran and hadith make reference to witchcraft and the evil eye as well as to supernatural beings known in Arabic as jinn (the origin of the English word genie).22 To gauge how widespread belief in these supernatural forces is today, the survey asked Muslims separate questions about witchcraft, jinn and the evil eye (defined in the survey as the belief that certain people can cast curses or spells that cause bad things to happen). In most of the countries surveyed, roughly half or more Muslims affirm that jinn exist and that the evil eye is real. Belief in sorcery is somewhat less common: half or more Muslims in nine of the countries included in the study say they believe in witchcraft. At the same time, however, most Muslims agree that Islam forbids appealing to jinn or using sorcery. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, in all but one country surveyed, no more than one-in-five say that Islam condones people appealing to jinn. Similarly low percentages say the same about the use of sorcery (see pages 102-103). Islamic tradition also holds that Muslims should rely on God alone to keep them safe from sorcery and malicious spirits rather than resorting to talismans, which are charms or amulets bearing symbols or precious stones believed to have magical powers, or other means of protection. Perhaps reflecting the influence of this Islamic teaching, a large majority of Muslims in most countries say they do not possess talismans or other protective objects. The use of talismans is most widespread in Pakistan (41%) and Albania (39%), while in other countries fewer than three-in-ten Muslims say they wear talismans or precious stones for protection. Although using objects specifically to ward off the evil eye is somewhat more 22 The use of sorcery or witchcraft is condemned in the Quran (2:102), but some hadith indicate that certain types of spells or incantations (ruqyah) are permitted (Sahih Muslim 26:5448). With regard to the evil eye, certain hadith affirm that it is real (Sahih Muslim 26:5427; Sahih Muslim 26:5450), while some interpretations claim the Quran (68:51) also mentions the evil eye. Jinn are mentioned in the Quran (for example, 55:15; 55:56). Belief in Other Supernatural Phenomena Median % in each region who say they … Believe in jinn Believe in witchcraft Use talismans Use spiritual healers South Asia 77 35 26 55 Sub-Saharan Africa* -- 35 -- 44 Middle EastNorth Africa 69 26 18 41 Southeast Asia 53 49 3 40 SouthernEastern Europe 30 31 24 23 Central Asia 19 21 20 45 *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43d, Q43g, Q64a & Q64c. 68 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org common, only in Azerbaijan (74%) and Kazakhstan (54%) do more than half the Muslims surveyed say they rely on objects for this purpose. Reliance on traditional religious healers is most prevalent among Muslims in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, with roughly two-thirds or more in Senegal (73%), Chad (68%) and Afghanistan (66%) saying they have turned to traditional healers to help cure someone who is ill. 69 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 38 36 24 23 63 21 21 16 15 15 77 53 47 84 77 70 86 79 73 69 67 58 55 Russia Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Albania Turkey Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Malaysia Indonesia Thailand^ Bangladesh Pakistan Afghanistan Morocco Tunisia Lebanon Egypt Palestinian terr. Jordan Iraq Jinn According to the Quran, God created jinn as well as angels and humans. Belief in jinn is relatively widespread – in 13 of 23 countries where the question was asked, more than half of Muslims believe in these supernatural beings. In the South Asian countries surveyed, at least seven-in-ten Muslims affirm that jinn exist, including 84% in Bangladesh. In Southeast Asia, a similar proportion of Malaysian Muslims (77%) believe in jinn, while fewer in Indonesia (53%) and Thailand (47%) share this belief. Across the Middle Eastern and North African nations surveyed, belief in jinn ranges from 86% in Morocco to 55% in Iraq. Overall, Muslims in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe (Russia and the Balkans) are least likely to say that jinn are real. In Central Asia, Turkey is the only country where a majority (63%) of Muslims believe in jinn. Elsewhere in Central Asia, about a fifth or fewer Muslims accept the existence of jinn. In Southern and Eastern Europe, fewer than fourin-ten in any country surveyed believe in these supernatural beings. In general, Muslims who pray several times a day are more likely to believe in jinn. For example, in Russia, 62% of those who pray more than once a day say that jinn exist, compared with 24% of those who pray less often. A similar gap also appears in Lebanon (+25 percentage points), Malaysia (+24) and Afghanistan (+21). The survey also asked if respondents had ever seen jinn. In 21 of the 23 countries where the question was asked, fewer than one-in-ten report having seen jinn, while the proportion is 12% in Bangladesh and 10% in Lebanon. Belief in Jinn % saying they believe in jinn ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43g. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 70 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org It is important to note that while belief in jinn is widespread, relatively few Muslims in the countries surveyed believe it is an acceptable part of Islamic tradition to make offerings to jinn. As discussed on page 102 in Chapter 6, Bangladesh is the only country surveyed in which more than a fifth of Muslims (28%) say appeals to jinn are acceptable. In 18 of the countries, no more than one-in-ten say this is an acceptable practice. 71 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 43 33 29 21 49 29 22 20 18 16 69 49 17 50 35 9 89 78 50 26 23 16 14 92 72 64 63 47 44 42 35 34 30 26 25 25 22 17 15 Albania Kosovo Russia Bosnia-Herz. Turkey Kazakhstan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Azerbaijan Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Tunisia Morocco Iraq Jordan Lebanon Egypt Palestinian terr. Tanzania Cameroon Mali DR Congo Chad Niger Senegal Ghana Nigeria Mozambique Uganda Djibouti Guinea Bissau Kenya Liberia Ethiopia Witchcraft The Quran and hadith both make reference to witchcraft and sorcery in the time of the Prophet Muhammad.23 Today, the survey finds, substantial numbers of Muslims continue to believe in the existence of witchcraft, although levels of belief vary widely across the countries included in the study, and – as discussed later in this report – very few Muslims believe the use of sorcery is an acceptable practice under Islam. (See page 103 in Chapter 6.) In sub-Saharan Africa, the proportion of Muslims who say witchcraft or sorcery is real ranges from more than nine-in-ten in Tanzania (92%) to about one-in-six in Ethiopia (15%). A similar range of views is found in the Middle East and North Africa, where more than threequarters of Muslims in Tunisia (89%) and Morocco (78%) believe in witchcraft, compared with as few as 16% in Egypt and 14% in the Palestinian territories. Among the Southeast Asian countries surveyed, Indonesian Muslims are the most convinced that witchcraft is real (69%). In South Asia, Pakistani Muslims (50%) are more likely than their counterparts in Afghanistan (35%) or Bangladesh (9%) to believe in the existence of sorcery. 23 See Quran 2:102; Sahih al-Bukhari 54:490. Belief in Sorcery % saying they believe in witchcraft *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43d. Sub-Saharan Africa* Middle East-North Africa South Asia Southeast Asia Central Asia Southern-Eastern Europe 72 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Meanwhile, in Southern and Eastern Europe, Albanian Muslims are the most likely to believe in witchcraft (43%), compared with a third or fewer elsewhere in the region. Belief in the existence of witchcraft is least common in Central Asia. With the exception of Turkey, where about half of Muslims (49%) believe that sorcery exists, no more than three-inten in any of the Central Asian nations surveyed believe witchcraft is real. Across most of the countries surveyed, Muslims who pray more than once a day are about as likely to accept the existence of witchcraft as those who pray less often. However, there are exceptions to this pattern. In Kosovo and Lebanon, Muslims who pray several times a day are significantly more likely to believe in sorcery (32 percentage points in the former, 16 points in the latter), while in Kyrgyzstan and Egypt the opposite is true: those who pray multiple times a day are slightly less likely to believe in witchcraft (by 10 and eight points, respectively). 73 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 59 54 40 37 69 66 50 48 48 47 36 29 11 61 53 22 90 80 72 65 62 59 50 83 67 59 59 59 50 46 37 35 31 30 28 28 24 21 20 Russia Albania Kosovo Bosnia-Herz. Turkey Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Azerbaijan Malaysia Indonesia Thailand^ Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Tunisia Morocco Iraq Jordan Egypt Palestinian terr. Lebanon Tanzania Cameroon DR Congo Mali Senegal Chad Niger Djibouti Guinea Bissau Mozambique Liberia Ghana Uganda Nigeria Ethiopia Kenya Evil Eye According to hadith, the Prophet Muhammad confirmed that the evil eye, borne by jealousy or envy, is real and capable of causing harm or misfortune.24 In 20 of the 39 countries surveyed, half or more Muslims say they believe in the evil eye. Acceptance is generally highest in the Middle East and North Africa. With the exception of Lebanon (50%), solid majorities across the region affirm that the evil eye exists, including at least eight-in-ten Muslims in Tunisia (90%) and Morocco (80%). Many Muslims in Central Asia also believe in the evil eye. Clear majorities in Turkey (69%) and Kazakhstan (66%) say the evil eye is real. About half in each of the other countries in the region share this view. In Southern and Eastern Europe, Russian (59%) and Albanian (54%) Muslims are most likely to believe in the evil eye. Fewer say the same in Kosovo (40%) and BosniaHerzegovina (37%). Opinion about the evil eye varies significantly across South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. In the former, Pakistani and Afghan Muslims are much more likely than their counterparts in Bangladesh to believe in the evil eye (61% and 53%, respectively, vs. 22%). Of countries surveyed in sub-Saharan Africa, Tanzania has the highest share of Muslims who say the evil 24 Sahih al-Bukhari 71:635; Sahih al-Bukhari 71:636. Belief in the Evil Eye % saying people can cast harmful spells *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q43e. