The Cascading Helix: A three-dimensional conceptual model aimed at improving organizational communication and performance

Raddall, J. A icle The Cascading Helix: A h ee-dimensional concep ual model aimed a imp o ing o ganiza ional communica ion and pe o mance Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Raddall, J. (1984) : The Cascading Helix: A h ee-dimensional concep ual model aimed a imp o ing o ganiza ional communica ion and pe o mance, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 15, Iss. 4, pp. 232-236, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 15i4.1134 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217879 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ The Cascading Helix. A h ee-dimensional concep ual model aimed a imp o ing o ganiza ional communica ion and pe o mance J. Raddall P e o ia This a icle in oduces he Cascading Helix as a h ee- dimensional dynamic, concep ual model which ep esen s o - mal and in o mal ela ionships in an o ganiza ion. The Helix eplaces he adi ional wo-dimensional s a ic model which has been used o decades. I is sugges ed ha his la e model has become inadequa e o ep esen eal wo ld condi ions ha exis in he eigh ies. The Helix can be used by companies as a p ac ical model. Employees' names can be a ached hie a chical- ly o he Helix which can mo e om s eady s a e o in e sion and back o s eady s a e. This dynamic p ocess in oduces an Impo an concep , i.e. he bene i s o sha ed s a egic esponsi- bili y. S a egic decision-making is no he sole domain o op managemen . Each employee has a con ibu ion o make in de- ennining he di ec ion o he company. Ce ain opics, impo - an o a i m's su i al a e also discussed. These include in o - mal communica ion, alues and cul u e, o ganiza ional con ol, con lic esolu ion and s a egic managemen . In his a icle i is sugges ed ha he Cascading Helix can be used as an educa- ional ool in hese a eas o b ing abou necessa y changes in he o ganiza ion's philosophy and beha iou . S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15: 232-236 Hle die a ikel s el die Dinamiese Spi aal (Cascading Helix) as 'n d iedimensionele dinamiese beg ipsmodel bekend, wa o mele en in o mele e houdings binne 'n o ganisasie e eenwoo dig. Die spi aal e ang die weedimensionele, s a iese model wa al i dekades in geb uik is. Di blyk da die model nie lange we klike wll eld oes ande an die ag ige ja e wee spi~I nie. Maa skappye kan die spi aal as 'n p ak iese model geb uik. We kneme s se name kan hi~ a gies aan die spi aal gekoppel wo d, en die spi aal kan beweeg an 'n s abiele s aa o die omgekee de, en wee e ug na s abiel. Die dinamiese p oses s el 'n belang ike beg ip bekend, naamlik die oo dele an gemeen- skaplike s a egiese e an woo delikheid. Die ops uk uu he nie mee alleen eg op s a egiese beslui neming nie. Elke we k- neme kan 'n byd ae lewe o die bepaling an die ig ing an die maa skappy. Seke e onde we pe wa belang ik is i 'n maa - skappy se oo bes aan wo d ook besp eek. Dl slui in onnele kommunikasie, waa des en kul uu , o ganisa o lese behee , kon- likoplossing en s a egiese bes uu in. In hie die a ikel wo d daa oo ges el da die dinamiese spi aal geb uik kan wo d as opleidingswe k uig op hie die gebiede, om die nodige e an- de lnge in die o ganisasie se beleid en op ede e bewe ks elllg. S,A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15: 232-236 J. Raddall c/o Council o Scien i ic and Indus ial Resean:h, P.O. Box 39S, P e o ia, 0001 Republic o Sou h A ica Recei ed Sep embe 1984 In oduc ion The in ellec ual capaci y o e e y human being is made up o a unique and complex in e ac ion o many a iables, com- posed o bo h gene ic and en i onmen al ac o s. As a esul people end o pe cei e issues di e en ly, leading o a wide spec um o in ellec ual, emo ional and physical beha iou . In e e y a enue o human endea ou coping mechanisms ha e been de eloped o con ol he a ie y na u ally inhe en in Homo sapiens and his en i onmen , e.g. he discipline augh in schools and he a my, d i ing on he le hand side o he oad, and wo king om eigh o i e. Much has been w i en du ing he las 20 yea s (Koes le , To le , Nesbi ) abou ou en i onmen and i s end owa ds g ea e u bulance and change and he e ec his will ha e on o ganiza ions. Na u ally his e olu ion has led o a g ea e p oli e a ion o a ie y (Bee , 1979:32) wi h a concomi an inc ease in de- mand o o ganiza ions o co ec ly ampli y and a enua e he highe and mo e a ied en i onmen al-s imuli coun in o de o su i e and g ow. Objec i e The Cascading Helix has been de eloped as a concep ual model o p o ide o gani7.a ions wi h a new coping mechanism in a changing milieu. The model is simple, h ee dimensional and dynamic and should allow all employees o ela e o i wi h ease, ega d- less o di e ing gene ic o en i onmen al ac o s. The Cascading Helix he e o e p o ides a common lang- uage as a s a ing poin whe eby all unwan ed a ie y which may be p esen wi h he w i en o spoken wo d is e ec i e- ly a enua ed. The model is u he in ended o be used as a acili a o o implemen ing new concep s wi hin he o ganiza ion on an ongoing basis. The adi ional model The con en ional o ganiza ional hie a chy model is depic ed in Figu e I. T adi ional heo y also classi ies decision-making in o h ee basic le els (Schu e, 1981:12), namely s a egic, managemen planning and con ol, and ope a ional. The iew is held in his a icle ha he con en ional model is inadequa e in ha i akes no accoun o he dynamic na u e o he en i onmen and he complexi ies o human in e ac ion. s. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(4) D£CISIOH•l1AKIIG LEVEL STRATEGIC 11ANAGEl1ENT OPERATIONAL Figu e I T adi ional wo-dimensional o ganiza ional hie a chy. P oposed concep ual model Figu e 2 shows he p oposed Cascading Helix model. The Helix ope a es wi hin and is con olled by a cylinde called he O ganiza ional Con ol Cylinde which ep esen s he o ganiza ional alue o belie sys em (discussed la e ). ORGANIZA TIDNAL CONTROL CYLINDER -VALUE SYSTEM/BELIEFS/CULTURE Figu e 2 The Cascading Helix model. CASCADING HELIX The Helix e ol ed om and can be compa ed o he adi- ional model (Figu e 1). In his case he employees a e ' ixed' o a spi alling helix ins ead o o a s a ic ee. The i s s ep in he e olu ion o he Helix was o in oduce a hi d dimension o e lec mo e ealis ically he eal wo ld in which people ope a e. This is shown diag amma ically in Figu e 3. The second and mos impo an s ep was o in oduce mo emen as he dynamic componen o he model (Figu e 4). (Again o mo e closely e lec he eal wo ld). One cycle o he Helix is om s eady s a e o in e sion and back o s eady s a e. An impo an p inciple when conside ing a dynamic al e - na i e like he Cascading Helix is o main ain discipline h ough a ecognized and accep ed p ocess o decision- making and esponsibili y alloca ion. In his espec he Helix is exac ly he same as he TRADITIONAL HODEL (Two-dimensional! ELEVATION PLAN 233 CASCADING HELIX (Th ee-dimensional) Figu e 3 Th ee-dimensional Helix compa ed wi h wo-dimensional con- en ional model. STEADY STATE STEADY STAT£ Figu e 4 Helix cycle. adi ional model. Decision-making esponsibili y emains hi- e a chical. Concep ually his is bes e lec ed when he Helix is in a s eady s a e. The Helix con ol cylinde This is an addi ional concep which may be use ul o op managemen in o ganiza ions. The cylinde ep esen s he o - ganiza ional alue sys em o cul u e. Success ul companies like IBM, Hewle Packa d, P oc e and Gamble, and Mo gen Gua an y T us all exhibi s ong cul u es. When new em- ployees join hese companies