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 80 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 38 25 21 16 66 48 46 43 36 25 48 40 38 66 55 34 46 44 42 41 29 24 20 73 68 57 55 55 53 50 46 42 38 36 35 33 26 24 13 Albania Kosovo Russia Bosnia-Herz. Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Turkey Thailand^ Malaysia Indonesia Afghanistan Pakistan Bangladesh Iraq Egypt Jordan Tunisia Morocco Palestinian terr. Lebanon Senegal Chad Cameroon Liberia Mali Tanzania Guinea Bissau Niger Djibouti Ethiopia DR Congo Nigeria Ghana Mozambique Uganda Kenya Traditional Religious Healers Substantial numbers of Muslims report that they turn to traditional religious healers when they or their family members are ill. This practice is common among Muslims in subSaharan Africa and South Asia. In the former region, more than half in Senegal (73%), Chad (68%), Cameroon (57%), Liberia (55%), Mali (55%) and Tanzania (53%) say they sometimes use traditional healers. In South Asia, most Afghan and Pakistani Muslims (66% and 55%, respectively) say the same. Although a majority of Tajik Muslims (66%) also report turning to traditional religious healers, fewer in the other Central Asian nations say they sometimes seek such help for themselves or a family member. Across the countries surveyed in Southeast Asia and the Middle East-North Africa region, fewer than half of Muslims say they ever enlist the aid of traditional religious healers. In Southeast Asia, the practice is most common in Thailand (48%), while in the Middle East and North Africa reliance on traditional healers is most prevalent among Muslims in Iraq (46%), Egypt (44%), Jordan (42%) and Tunisia (41%). Muslims in Southern and Eastern Europe are less likely to consult traditional religious healers. About four-in-ten Albanian Muslims (38%) say they sometimes use such healers, while elsewhere in the region a quarter or fewer say they ever turn to a traditional healer. Use of Religious Healers % saying they use religious healers *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q64a. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 81 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org In some countries, Muslims who pray several times a day are more likely than those who pray less often to use traditional religious healers. For example, in Jordan 47% of those who pray more than once a day have turned to traditional healers, compared with 31% of those who pray less often; in Turkey, the difference is 35% vs. 18%. Smaller but significant gaps are found in Kosovo (+16 percentage points among those who pray more than once a day), Azerbaijan (+15), Kyrgyzstan (+13), Egypt (+12) and Lebanon (+12). 82 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 5 4 3 2 7 6 5 2 2 2 20 17 13 21 20 7 18 11 7 7 6 6 3 48 37 35 35 33 33 31 31 28 28 21 20 18 17 16 15 Bosnia-Herz. Albania Russia Kosovo Tajikistan Turkey Kyrgyzstan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Indonesia Thailand^ Malaysia Bangladesh Afghanistan Pakistan Morocco Palestinian terr. Egypt Jordan Iraq Tunisia Lebanon Ethiopia Mali Djibouti Mozambique DR Congo Tanzania Guinea Bissau Uganda Chad Senegal Liberia Nigeria Cameroon Niger Kenya Ghana Exorcism The survey also asked respondents whether they have ever seen the devil or evil spirits being driven out of someone, as in an exorcism. Across Southern and Eastern Europe and in Central Asia fewer than one-in-ten Muslims say they have experienced or witnessed such an event. First-hand accounts are almost as rare in the Middle East and North Africa, although 18% of Moroccan Muslims say they have observed an exorcism. In South Asia and Southeast Asia, between 7% and 21% claim to have been present at an exorcism. Muslims residing in sub-Saharan Africa express greater familiarity with this practice: in 10 sub-Saharan countries, more than a quarter of all Muslims, including 48% in Ethiopia, say they have seen the devil or evil spirits being expelled from a person. Witnessed an Exorcism % saying they have experienced evil spirits driven out of a person *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q63a. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 83 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org CHAPTER 5: BOUNDARIES OF RELIGIOUS IDENTITY Who counts as a Muslim, and who does not? Which beliefs and practices are Islamic, and which are not? Many Muslims across the globe hold firm views on such questions. Asked, for example, whether there is only one true way to interpret Islam’s teachings or whether multiple interpretations are possible, half or more of the Muslims surveyed in 32 of the 39 countries included in the study say there is only one true way to interpret their religion. Yet, at the same time, opinion as to which groups or sects adhere to the true interpretation – and which do not – varies significantly among Muslims around the world. The status of Shia Muslims is a case in point. In some countries in the Middle East and North Africa with predominantly Sunni populations, such as Egypt and Morocco, the prevailing view is that Shias are not members of the Islamic faith. In Iraq and Lebanon, however, overwhelming majorities of all Muslims affirm Shias are Muslims. (For definitions of Shia and Sunni, see the Glossary, page 112.) One factor that distinguishes Iraq and Lebanon is that, unlike other Sunni-majority countries in the region, they are home to substantial numbers of Shias as well. Rather than reinforcing perceived distinctions between the groups, living side-by-side appears to increase mutual recognition: Solid majorities of Sunnis in Iraq (82%) and Lebanon (77%) recognize Shias as fellow members of the Islamic faith, while overwhelming percentages of Shias in both countries say the same about Sunnis. In countries outside the Middle East and North Africa that are also home to substantial Shia populations – such as Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and Russia – Sunnis also tend to be more accepting of Shias. In some regions of the globe, sectarian divisions appear to have limited importance. This is especially true in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe (Russia and the Balkans), where respondents tend to be either unfamiliar with the terms “Sunni” and “Shia” or do not have a definite opinion as to whether these groups should be considered members of the Islamic community. The survey also asked about perceptions of Sufis, who embrace mystical or esoteric dimensions of Islam and often mix standard religious practices with a range of supplementary spiritual practices, including the chanting of God’s attributes, ritual dancing or the veneration of Islamic saints. Opinions about Sufism vary widely. Acceptance is broadest in South Asia, where sevenin-ten or more Muslims view Sufis as fellow believers. In other regions, fewer than six-in-ten 84 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org share this view, although in no country does a majority reject Sufis as Muslims. In many of the countries surveyed, substantial numbers of Muslims say they are unfamiliar with Sufis or do not have an opinion about their status within Islam. 85 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 75 53 52 41 76 68 66 63 59 36 73 72 71 72 72 69 78 76 47 47 42 35 34 71 71 70 70 67 66 63 62 61 60 59 58 55 53 51 50 Bosnia-Herz. Russia Kosovo Albania Tajikistan Azerbaijan Turkey Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Egypt Jordan Iraq Lebanon Palestinian terr. Tunisia Morocco Liberia Mali Ethiopia Nigeria Cameroon Niger Tanzania DR Congo Kenya Ghana Djibouti Uganda Chad Mozambique Senegal Guinea Bissau Interpreting Islam’s Teachings Muslims in most of the 39 countries surveyed tend to agree that there is only one true interpretation of Islam’s teachings, although this view is far from unanimous. Across Southeast Asia and South Asia, roughly seven-in-ten in each country hold this view. And in 10 of the 16 sub-Saharan African countries surveyed, six-in-ten or more believe there is only one interpretation of Islam. With the exception of Kazakhstan (36%), clear majorities of self-identified Muslims across Central Asia also subscribe to the notion that there is a single interpretation of their faith. Opinion is more varied across Southern and Eastern Europe. While three-quarters of Muslims in Bosnia-Herzegovina endorse the view that there is only one interpretation of Islam, only about half in Russia (53%) and Kosovo (52%) agree. Even fewer Albanian Muslims (41%) embrace this idea. The most diverse views on Islam’s interpretation are found in the Middle East and North Africa. At one end of the spectrum, super-majorities in Egypt (78%) and Jordan (76%) say there is only one true interpretation of Islam. At the other end of the spectrum, only about a third of Muslims in Tunisia (35%) and Morocco (34%) concur. Most Muslims Say There Is Only One Interpretation of Islam % saying there is only one interpretation *Data for all countries except Niger from “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q57. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa* 86 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Beyond these regional variations, views on the interpretation of Islam also vary with levels of personal religious commitment as measured by frequency of prayer. In many of the countries surveyed, Muslims who pray several times a day are more likely than those who pray less often to believe there is a single correct interpretation of Islam’s teachings. Those Who Pray More Frequently are More Likely to Say There Is Only One Interpretation of Islam % saying there is only one interpretation Pray once a day or less Pray more than once a day Difference Kazakhstan 35 80 +45 Russia 42 73 +31 Uzbekistan 53 84 +31 Niger 46 70 +24 Afghanistan 55 74 +19 Egypt 66 85 +19 Kyrgyzstan 60 77 +17 Lebanon 37 53 +16 Kosovo 46 61 +15 Pakistan 66 79 +13 Tunisia 27 39 +12 Bangladesh 65 75 +10 Only statistically significant relationships shown. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q57 & Q61. 87 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 74 56 51 25 98 91 91 42 41 23 94 48 42 99 97 96 100 100 100 99 99 92 91 9 11 11 25 7 16 9 5 14 30 3 3 1 7 17 34 38 49 1 2 8 42 50 72 6 37 28 2 7 2 Bosnia-Herz. Russia Kosovo Albania Tajikistan Azerbaijan Turkey Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Thailand^ Malaysia Indonesia Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Jordan Morocco Iraq Lebanon Palestinian terr. Tunisia Yes No Have never heard of Sunnis or don't know Acceptance of Sunnis When asked whether Sunnis are Muslims, more than half of respondents in 17 of the 23 countries where the question was posed say yes. There is particularly broad agreement on this question in South Asia and the Middle East-North Africa region, with more than ninein-ten across both regions identifying Sunnis as Muslims. In the Central Asian nations of Tajikistan (98%), Azerbaijan (91%) and Turkey (91%), overwhelming numbers also recognize Sunnis as Muslims. Similar attitudes are evident in Southeast Asia among Thai Muslims (94%). In Southern and Eastern Europe, smaller majorities of Bosnian and Russian Muslims agree (74% and 56%, respectively). In the handful of countries where fewer recognize Sunnis as Muslims, substantial percentages say either that they have not heard of Sunnis or that they do not know whether Sunnis are Muslims. This tendency is most pronounced in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe, where about four-in-ten or more Muslims in Uzbekistan (72%), Kyrgyzstan (50%), Kazakhstan (42%), Albania (49%) and Kosovo (38%) are either unfamiliar with the term “Sunni” or have no definite opinion. In Iraq and Lebanon – two countries with significant populations of both self-identified Sunnis and Shias – Shia Muslims almost universally agree that Sunnis are members of the Islamic community (99% in Iraq, 97% in Lebanon). In Azerbaijan, another country where both sects have large followings, 78% of Shias agree that Sunnis are Muslims, while 18% disagree. Are Sunnis Muslims? % who say… Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding. ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q41c. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 88 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 60 53 51 36 97 72 61 28 15 14 60 35 19 84 77 53 92 88 52 46 43 36 33 20 13 23 21 13 17 25 25 7 8 22 48 12 17 37 6 11 44 43 52 41 51 20 34 25 43 1 15 23 46 60 79 32 43 34 4 6 10 2 1 5 10 5 23 16 Albania Russia Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Azerbaijan Tajikistan Turkey Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Thailand^ Malaysia Indonesia Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Iraq Lebanon Tunisia Jordan Egypt Palestinian terr. Morocco Yes No Have never heard of Shias or don't know Acceptance of Shias In 13 of the 23 countries where the question was asked, at least half of respondents say that Shias are members of the Islamic faith. However, opinion on this matter is far from universal, and in at least two countries – Egypt and Morocco – the dominant view is that Shias are not Muslims. Overall, Muslims in South Asia most consistently agree that Shias share their religion. At least three-quarters express this view in Afghanistan (84%) and Bangladesh (77%), while about half (53%) agree in Pakistan. Acceptance of Shias as fellow Muslims also is widespread in Southern and Eastern Europe. The one exception is Kosovo, where 36% of Muslims consider Shias as belonging to the Islamic faith. However, a substantial percentage of Kosovar Muslims (43%) either have not heard of Shias or are not sure whether Shias are Muslims. Only about one-in-five (21%) actually reject the notion that Shias are Muslims. In the Middle East and North Africa, distinctions between Sunnis and Shias appear to be better known: in no country in the region do more than a quarter (23%) of respondents say they are either unfamiliar with the term “Shia” or unsure whether Shias are Muslims. Are Shias Muslims? % who say… Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding. ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q41b. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 89 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 90 85 83 82 77 50 Azerbaijan Russia Afghanistan Iraq Lebanon Pakistan 77 73 65 62 60 60 54 48 46 42 38 37 36 32 30 24 19 Bangladesh Tajikistan Albania Thailand Bosnia-Herz. Turkey Tunisia Uzbekistan Jordan Egypt Palestinian Terr. Morocco Malaysia Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Indonesia Kosovo In three of the countries surveyed in the region – Tunisia, Jordan and the Palestinian territories – opinion is closely divided on whether Shias are Muslims. In Egypt and Morocco, the prevailing view (52% and 51%, respectively) is that Shias are not Muslims. Only in Iraq and Lebanon do overwhelming majorities (92% and 88%, respectively) acknowledge Shias as Muslims. In part, these findings reflect the fact that in both countries Shias make up a substantial portion of the population (51% of Iraqi Muslims surveyed self-identify as Shia; 48% of Lebanese Muslims self-identify as Shia), and Shia views are incorporated into these overall numbers.26 But when the attitudes of Sunnis in these countries are examined separately, it becomes clear that the Sunni communities in Iraq and Lebanon are much more welcoming of Shias than Sunnis in other parts of the Middle East and North Africa. Indeed, Sunnis in these two countries are at least 23 to 28 percentage points more likely than Sunnis elsewhere in the region to recognize Shias as Muslims. The cases of Iraq and Lebanon suggest that the experience of living side-by-side may increase, rather than decrease, mutual recognition between Sunnis and Shias. And the survey findings indicate that these may not be the only instances where this is true. 26 The percentages reported here reflect the results of the survey. These results sometimes differ from the Pew Forum’s demographic estimates. For example, the Pew Forum’s 2009 report, “Mapping the Global Muslim Population” estimates that Shia Muslims in Iraq make up 65-70% of the population, while Shia Muslims in Lebanon account for 45-55% of the population. Attitudes of Sunnis Toward Shias % of Sunnis who accept Shias as Muslims* * The percentage of Sunnis who accept Shias as Muslims may exceed the overall percentage of Muslims who hold this view, as the overall percentage includes the responses of Muslims who identify as “just a Muslim” or “something else.” PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q41b. Countries where 6% or more self-identify as Shias Countries where 5% or fewer self-identify as Shias 96 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 82 68 57 55 97 91 88 87 82 75 99 89 81 96 73 63 99 84 46 37 26 6 4 Russia Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Albania Uzbekistan Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Tajikistan Turkey Kyrgyzstan Thailand^ Malaysia Indonesia Bangladesh Afghanistan Pakistan Lebanon Iraq Palestinian terr. Tunisia Morocco Egypt Jordan In Azerbaijan, Iraq and Lebanon, which are home to substantial numbers of both Sunnis and Shias, there is no clear sectarian divide over which forms of worship or practice are accepted within Islam. On only one issue – appealing to deceased ancestors – are Shias in all three countries more accepting than their Sunni counterparts. Worship Practices Visiting Shrines Other than the pilgrimage to Mecca, which is one of the Five Pillars of Islam (see text box, page 37), the Quran does not specifically mention pilgrimages. However, certain hadith encourage pilgrimages to shrines, including Jerusalem’s al-Aqsa mosque in the Sunni tradition and the shrine of Imam Hussein in Karbala, Iraq, in the Shia tradition.28 Overall the survey finds that many Muslims consider visiting the shrines of Muslim saints an acceptable practice. This is especially true in Southeast Asia, where eight-in-ten or more Muslims in Thailand (99%), Malaysia (89%) and Indonesia (81%) say visiting shrines falls within the bounds of Islam. The acceptance of pilgrimages to shrines is also widespread in Central Asia, with three-quarters or more endorsing the practice. In South Asia, the number of Muslims who believe visiting shrines is part of Islamic tradition ranges from 96% in Bangladesh to a more modest 63% in Pakistan. In Southern and Eastern Europe (Russia and the Balkans), 28 For more on pilgrimages to shrines in the Sunni tradition, see Sahih Muslim 7:3218 and Elad, Amikam. 1999. “Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship, second edition.” Leiden: E.J. Brill, page 65. For more on pilgrimages to shrines in the Shia tradition, see a hadith of the eighth Shia Imam, Ali al-Rida, as cited in Nakash, Yitzak. 1995. “The Visitation of the Shrines of the Imams and the Shi‘i Mujtahids in the Early Twentieth Century.” Studia Islamica, vol. 81, page 155. Is Visiting Shrines Acceptable? % saying yes ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42a. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 97 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org too, opinion varies considerably: 82% of Russian Muslims say the practice is acceptable, but fewer than six-in-ten Muslims in Kosovo (57%) and Albania (55%) agree. Acceptance of pilgrimages to shrines is lower in the Middle East and North Africa. Although large majorities in Lebanon (99%) and Iraq (84%) see the practice as part of Islamic tradition, relatively few Muslims elsewhere in the region agree, including just 6% in Egypt and 4% in Jordan. 