hey a e pu h ough a sociali- za ion p ocess whe eby hey a e exposed o he companies' alues and belie s. Many consul an s belie e his alue sys em o be he basic ene o all o ganiza ional pe o mance. (Pascale -'The A o Japanese Managemen '; Pe e s and Wa e man - 'In Sea ch o Excellence'; Kan e -'The Change Mas e s'). IBM o example a ibu e hei success o close adhe ence o hei basic philosophy o (i) conce n o employees; (ii) conce n o cus ome s; and (iii) cons an ly s i ing o excellence. Fo a company which p oduces high- echnology p oduc s i is in e es ing o no e ha i is human alues which p o ide he d i ing o ce. 234 Concep ually, he e o e, op managemen should iew ~e con ol cylinde ( alue sys em) as an in eg al pa o he Hehx model. Use o he Helix The i s s ep o an o ganiza ion is o c ea e i s own h ee- dimensional model and a ach names o he Helix. This is conside ed a key s ep o p ac ical applica ion. I is a easie o employees a all le els o he o ganiza ion, ega dless o language o cul u al backg ound o unde s and he concep o being a pa o he o ganiza ional whole i hey can see o hemsel es whe e hey i in on a physical model. One manage who makes use o he Helix has spli his di ision in o sec ions (Figu e 5). Figu e S Helix on plan. The name o each indi idual is hen added o he Helix which now ep esen s he o ganiza ion (o di ision o g oup). A u he ad an age o he Helix is ha each indi idual sees himsel as a pa o a whole ( he Helix being con inuous) a he han a single uni in a collec ion o pa s. When he Helix is a es in i s s eady s a e he le els o au ho i y will be clea o all employees o see. Howe e , when he model is ope a ed, i.e. he Helix goes h ough a cycle (s eady s a e- in e sion -s eady s a e), em- ployees will obse e a dynamic si ua ion whe e, o example, people who a e no mally a a highe le el in he o ganiza- ional hie a chy a e now empo a ily a he same o a lowe le el. C8scading Helix cycle 1 o hings occu wi hin he o ganiza ion du ing he cycle. (i) As he Helix ends o in e sion he di e en managemen and employee le els a e b ough in o he same plane, al- bei empo a ily. This is o acili a e in o mal communi- ca ion a a ho izon al le el, o example be ween a manage and an employee. (ii) The second poin conce ns en i onmen al s imuli. S em- ming om he discussion on an inc easing a e o change in he en i onmen i is clea ha many companies a e acing en i onmen s which a e becoming e e mo e com- plex and dynamic. In o he wo ds he a ie y which is ele an o he company is inc easing. These changing ci cums ances will make i mo e di icul o en i onmen al inpu s o pass e ec i ely in o he com- pany ia he adi ional ou e o op down. (Re e o Figu e I). In a mo e complex en i onmen , indi idual employees end o become mo e specialized and o ha e mo e di ec con ac wi h ou side s such as cus ome s, supplie s, o clien s. This means ha in some cases i is he employees and no he manage s who may ha e key in o ma ion needed o s a egic planning. The Cascading Helix allows o his in i s cycle (Figu e 6). S.-A . ly<l~k . He<l y l. 1984, 15(4) EMPLOYEE MANAGER ENVIRONMENTAL ~---. IMPULSE __ - _ ,0- _ --......--~, Figu e 6 Helix cycle and en i onmen al inpu s imulus. He e ele an in o ma ion eaches he o ganiza ion ia he employee be o e i eaches he manage . Because he employee and manage a e a he same plane wi hin he Helix cycle he o me now has he esponsibili y o pass on his in o - ma ion o he manage . This is a co e concep which di e s om con en ional hinking. Some po en ial s a egic esponsibili y has been ad- ded o all le els wi hin he o ganiza ion. This esponsibili y passes o all employees au oma ically as he Helix mo es owa ds in e sion whe eby senio pe son- nel pass downwa ds on he inside o mo e junio pe sonnel. The pu pose o his concep is o p o ide a isual ame- wo k o imp o ing communica ion wi hin an o ganiza ion, he impo ance o which is discussed below. Impo an cha ac e is ics o communica ion Pe e s and Wa e man ha e highligh ed he ollowing ing e- dien s which hey conside impo an o communica ion in success ul companies (Pe e s & Wa e man, 1982:218). (i) Communica ion sys ems a e in o mal. They ound ha in excellen companies in o mal communica ion is ac- i ely encou aged. P oponen s o success ul ideas wo k p ima ily h ough he in o mal a he han he o mal o ganiza ion. (ii) Communica ion in ensi y is ex ao dina y. The objec i e is o achie e a ee- low o ideas a all le els. A senio HP manage said, 'W ! e eally no su e exac ly how he inno a i e p ocess wo ks. Bu he !s one hing we do know: he easy communica ions, he absence o ba ie s o alking o one ano he a e essen ial. Wha e e we do, wha e e s uc u e we adop , wha e e sys ems we y, ha 's he co ne s one - we won' do any hing o jeopa - dise i ! In el execu i es ha e called his p ocess 'decision-making by pee s' an open, con on a ion-o ien ed managemen s yle. (iii) Communica ion is gi en physical suppo . This is done in he o m o libe ally dis ibu ed blackboa ds, o bu ch- e pape on s ands. People o en need o d aw o w i e some hing o explain a poin and such physical appings a e seen as a spu o he in ense, in o mal communica- ion ha unde pins egula inno a ion. Use can also be made o ea and lunch b eaks. I he company ca e e ia is well designed i will encou age in- o mal communica ion be ween as many people as pos- sible. The hing o be a oided is he same small g oups o ming e e y day in hei own co ne . The chances o sha ing knowledge, ideas and alues a e sligh indeed. This ype o a ie y des uc ion is ce ainly no desi able. A u he ac o conce ns he e ec o loca ion and p ox- hni y, on communica ion (Figu e 7). S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(4) PROBABILITY OF COMMUNICATING AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 10 .. 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100 SEPARATION DISTANCE -S1 (me e sl 'igu e 7 E ec o loca ion on communica ion (Pe e s & Wa e man, 1982:221) (R & D and enginee ing labo a o ies). (i ) Fo cing de ices. These a e ee- hinking agen s who mo e wi hin he company o ally un e e ed. A IBM he e a e abou ou y- i e o hem, 'd eame s, he e ics, gad lies, ma e icks and geniuses'. Thei pu pose is o shake up he sys em when i is mo - ing in o a dead-end and o s imula e inno a ion whe e possible ( ) The in ense, in o mal communica ion sys em ac s as a ema kably igh con ol sys em. In e ms o ea lie dis- cussion i ends o balance a ie y a enua ion and a ie y ampli ica ion. Again i is sha ed knowledge, a esul o in ense comm mica ion ha ac s as a con ol. P ac ical applica ion o model In o mal communica ion Assuming ha managemen ag ees ha communica ion wi h- in an o ganiza ion can be imp o ed and ha in o mal com- munica ion is an impo an con ol mechanism, he Cascad- ing Helix can p o ide he concep ual amewo k o unde - s anding and de eloping he necessa y o ganiza ional philos- ophy and beha iou al guidelines. This would mean de eloping a physical h ee-dimensional Cascading Helix o he o ganiza ion whe e he names o all employees a e a ached in hie a chical o de . Managemen would hen use he model o explain such concep s as in o - mal communica ion and s a egic esponsibili y. P ecise p ac ical applica ions will na u ally a y wi h ci - cums ances o each o ganiza ion, bu he p inciple o philosophy unde lying he model will no a y, i.e. employees a e expec ed o communica e wi h each o he and a all le els wi hin he o ganiza ion as much as is necessa y o maximize o ganiza ional pe o mance. Examples o applying he model include 'Open doo ' poli- cies, quali y ci cles, b ains o ming sessions, physical o ice