98 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 79 61 49 48 77 65 64 52 51 17 73 32 28 88 35 28 91 74 73 72 58 50 38 Russia Bosnia-Herz. Albania Kosovo Turkey Kazakhstan Azerbaijan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Uzbekistan Malaysia Thailand^ Indonesia Afghanistan Pakistan Bangladesh Lebanon Iraq Jordan Egypt Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Reciting Poetry Many Muslims agree that it is acceptable to recite poetry or sing in praise of God. In 17 of the 23 countries where the question was asked, roughly half or more take this view. Religious poetry is embraced in much of the Middle East and North Africa, including in Lebanon, where 91% believe this practice falls within the bounds of Islam. Elsewhere in the region, seven-in-ten or more in Iraq (74%), Jordan (73%) and Egypt (72%) share this view. Only in Tunisia (38%) do fewer than half agree. Reciting poetry in praise of God is also endorsed by roughly half or more Muslims in most of the nations surveyed in Central Asia and across Southern and Eastern Europe. Indeed, more than six-in-ten affirm this practice in Russia (79%), Turkey (77%), Kazakhstan (65%), Azerbaijan (64%) and Bosnia-Herzegovina (61%). Uzbekistan is the only country in the two regions where fewer than one-in-five Muslims (17%) say religious poetry is part of Islamic tradition. Attitudes toward reciting poetry vary considerably in South Asia and Southeast Asia: more than seven-in-ten in Afghanistan (88%) and Malaysia (73%) voice acceptance, while only about a third approve in Pakistan (35%), Thailand (32%), Indonesia (28%) and Bangladesh (28%). In a number of countries, religious commitment, as measured by frequency of prayer, is linked with attitudes toward religious poetry. For example, in Russia, 91% of those who pray more than once a day believe reciting poetry is acceptable, compared with only 74% of those who pray less often. Similar gaps are found in Azerbaijan (+14 points among those who pray more than once a day), Kyrgyzstan (+14), Turkey (+12), Malaysia (+11) and Indonesia (+9). In Egypt Is Reciting Poetry in Praise of God Acceptable under Islam? % saying yes ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42c. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 99 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org and Pakistan, by contrast, those who pray multiple times a day are less likely to believe poetry is permissible, by 18 and 11 percentage points, respectively. 100 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 39 36 28 18 72 22 20 14 13 6 5 4 2 13 10 6 27 16 13 12 9 6 5 Russia Kosovo Albania Bosnia-Herz. Turkey Azerbaijan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Indonesia Thailand^ Malaysia Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Lebanon Egypt Iraq Jordan Tunisia Morocco Palestinian terr. Devotional Dancing Unlike visiting shrines or reciting religious poetry, relatively few Muslims endorse devotional dancing as a form of worship.29 In all but one of the countries surveyed, fewer than four-in-ten say this practice is part of Islamic tradition. The exception is Turkey, where 72% of Muslims believe devotional dancing falls within the bounds of Islam. That Turkish Muslims depart from other Muslims on this question is perhaps not surprising given the prominence of the so-called “whirling dervishes” in Turkish culture. In Turkey, Muslims who pray several times a day are more likely to say that devotional dancing is acceptable (+16 percentage points). The same pattern holds in Russia and Lebanon, but with even larger gaps (+23 percentage points each). 29 Devotional dancing tends to be more common among some Sufi orders. These orders uphold that it is a form of dhikr (also transliterated as zhikr), literally meaning “remembrance of God.” Dhikr is prescribed in the Quran (13:28; 33:41; 87:14-15), and a common form is performed by reciting the 99 names of God. For more on dhikr and Sufism, see the Pew Forum’s 2010 report “Muslim Networks and Movements in Western Europe.” Is Devotional Dancing Acceptable? % saying yes ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42b. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 101 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 36 34 16 5 51 38 35 32 24 14 11 4 1 17 12 10 28 22 3 2 2 2 2 Bosnia-Herz. Russia Albania Kosovo Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Azerbaijan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Iraq Lebanon Palestinian terr. Egypt Jordan Morocco Tunisia Appeals to Spirits, Jinn and Sorcery Appealing to the Deceased Relatively few Muslims in the countries surveyed believe it is permissible to appeal to dead relatives or ancestors for aid. However, views on this question vary by region.30 Muslims in Central Asia tend to be the most accepting of the practice, with more than three-in-ten in Kazakhstan (51%), Uzbekistan (38%), Kyrgyzstan (35%) and Tajikistan (32%) saying appeals to spirits of the dead are part of Islamic tradition. Across Southern and Eastern Europe, about a third of Muslims in Bosnia-Herzegovina (36%) and Russia (34%) believe appeals to deceased relatives or ancestors are acceptable, but fewer than one-in-five in Albania (16%) and Kosovo (5%) agree. Acceptance of the practice is relatively rare in South Asia and Southeast Asia, with less than a fifth of Muslims in these regions saying it is part of Islamic tradition. Meanwhile, in most countries in the Middle East and North Africa, only a handful of Muslims say appeals to the deceased fall within Islam. The two exceptions are Iraq and Lebanon, where 28% and 22% of Muslims, respectively, say the practice is acceptable, perhaps reflecting the Shia tradition of honoring forebears, such as Hussein and Ali.31 30 The Quran states that prayers should be offered to God alone (108:2). 31 Ali was the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad and, according to Shias, the rightful successor (Imam) to the Prophet. Hussein, one of Ali’s sons, was the third Imam in Shia Islam. Acceptable to Appeal to the Deceased for Aid under Islam? % saying yes ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42d. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 102 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 18 12 10 5 15 9 5 5 4 0 3 2 1 28 10 3 7 4 3 3 2 0 Russia Bosnia-Herz. Albania Kosovo Kazakhstan Turkey Tajikistan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Azerbaijan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Bangladesh Afghanistan Pakistan Lebanon Tunisia Morocco Palestinian terr. Jordan Egypt Appeals to Jinn The Quran states that God created non-human creatures, referred to as jinn and, as discussed earlier in this report, many Muslims affirm that jinn exist (see page 69). However, few Muslims believe it is an accepted part of Islamic tradition to make offerings or appeals to these supernatural beings.32 Among the countries surveyed, only in Bangladesh do more than a fifth of Muslims (28%) say this practice is part of Islamic tradition. In Russia (18%), Kazakhstan (15%), Bosnia-Herzegovina (12%) and Afghanistan (10%), one-in-ten or more also share this view. But elsewhere, very low percentages of Muslims believe appeals to jinn are acceptable. 32 The Quran states that prayers and sacrifices should be made to God alone (108:2) Acceptable to Make Offerings to Jinn under Islam? % saying yes ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. Data from Iraq not available due to administrative error. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42e. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 103 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org 12 8 8 8 10 9 7 4 3 1 22 3 1 7 7 5 7 6 4 4 3 2 1 Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Kazakhstan Turkey Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Azerbaijan Thailand^ Indonesia Malaysia Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Lebanon Iraq Jordan Tunisia Morocco Egypt Palestinian terr. Use of Sorcery As discussed earlier in this report, substantial numbers of Muslims believe in the existence of witchcraft (see page 71). Nevertheless, across the nations surveyed, there is near universal agreement that the use of sorcery is not permissible within Islam.33 In only three countries – Thailand (22%), Albania (12%) and Kazakhstan (10%) – do one-in-ten or more say the use of sorcery falls within the bounds of Islam. 33 The Quran condemns sorcery (2:102), and one hadith refers to it as one of the seven destructive sins (Sahih al-Bukhari 51:28). Is the Use of Sorcery Acceptable under Islam? % saying yes ^Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42f. Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 104 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org 71 81 15 59 70 30 Visiting Shrines Religious Poetry Devotional Dancing Sunni Arabs Sunni Kurds Sunni and Shia Views on Boundaries of Practice In Azerbaijan, Iraq and Lebanon, which are each home to substantial numbers of Sunni and Shia Muslims, the survey finds no clear sectarian divide regarding the boundaries of acceptable worship or practice. That is not to say that members of the two groups always agree on what is permitted within Islam, but the degree, and direction, of disagreement varies more by country than by sect. In Lebanon, Sunnis and Shias generally concur that visiting shrines and reciting poetry in praise of God are accepted within Islam. And on the question of devotional dancing, similarly low percentages of Shias and Sunnis approve. Among Shias and Sunnis in Azerbaijan, there is general agreement that visiting shrines is permitted within Islam, but many fewer in both sects say the same about devotional dancing. The sects do diverge on reciting religious poetry, but only slightly. In Iraq, Shias and Sunnis do not differ greatly on the acceptance of religious poetry. And although the two groups do significantly diverge (33 percentage points) on the question of shrine visitation, a majority of Iraqi Sunnis (65%) still endorse the practice – unlike their counterparts in nearby countries such as Jordan and Egypt, where only 3% and 4% of Sunnis, respectively, share this view. Iraqi Sunnis are more inclined (12 percentage points) to approve of devotional dancing than are Shias, although this gap is largely due to the fact that Sunni Kurds – who are concentrated Views on Worship Vary More by Country Than Sect % saying practice is acceptable within Islam Lebanon Shia Sunni Diff. Visiting shrines 99 98 +1 Religious poetry 92 90 +2 Devotional dancing 23 32 -9 Azerbaijan Shia Sunni Diff. Visiting shrines 93 86 +7 Religious poetry 67 51 +16 Devotional dancing 27 31 -4 Iraq Shia Sunni Diff. Visiting shrines 98 65 +33 Religious poetry 74 76 -2 Devotional dancing 8 20 -12 PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42a-c. In Iraq, Sunni Arabs and Sunni Kurds Also Differ on Worship % saying practice is acceptable within Islam PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42a-c. 105 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org in the country’s north, where Sufi traditions tend to be stronger – are twice as likely as the country’s Sunni Arabs to endorse devotional dancing. In all three countries, Shia and Sunni Muslims differ little when it comes to rejecting the use of sorcery within Islam. And in Lebanon and Azerbaijan, members of both groups hold similar views on the acceptability of making appeals to jinn.34 The survey finds a consistent pattern of sectarian differences on only one practice: appealing to deceased relatives or ancestors. Across all three countries, significantly more Shias than Sunnis approve of this practice. Again, this may reflect the widespread tradition of venerating and appealing to figures such as Ali and Hussein in the Shia tradition.35 34 The results of this item are not available for Iraq due to an administrative error. 