layou , in o mal social e en s and pee g oup compa ison and discussion. The pu pose o he Cascading Helix model in his case is e y much as an educa ional ool in explaining o all em- ployees, no jus o managemen , he p inciple o in o mal communica ion and i s impo ance o o ganiza ional p oduc- i i y. Once his is unde s ood, p ac ical sugges ions should e ol e om wi hin he o ganiza ion. 235 O ganiza ional ocus and con ol Kan e (1983) has ound a undamen al di e ence be ween success ul and unsuccess ul o ganiza ions which ela es o he manne in which in a-o ganiza ional communica ion is conduc ed. Unsuccess ul companies we e ound o be highly seg- men ed in o sepa a e and au onomous di isions. Communi- ca ion be ween hese di isions was minimal and he o e all e ec was slow and inadequa e o ganiza ional esponse o en i onmen al changes. The success ul o ganiza ions on he o he hand encou aged and main ained a highe le els o in o mal communica ion be ween all di isions and depa men s, esul ing in a mo e lexible and e ec i e decision-making p ocess. Assume ha a gi en company accep s he abo e indings. The Cascading Helix can now p o ide a concep ual h ead ha can uni e a po en ially di e se o ganiza ion. Fo example, R & D, Sales, P oduc ion, and Admin, a e o en ci ed as ou i ually au onomous bodies wi hin a gi en o ganiza ion wi h each g oup knowing e y li le abou he ac i i ies o he nex . To imp o e his he o ganiza ion can s a by p oducing a Cascading Helix model di ided in o ou sec ions as desc ibed abo e wi h only he key decision-making pe son- nel om each sec ion placed on he Helix. In his way hei oles wi hin he o ganiza ion as a whole can be emphasized oge he wi h he way in which hey a e expec ed o commu- nica e. A he same ime he e will be a de-emphasis on seg- men ed o independen beha iou . Con lic esolu ion Con lic be ween indi iduals and g oups in an o ganiza ion appea s o be a by-p oduc o o ganiza ional ac i i y, and he e can be many causes, e.g. compe i ion, di e ing pe so- nali ies and alues, inadequa e s anda ds se o employees by managemen , inadequa e communica ion and unde s and- ing be ween indi iduals. Un o una ely when con lic does a ise a i udes can be- come de ensi e, i a ional and e en agg essi e and unless he o ganiza ion has a sound coping-mechanism, con lic can e- main un esol ed and become coun e -p oduc i e. A ecen case conce ned a senio manage and wo o his employees, A and R A was olde and mo e expe ienced, bu B had a highe p o essional quali ica ion. The si ua ion soon a ose whe e A became eluc an o accep au ho i y om R The p oblem o he manage was o ind a common pla - o m o esol e he con lic . (He had only become awa e o he con lic ia a hi d pa y.) The manage now called o an in o mal mee ing be ween himsel and A and B. He delibe a ely chose a ound able app oach and hen using an ac ual 3-dimensional Cascad- ing Helix showed each indi idual his posi ion in he o gani- za ion wi h ega d o esponsibili y and au ho i y. He hen collapsed he Helix, o i s in e ed s a e, and em- phasized o A and B ha he discussion was o be conduc ed on a one- o-one basis i.e. while he Helix was collapsed no one o he h ee had au ho i y o e he o he wo; discus- sion was o be open and ank. Ha ing se he s age he manage hen aised he issue o he pe sonal con lic be ween A and B emphasizing he po en- ial coun e -p oduc i i y ha could esul om such con lic om an o ganiza ional poin o iew (wi h isual e e ence again o he Helix). The ensuing discussion lead o g ea e unde s anding be- 236 ween A and B and e ec i ely de used he ension. On analysing his case he manage has done he ollowing: (i) Es ablished a common language ( he Helix) ex aneous o he eelings and pe sonali ies o A and B. They could ela e o he model wi hou eeling h ea ened. (ii) Es ablished he