35 See footnote 31. More Shia Say Appealing to Deceased Is Acceptable % saying practice is acceptable within Islam Sunni Shia Difference Iraq 8 44 -36 Azerbaijan 5 20 -15 Lebanon 16 28 -12 In Iraq, Sunni Arabs and Sunni Kurds provide similar responses to this question. PEW RESEARCH CENTER Q42d. 112 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY Ahmadi or Ahmadiyya A religious movement that emerged in late 19th-century India around Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908), whose followers believe he was a mujaddid (reformer) who showed the way to revive and restore Islam. Alawite or Alawi A sect of Shia Islam centered in Syria that highly venerates Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, and incorporates elements of Gnostic teachings. Historically, the community has placed less emphasis than other sects on the role of daily prayer, fasting during Ramadan and performing the hajj. Alevite or Alevi A sect combining elements from Shia Islam and Sufi traditions. Alevis comprise the secondlargest religious community in Turkey. Aliran Kepercayaan A faith tradition that incorporates elements of animism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam and is sometimes described by adherents as a meditation-based spiritual path. It is found predominantly in parts of Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia. Aliwiyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam that dates to the early 20th century. It was founded in Algeria and has spread throughout much of North Africa, Europe and the Levant. Bektashiyya A Sufi order in the Shia tradition. It is found predominantly in Turkey and the Balkan countries. In Albania, it is recognized as an official religious order. Chistiyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam dating from the 10th century. It was founded in Afghanistan and is most prominent in South Asia and Africa today. Druze A religious sect that emerged from the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. The movement was started in 11th-century Egypt by Muhammad bin Ismail al-Darazi, who taught that the Fatimid caliph 113 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah was divine and did not die but went into occultation. Today its followers are found mainly in Lebanon and Syria. Evil Eye The belief that certain people can cast curses or spells that cause harm. Certain hadith record that the Prophet Muhammad said the evil eye is real, but others indicate that Muhammad rejected this practice. Many Muslims believe that the evil eye can be averted by repeating Quranic verses or by using amulets such as the hand of Fatima, a traditional palm-shaped design. Hadith Sayings or deeds ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad, and a key source of Islamic authority and jurisprudence. In the first centuries after Muhammad's death, Islamic scholars established a ranking system for the reliability of each reported hadith. However there continues to be disagreement over the validity of various hadith. For Sunnis, hadith contained in the volumes Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim are the most widely referenced, although other compilations exist. Shia Muslims favor hadith with a chain of transmission through the family of Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad. Hajj The annual pilgrimage to Mecca and its associated rituals that take place on the eighth through 12th days of the last month in the Muslim lunar calendar. It is one of the five main practices or pillars of Islam, holding that all Muslims who are physically and financially able to make the pilgrimage have a religious duty to do so at least once in their lifetime. Islam Liberal A recent movement in Indonesia that describes itself as an effort to counter militant and radical Islam by promulgating a discourse on the faith that prioritizes religio-ethics over textual literalism. Ismaili One of the major sects of Shia Islam (Ithnashari, or Twelver, Islam is another). Ismailis believe that Ismail ibn Jafar was the spiritual successor (Imam) to Jafar al-Sadiq, whose lineage can be traced back to Ali, a contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad. Jerrahiyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam that is an offshoot of the Halvatiyya order. It was founded in the 17th century and is most prominent in Turkey, the Balkans and the Middle East-North Africa. 114 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Jesus in Islam Jesus (Isa) is mentioned more than 20 times in the Quran and is considered a holy prophet in Islam, but not the son of God. According to Islamic teaching, Jesus will return prior to Judgment Day to establish a reign of peace and justice on earth. Jinn (Djinn) Jinn (the singular is jinni) are supernatural spiritual beings, created by God, that are described in the Quran. Jinn can be good, evil or morally neutral. Khwajagan A Sufi order in Sunni Islam centered in Central Asia. It is a branch of the Naqshbandiyya tradition. Kubrawiyya A Sufi order in Shia Islam that dates to the 13th century. The movement is centered in Central Asia and is a branch of the Naqshbandiyya order. Mahdi The redeemer or “Guided One” who many Muslims believe will rule on earth shortly before the day of resurrection or judgment to rid the world of error, corruption and injustice. Mevleviyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam commonly known as the “whirling dervishes” due to their devotional dancing. The group dates to the 13th century and is centered in Turkey. Muridiyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam dating to the late 19th century and founded by Abadu Bamba M’Backe. It is especially prominent in Senegal and the Gambia. Naqshbandiyya One of the largest Sufi orders in Sunni Islam, Naqshbandis are found throughout the world. It encompasses many distinct branches and played a significant religious and political role in historical times on the Indian subcontinent and in the Ottoman Empire. Naqshbandiyya Khalidiyya A branch of the Naqshbandiyya order. 115 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Qadiriyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam with origins in 12th-century Iran. The tradition now extends throughout Asia, Africa and Southern Europe. Qadiriyya wa Naqshbandiyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam that combines the teachings of the Qadiriyya and Naqshbandiyya orders. It is found mainly in Southeast Asia. Qalandariyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam dating from the 12th century. It arose in modern-day Spain and is now most prevalent in South and Central Asia. Quran The Muslim holy book. Ramadan The ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, marked by daytime fasting (sawm) to commemorate the revelation of the Quran. Salat or salah Salat are formal prayers that adult Muslims are prescribed to perform five times a day. Shadhiliyya or Shaziliyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam dating to the 13th century. Today, it is found in the Middle EastNorth Africa, South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Turkey. Shattariyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam dating to the 15th century. It was founded in Iran but is most prevalent in South Asia today. Shia One of the two main branches of Islam. The name is a shortened form of the historical term Shia-t-Ali, or “party of Ali,” and refers to one of the factions that emerged from a dispute over leadership succession soon after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632. Over time, the political divide between Shia and Sunni Muslims broadened to include theological distinctions and differences in religious practice. 116 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Sufi A mystical movement in Islam that encompasses a set of rituals, such as euphoric worship, as well as certain beliefs, such as the existence of saints and the possibility of gaining direct knowledge of God. Today, Sufism is organized into orders, or tariqas, each grouped around a spiritual leader or shaykh. Suhrawardiyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam dating to the 12th century. It was founded in Iraq but is most prominent in South Asia today. Sunni One of the two main branches of Islam. Sunni Muslims make up a majority of the world’s Muslim population. The name comes from Ahl al-Sunna Jammah, or “people of the Sunna and the community.” Sunni Islam is associated with norms of Muslim conduct based on the sayings and actions of Muhammad, particularly as enshrined in the four major schools of jurisprudence – Hanafi, Shafi, Maliki and Hanbali. Tijaniyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam that emerged from the Qadiriyya order in the late 18th century. It was founded in North Africa but has spread widely in sub-Saharan Africa. It is considered a reformist movement that sought to simplify the practice of Islam based on the words and practices of the Prophet Muhammad. Ummah The worldwide Muslim community of believers. Vis Haji A Sufi order in Sunni Islam that is an offshoot of the Qadiriyya order. It was founded in the Caucasus region in the mid-20th century. Yasawiyya A Sufi order in Sunni Islam that dates to the 11th century. The movement is centered in Central Asia. Zakat or zakah The religious duty of Muslims to give a portion of their wealth to charity. It is one of the five main practices, or pillars, of Islam. 