ules o he game once again using he model, by showing ela i e posi ions o au ho i y, i.e. B was highe han A on he Helix and bo h A and B we e below he manage . (iii) S a ed he game by empo a ily emo ing au ho i y om he discussion. This could ha e been di icul o do e bally bu wi h he model his was less complica ed. The isual p esence o he in e ed Helix was a cons- an eminde . (i ) Ended by concluding he discussion and emphasizing he impo ance o o ganiza ional goals o e pe sonal goals. The Helix was e u ned a he same ime o i s s eady s a e as a isual cue. S a egic managemen In i s simples e ms s a egic managemen can be de ined as an ongoing p ocess o planning and e-planning. Ideally an o ganiza ion needs a sel - egula ing sys em whe eby ad- jus men o en i onmen al changes occu s au oma ically. This is shown in Figu e 8. The pu pose o a sel - egula ing sys em is s abili y, i.e. ha which an o ganiza ion equi es o ensu e su i al. A he o ganiza ional le el his means he e mus be an ongoing p ocess o ampli ying ele an in o ma ion and a - enua ing i ele an in o ma ion. In la ge companies op managemen can ne e hope o ac as a il e o all incoming s imuli. This means ha some s a egic esponsibili y mus pass o employees. Fo example a machine ope a o may ealize his equipmen EXTERNAL - - - - - - ENVIRONMENTAL I / DISTURBANCE £EDBACK ADJUSTER I ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY I SELECTED I CONSTANT I L-..---- CO PARATCIR Figu e 8 Sel - egula ing sys em (adap ed om Bee , 1979). S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15(4) could be mo e e icien i a ce ain design change we e made. Howe e , i he company cul u e is o mal and hie a chical op managemen is unlikely o lea n o his idea, and he com- pany will con inue o be less e icien as a esul . A u he example could be a company salesman. This pe - son p obably has maximum exposu e o clien s and po en- ial clien s and hei speci ic needs. He is in an ideal posi- ion o de elop ideas on p oduc de elopmen . Again in he absence o an adequa e sel - egula ing sys em hese sugges ions may emain o e e do man , esul ing in a deg ee o (a oidable) o ganiza ional ins abili y. A a p ac ical le el, he e o e, o achie e he equi ed sel - egula ing sys em, a company needs: (i) e ec i e in o mal communica ion be ween employees; and (ii) a me hod o il e ing and ampli ying he ele an in o ma ion. I is sugges ed once mo e ha he Cascading Helix can p o ide an ideal concep ual model o b inging abou (i) an o ganiza ional unde s anding o he ele an compo- nen s in s a egic managemen ; and (ii) p o ide an ongoing e e ence poin o ensu e ha meaning ul change is made and main ained h ough a p ocess o planning and e-planning. Conclusion This a icle has in oduced a concep ual model, he Cascad- ing Helix. The model, which ep esen s an o ganiza ional hi- e a chy, is h ee-dimensional and con ains a dynamic com- ponen . The pu pose o he model is o p o ide o ganiza- ions wi h a sound concep ual base o common language which can be unde s ood by employees a all le els. Ce ain impo an opics we e discussed, namely in o mal commu- nica ion, alues and cul u e, o ganiza ional con ol, con lic esolu ion and s a egic managemen and i was sugges ed ha he Cascading Helix could p o ide a sound educa ional ool in b inging abou change in hese a eas o an o ganiza- ion's philosophy and beha iou . The pu pose o such change would be g ea e o ganiza ional p oduc i i y and e ec i e- ness. Re e ences Bee , S. 1979. The Hea o he En e p ise. Chiches e : John Wiley and Sons L d., 32. Schu e, EG. 1981. In eg a ed Managemen Sys ems. Bu e wo h and Co., (SA) (P y) L d., 12. Pe e s, T.J. & Wa e man, R.H. 1982. In Sea ch o Excellence. New Yo k: Ha pe and Row, 218. Kan e , R.M. The Change Mas e s. New Yo k: Simon and Schus e , 1983.