117 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org APPENDIX C: SURVEY METHODOLOGY Results for the survey are based on face-to-face interviews conducted under the direction of Opinion Research Business in Iraq, Morocco and Tunisia and Princeton Survey Research Associates International in the other 36 countries. Findings are reported exclusively for Muslims; however, the survey is based on national samples that did not screen out nonMuslims, except in Thailand, where a sample of only Muslims was fielded in five southern provinces. In certain instances, regions of countries with high levels of insecurity or limited access were also excluded from the national samples. Oversamples of Muslims were conducted in two countries: Bosnia-Herzegovina and Russia. In both countries, oversampling was achieved by disproportionately sampling regions or territories known to have higher concentrations of Muslims. In all countries, surveys were administered through face-to-face interviews conducted at a respondent’s place of residence. All samples are based on area probability designs, which typically entailed proportional stratification by region and urbanity, selection of primary sampling units (PSUs) proportional to population size, and random selection of secondary and tertiary sampling units within PSUs. Interview teams were assigned to designated random routes at the block or street level and followed predetermined skip patterns when contacting households. Within households, adult respondents were randomly selected by enumerating all adults in the household using a Kish grid or selecting the adult with the most recent birthday. The questionnaire administered by survey interviewers was designed by the Pew Forum staff in consultation with subject matter experts and advisers to the project. The questionnaire was translated into the vernacular language(s) of each survey country, checked through backtranslation and pretested prior to fieldwork. In total, the survey was conducted in more than 80 languages. Conducting opinion polls in diverse societies necessitates adapting the survey to local sensitivities. In some countries, pretest results indicated the need to suppress certain questions to avoid offending respondents and/or risking the security of the interviewers. In other countries, interviewers considered some questions too sensitive to pretest. Thus, not all questions were asked in all countries. For example, in 2008-2009, Muslims and Christians in sub-Saharan Africa were asked whether the sacred texts of their respective religions are the literal word of God. In 2011-2012, pretest results indicated that respondents found this item offensive because it “questioned the unquestionable.” Therefore, it was removed from the questionnaire. 118 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org In another example, interviewers in Afghanistan said they were uncomfortable asking respondents whether they believe there is only one God and that Muhammad is God’s Prophet, as respondents could interpret the question to be blasphemous. Therefore, the question was omitted in Afghanistan. Following fieldwork, survey performance for each country was assessed by comparing the results for key demographic variables with reliable, national-level population statistics. For each country, the data were weighted to account for different probabilities of selection among respondents in each sample. Additionally, where appropriate, data were weighted through an iterative procedure to more closely align the samples with official population figures for characteristics such as gender, age, education and ethnicity. The reported sampling errors and the statistical tests of significance used in analysis take into account the effect of both types of weighting. The reported sampling errors and statistical tests of significance also take into account the design effects associated with each sample. The table on page 120 shows the sample size and margin of sampling error for Muslim respondents in each country. For results based on the Muslim sample in the countries surveyed, one can say with 95% confidence that the error attributable to collecting data from some, rather than all, members of the Muslim population is plus or minus the margin of error. This means that in 95 out of 100 samples of the same size and type, the results we obtain would vary by no more than plus or minus the margin of error for the country in question. It should be noted that practical difficulties in conducting multinational surveys can introduce error or bias into the findings of opinion polls. In some countries, the achieved samples suffered from imbalances in the number of women or men interviewed, while in some countries a lack of adequate, national-level statistics made it difficult to assess the accuracy of educational characteristics among the sampled population. Specific difficulties encountered were: Gender Imbalances: In Afghanistan and Niger, the survey respondents are disproportionately male, while in Thailand, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan they are disproportionately female. In each of these countries interviewers faced practical difficulties in reaching additional male or female respondents. In Afghanistan, despite strict gender matching, cultural norms frequently limited the ability of interviewers to contact women in certain areas. In Niger, difficulties associated with recruiting enough female interviewers affected gender matching and may have discouraged the participation of women in the survey. 119 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Surveying in active conflict zones posed particular challenges for interviewers. In southern Thailand, security concerns limited the number of interviews that could be conducted in the evening hours, leading in part to fewer interviews with men, who often are out of the house during daytime hours. In Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan, large-scale labor migration patterns may have contributed to fewer interviews with male respondents. Education: In many countries, census statistics on education are unavailable, dated or disputed by experts. The lack of reliable national statistics limits the extent to which survey samples can be assessed for representativeness on this measure. In Albania, the Palestinian territories and Tajikistan, the surveys appear to overrepresent highly educated respondents compared with the last available national census. In each of these cases, however, official education statistics are based on, or estimated from, censuses conducted five or more years prior to the survey and thus were not used for the purposes of weighting. In Niger, the sample is disproportionately well-educated compared with the last available Demographic and Health Survey (2006), but no education census statistics are available to assess the representativeness of the sample. In addition to sampling error and other practical difficulties, one should bear in mind that question wording can also have an impact on the findings of opinion polls. For details about the surveys conducted in 15 sub-Saharan African countries in 2008-2009, see the Pew Forum’s 2010 report “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in SubSaharan Africa.” The survey questionnaire and a topline with full results for the 24 countries surveyed in 20112012 is included in Appendix D (page 128). 120 PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUBLIC LIFE www.pewforum.org Sample Size and Margin of Error Country Sample Size for Muslims Only Margin of Error Afghanistan 1,509 ±4.7 points Albania 788 ±5.3 points Azerbaijan 996 ±5.6 points Bangladesh 1,918 ±4.4 points Bosnia-Herzegovina* 1,007 ±4.2 points Egypt 1,798 ±3.7 points Indonesia 1,880 ±3.4 points Iraq 1,416 ±5.8 points Jordan 966 ±5.9 points Kazakhstan 998 ±4.9 points Kosovo 1,266 ±5.3 points Kyrgyzstan 1,292 ±5.0 points Lebanon 551 ±6.1 points Malaysia 1,244 ±4.4 points Morocco 1,472 ±4.3 points Niger 946 ±5.6 points Pakistan 1,450 ±5.6 points Palestinian territories 994 ±6.3 points Russia* 1,050 ±2.8 points Tajikistan 1,453 ±5.4 points Thailand^ 1,010 ±5.6 points Tunisia 1,450 ±3.3 points Turkey 1,485 ±5.8 points Uzbekistan 965 ±4.7 points * The Bosnia-Herzegovina and Russia surveys included oversamples of Muslim respondents. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, interviews were conducted among a nationally representative sample of 1,100 respondents and supplemented with 505 additional interviews among Muslims. The Russia survey was conducted among a nationally representative sample of 1,810 respondents and supplemented with 894 additional interviews among Muslims. ^The survey in Thailand was conducted among Muslims only in five southern provinces: Narathiwat, Pattani, Satun, Songkhla and Yala. It is only representative of Muslims in these five provinces. 121 THE WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY www.pewforum.org Afghanistan Sample design: Stratified area probability sample of all 34 Afghan provinces (excluding nomadic populations) proportional to population size and urban/rural population. Mode: Face-to-face adults 18+ Languages: Baloch, Dari, Hazara, Pashto, Uzbek Fieldwork dates: Nov. 27–Dec. 17, 2011 Representative: Nationally representative of 94% of the adult population. Design effect: 3.4 Albania Sample design: Stratified area probability sample of all three regions proportional to population size and urban/rural population. Some difficult-to-reach areas were excluded. Mode: Face-to-face adults 18+ Languages: Albanian Fieldwork dates: Oct. 24–Nov. 13, 2011 Representative: Nationally representative of 98% of the adult population. Design effect: 2.3 Azerbaijan Sample design: Stratified area probability sample of eight of 11 oblasts (excluding UpperKarabakh, Nakhchivan and Kalbacar-Lacin) and city of Baku proportional to population size and urban/rural population. Mode: Face-to-face adults 18+ Languages: Azeri, Russian Fieldwork dates: Dec. 4–Dec. 25, 2011 Representative: Nationally representative of 85% of the adult population. Design effect: 3.3 Bangladesh Sample design: Stratified area probability sample of all seven administrative divisions proportional to population size and urban/rural population. Mode: Face-to-face adults 18+ Languages: Bangla Fieldwork dates: Nov. 21, 2011–Feb. 5, 2012 Representative: Nationally representative of the adult population. Design effect: 3.8 TotalDK/Ref. Just a Muslim, not further specified (VOL.) Nothing in particular (VOL.) Something else Aliran Kepercayaan (VOL.) Bektashi (VOL.)Alevi (VOL.) Ahmadiyya (VOL.)ShiaSunni Q31. Are you Sunni (for example, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, or Hanbali), Shia (for example, Ithnashari/Twelver or Ismaili/Sevener), or something else? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 1001433200004740 10042001000152040 100627660001055 1003421200031238 100220150006759 1001555610002020 10017224000010938 10068100004873 1001336300002640 1008133000016851 100323120000268 100128100000277 10015145000061050 1000234000042148 10010404500012327 100140100000058 100015000000085 100230100000067 100000000004852 10007000000093 100150000005142 100012000000088 100012010000681 10024000000292 10003000000790 10083000000087 100618100000075 100656750000026 1002354300000118 10032100050189 10017100000387 100964300000023 100674400000116 1001451000003716 1008451100000630 1001158400200124 100454300000038 1008654001300010 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Total DK/Ref. - Identify any order (VOL.) DK/Ref. - Which order (VOL.)DzhazuliyyaYasawiyyaVis HajiShazaliyya**RifaiyyaQadiriyyaHalvatiyya Naqshbandiy yaBektashiyya No, do not identify with any Sufi orders Q32. Do you identify with any Sufi orders such as [INSERT] or not? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Southern-Eastern Europe 10016200110807064 10026100000000271 1008100000000189 100361000000001252 ** Shazaliyya and Shadhiliyya represent alternative spellings of the same Sufi order. Total DK/Ref. - Identify any order (VOL.) DK/Ref. - Which order (VOL.)Alawiyya Shadhiliyya* *TijaniyyaQadiriyya Naqshbandiy yaMevleviyyaJerrahiyya No, do not identify with any Sufi orders Q32. Do you identify with any Sufi orders such as [INSERT] or not? Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Middle East-North Africa 10000000000198 10061000000092 10011000000097 10090013021284 10010000010197 10090000210086 10010320301090 ** Shazaliyya and Shadhiliyya represent alternative spellings of the same Sufi order. Total DK/Ref. - Identify any orders (VOL.) DK/Ref. - Which order (VOL.) Another teachingQalandariyya Naqshbandiy yaKhwajaganYasawiyyaKubrawiyya No, do not identify with any Sufi orders Q32. Do you identify with any Sufi orders such as [INSERT] or not? Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Uzbekistan Central Asia 10020700301068 100251001610056 10037600000155 10021000001077 1009000000091 Total DK/Ref. - Identify any order (VOL.) DK/Ref. - Which order (VOL.) Another orderQadiriyya Naqshbandiy yaMevleviyyaJerrahiyya No, do not identify with any Sufi orders Q32. Do you identify with any Sufi orders such as [INSERT] or not? TurkeyCentral Asia 1001210021281 Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 128 Total DK/Ref. - Identify any order (VOL.) DK/Ref. - Which order (VOL.) Another orderShattariyya Suhrawardiy yaQadiriyya Naqshbandiy yaChistiyya No, do not identify with any Sufi orders Q32. Do you identify with any Sufi orders such as [INSERT] or not? Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan South Asia 1007600052476 10043011541269 1001100014290 Total DK/Ref. - Identify any order (VOL.) DK/Ref. - Which order (VOL.) Another orderSanusiyyaWahidiyyaSammaniyyaJunaidiyyaSiddiqiyyaShattariyya Qadiriyya wa Naqshbandiy ya Naqshbandiy ya Khalidiyya No, do not identify with any Sufi orders Q32. Do you identify with any Sufi orders such as [INSERT] or not? Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Southeast Asia 10081100000000017 100351300000001347 10046200000000150 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Total DK/Ref. - Identify any order (VOL.) DK/Ref. - Which order (VOL.) Another orderMuridiyyaAlawiyya Shadhiliyya* *ChistiyyaQadiriyyaTijaniyya No, do not identify with Sufi orders Q32. Do you identify with any Sufi orders such as [INSERT] or not? Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Sub-Saharan Africa 1005950024121215 100171020308166 100320340005515 100821112291956 100554001033447 100301000001662 10041100203142514 100231054144652 1002370461112038 1001910121052743 100239001101659 100381010114450 1003950314331033 1003201123113542 1002467121003128 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ** Shazaliyya and Shadhiliyya represent alternative spellings of the same Sufi order. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 129 TotalDK/Ref.NeverSeldom A few times a year, especially for Eid Once or twice a month Once a week for Jumah prayer More than once a week Q34. On average, how often do you attend the mosque for salat and Jumah Prayer? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Mozambique* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 100111223261 100035544141 1001149921451 100134321176 100171313553 100121223557 100039542455 100402001975 100002332566 100202132072 100000001783 100012233459 100424431569 100701162461 100062822754 100164312361 1000271762938 10012214622035 1002824752628 100029169102015 1000107993827 10033495101624 10034416133625 1000276521544 1001374131835 100034112853 10001927111240 100331216102235 100036992250 100171611281 100123151072519 1001547511515 1002501178167 10013124211391 1001641118510 10023319179127 10033918126139 1001102623111614 1001442818432 * Question was modified as follows: On average, how often do you attend the mosque or Islamic center for salat and Jumah Prayer? Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 130 TotalDK/Ref. Not at all important Not too important Somewhat important Very important Q36. How important is religion in your life – very important, somewhat important, not too important, or not at all important? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Mozambique* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 100011593 100001495 100000198 100100693 1000011286 100011494 100001494 100200791 100000495 100000595 100000397 1000001387 100321787 100102791 100000892 100000496 1000112078 1001011285 100232489 1000163459 1000011485 1001021582 1000102475 100000594 1000011881 100001792 100001495 100011593 100011593 10015194630 1002362167 1000184150 1002194049 10022225718 10032223736 10021143844 10076142944 10012164436 100110353815 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 131 TotalDK/Ref. Never heard of group (VOL.)NoYes Q41a. Next I am going to ask about groups that some people regard as Muslims. Do you personally consider Sufis to be Muslims, or not? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 100423855 10025162634 1001334143 10012181951 1001192356 1002030744 100244450 1001501570 100421183 100391277 1003943612 1003581443 10014184424 1003940813 10020111356 1001427752 10018462115 10022412711 10027421220 10023181742 10037192222 10016172245 10023323410 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. TotalDK/Ref. Never heard of group (VOL.)NoYes Q41b. Do you personally consider Shias to be Muslims, or not? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 100324452 1001764136 1001335133 100001188 1001004346 10020692 100415243 1001003753 100511777 100401284 1002012860 1003672235 10014204819 1003841714 1001851761 100961372 10020402515 10020262528 10010297 10021131353 10030132136 10015102351 1001462060 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 132 TotalDK/Ref. Never heard of group (VOL.)NoYes Q41c. Do you personally consider Sunnis to be Muslims, or not? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 10011791 10052192 100000100 10000199 100000100 10000199 100000100 10020396 10010397 10000199 10051094 1002891448 10012163042 1003537523 10080091 10001098 1001535941 10019231642 10020791 10021131156 1002991151 100116974 10022272525 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. TotalDK/Ref. Never heard of group (VOL.)NoYes Q41d. Do you personally consider Ahmadiyyas to be Muslims, or not? Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Bangladesh Pakistan Southeast Asia South Asia 100260667 10014143240 1003436525 10044172316 100737812 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q41eLEB. Do you personally consider Alawites to be Muslims, or not? LebanonMiddle East-North Africa 10053857 TotalDK/Ref. Never heard of group (VOL.)NoYes Q41eTUR. Do you personally consider Alevis to be Muslims, or not? TurkeyCentral Asia 1001311769 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q41f. Do you personally consider Druze to be Muslims, or not? LebanonMiddle East-North Africa 10095239 Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 133 TotalDK/Ref. Never heard of group (VOL.)NoYes Q41g. Do you personally consider Aliran Kepercayaan to be Muslims, or not? Indonesia Malaysia Southeast Asia 1004620269 10086805 TotalDK/Ref. Never heard of group (VOL.) NoYes Q41h. Do you personally consider Islam Liberal to be Muslims, or not? IndonesiaSoutheast Asia 10012145816 TotalDK/Ref. Islam does not have anything to say about this Unacceptabl e under Isla m Acceptable under Islam Q42a. Do you believe that visitation or pilgrimage to the shrines of Muslim saints is acceptable under Islam, unacceptable under Islam, or does Islam not have anything to say about this? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 100265437 100644446 100766026 10000199 100622674 100311284 100127676 100532963 10010396 100351973 10000199 10024589 100031681 10010197 100341282 10032887 100331975 10031788 10023591 10083782 1002441557 100562168 1002841455 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 134 TotalDK/Ref. Islam does not have anything to say about this Unacceptabl e under Isla m Acceptable under Islam Q42b. Do you believe that devotional dancing is acceptable under Islam, unacceptable under Islam, or does Islam not have anything to say about this? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 10033859 10067825 10066836 10011115127 1001266112 10022155013 1002206216 100127756 1006107510 100797113 100112834 10012942 100313805 1002513566 100461772 10016195014 1001595620 10014254813 10037152622 10018113239 10030102336 10010205218 1004472128 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 135 TotalDK/Ref. Islam does not have anything to say about this Unacceptabl e under Isla m Acceptable under Islam Q42c. Do you believe that reciting poetry or singing in praise of God is acceptable under Islam, unacceptable under Islam, or does Islam not have anything to say about this? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 100116038 1001163350 100723358 10014391 1002101673 100781174 100118972 1001374535 1007145128 10042688 1004115332 100532073 1002145528 1002185417 100351677 10016122151 1001092952 100952165 1001841464 100721279 1002961748 1005112361 100375949 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 136 TotalDK/Ref. Islam does not have anything to say about this Unacceptabl e under Isla m Acceptable under Islam Q42d. Do you believe that speaking to souls of deceased relatives or ancestors to appeal for their aid is acceptable under Islam, unacceptable under Islam, or does Islam not have anything to say about this? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 10022932 10046863 10043912 100257122 100817732 10014134628 100218792 100956917 10011146510 1005107212 1003157111 10023941 100215794 1001274438 1005125924 1001294732 100794935 1001093051 10014145814 1001444934 1003410505 1007104736 10040103416 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 137 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43e. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: in the 'evil eye' or that certain people can cast curses or spells that cause bad things to happen to someone? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Mozambique* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 10056728 10021683 10093259 10037324 10094646 10036631 100103159 10056530 10017920 100164935 10086428 10027621 100154837 100113059 10005050 10023167 1001990 10063559 10031780 10024850 10023265 10072272 10043462 10073261 100126722 10044353 10058411 10085736 10056629 10074250 10022969 10074548 10054748 10033166 10064847 10063559 100213940 10045937 10064054 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 144 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43f. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: in predestination or fate (Kismat/Qadar)? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 1000298 1004294 1006291 10011089 1003691 1002493 1004393 1003691 10042274 1001495 10021385 1004789 1001495 10031087 1003592 1003888 10062371 10063659 1001693 10063163 100203050 10022078 10074944 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 145 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43g. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: in jinns? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 10031779 10052867 1008686 10062173 10083458 100123355 10072469 10061777 10021484 10022870 10054847 10051877 10024553 10097516 10043363 10087121 10057421 10087715 10038215 100125038 100393724 10046036 10086823 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 146 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43h. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: that Jesus, who will initiate the final period before the Day of Judgment, will return to Earth during your lifetime? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 100161767 100312346 100341848 100163252 100353728 100241264 100322939 100321355 100226414 10094051 100242254 1008848 100353431 100161965 100353233 100216019 10016786 100334819 100226315 100503020 100108011 100225523 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 147 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43i. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: that the Mahdi, the guided one who will initiate the final period before the Day of Resurrection and Judgment, will return in your lifetime? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa 100171667 100332146 100351451 100202456 100302941 10019972 100283240 100301160 100215029 10041283 100222157 100251362 100126523 100453322 100181468 100352639 100295517 100177113 100312841 100225127 100543115 100137314 100235720 ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43iNiger. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: that the Mahdi, the guided one who will initiate the final period before the Day of Resurrection and Judgment, will return in your lifetime? NigerSub-Saharan Africa 100273043 Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 148 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43iAF. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: in the return of the Mahdi, the guided one who will initiate the final period before the Day of Resurrection and Judgment? Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Mozambique* Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Sub-Saharan Africa 100162362 100352243 100293140 100161371 100132463 100302644 100231166 10062371 100102467 100161964 10072073 100141374 100261262 10022672 100132958 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 149 TotalDK/Ref.NoYes Q43j. Which, if any, of the following do you believe: in one God, Allah, and his Prophet Muhammad? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Mozambique* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 1007587 1001198 1001099 1002493 1001297 1007687 1002296 1006490 1002098 10031285 1003295 1003196 1005689 1009190 1001396 1000199 10000100 1001099 1002198 1001198 10000100 10000100 10000100 1001198 1002196 10000100 1002198 1000298 1001297 1001297 1001199 1002494 10051283 1000298 1004789 10014581 1001396 10072172 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 150 TotalDK/Ref. Nothing in particular Zoroastrian/ Parsi Ancestral or tribal beliefsAgnosticAtheistBaha'iBuddhistHinduChristianMuslim Q44/Q44b. Now thinking about when you were a child, in what religion were you raised, if any? ASK IF RESPONDED 'SOMETHING ELSE' OR 'DON'T KNOW' OR 'REFUSED' (Q44 = 91,98,99) And would you say you were raised as a Muslim, a Christian, or as neither one? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 1000000000001089 100000000000495 100000000000199 100000000000297 100000000000199 100100101000098 100000000000792 1000000000001189 100000000000099 100000300000394 100000000000397 100000000000199 1001100010002275 100010000000198 100100100000791 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 100000000030097 1000000000000100 1000000000000100 100050001000095 100010000000099 100010001000098 100000013000096 100070003000089 1000000000000100 100150002000092 1000000000000100 100000000000099 100040001000095 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. TotalDK/Ref. Just a Muslim, not further specified (VOL.) Nothing in particular (VOL.) Something else Aliran Kepercayaan (VOL.) Bektashi (VOL.)Alevi (VOL.) Ahmadiyya (VOL.)ShiaSunni Q46. When you were a child, were you raised Sunni (for example, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, or Hanbali), Shia (for example, Ithnashari/Twelver or Ismaili/Sevener), or something else? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 1001239300002539 10042201000141940 100529550000155 1007461100021131 100520150006853 1001557500001021 100212350000111030 1001310100004668 1001536200002540 10015151000010850 100726120000163 100128100000178 10022131000071147 1001223000032150 10013374500013127 100138100000059 100114000000085 100133100000065 100121000004651 10006000000094 100181000005040 10017000000092 100011010000682 10025000000291 10002000000691 100134000000082 100920100000070 100755740000026 1002159300000115 10011300050189 100411100000382 1001267300000018 100475400000215 1002511000003214 100944900000532 1003041200200123 100457300000035 1006684001200010 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 151 TotalDK/Ref. Neither/Both equally (VOL.) There is more than one true way to interpret the teachings of my religion There is only one true way to interpret the teachings of my religion Q57. Please tell me whether the FIRST statement or the SECOND statement comes closer to your own views — even if neither is exactly right. Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Mozambique* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 100213858 100213463 100304551 100122770 100213266 100524053 100502471 100432271 100313561 100783650 100413560 100122770 100923059 100562762 100014455 100103167 100615835 100814942 100815834 100254547 100112376 100734347 100112178 100901972 100322669 100262172 100602073 1001111771 100442072 1002451259 1001022266 100931376 1001541763 10017163136 1001441468 1001452853 1002522152 100611875 10024122341 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 152 TotalDK/Ref.NeverSeldom A few times a monthOnce a week A few times a weekOnce a day Several times a day Q61. People practice their religion in different ways. Outside of attending religious services, do you pray several times a day, once a day, a few times a week, once a week, a few times a month, seldom, or never? Albania Bosnia-Herz. Kosovo Russia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Uzbekistan Indonesia Malaysia Thailand^ Afghanistan Bangladesh Pakistan Egypt Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian terr. Tunisia Cameroon* Chad* DR Congo* Djibouti* Ethiopia* Ghana* Guinea Bissau* Kenya* Liberia* Mali* Mozambique* Niger Nigeria* Senegal* Tanzania* Uganda* Southern-Eastern Europe Central Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Middle East-North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 100010124388 10014871213649 100005123287 100300102490 100101333682 100014510102741 1002110222181 100410011489 1000010341676 100100114588 100200012194 10001222101766 100625122678 1001111129868 100011113886 100010003195 1000254121165 100235337274 1009310212369 10011012552363 1000322511968 100212114385 10011264121361 10022349131750 10011757202040 100111002491 100012248477 100306225280 100002138877 10014817432818 100241076111743 10012418424542 100131177118718 10023133137464 100369216470 10051525525836 100415113491343 100392912913619 10042836103567 * Data from Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, conducted in 2008-2009 and released in 2010. ^ Interviews conducted with Muslims in five southern provinces only. See methodology for details. Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity Topline Survey Results 153