Nationalism Beyond Borders: Genesis and Growth of the Indian National Army

http://www.shanlaxjournals.com 125 £UP® Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities Nationalism Beyond Borders: Genesis and Growth of the Indian National Army Dr. M. Josephraj Assistant Professor, Department of History St. John’s College, Palayamkottai (Affiliated to Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli) Abstract The aim of this research article is to highlight the genesis and growth of Indian National Army. The Indian National Army under the leadership of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose played very important role in India’s struggle for freedom. The struggle by INA soldiers is a saga of supreme dedication and selfless sacrifice in the cause of India’s liberation from alien rule. The Indian National Army (INA), founded during the turbulence of the Second World War, represents one of the most remarkable experiments in nationalist struggle beyond India’s territorial boundaries. Emerging initially from Indian prisoners of war captured by the Japanese in Southeast Asia, and later reorganized under the charismatic leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose, the INA sought to overthrow British colonial rule by force of arms. Unlike earlier nationalist movements rooted within India, the INA was formed outside the subcontinent, relying heavily on the Indian Diaspora in Malaya, Burma, and Singapore. This article explores the historical context of the INA’s birth, its organizational structure, and its campaigns against the British. Special attention is given to the creation of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, which symbolized the revolutionary inclusion of women in military roles. The INA’s alliance with Japan, its military strategies, and its ultimate defeat reveal both the possibilities and limitations of transnational nationalism. Beyond its military endeavors, the INA left a powerful political impact: its trials in 1945–46 ignited nationalist sentiments within India, hastening the British decision to leave. Thus, the INA remains a vital chapter in the narrative of India’s freedom struggle an expression of nationalism beyond borders. Keywords: Subhas Chandra Bose, Netaji, Indian National Army (INA), Nationalism Introduction The role of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in the history of India’s struggle for freedom was a legendary one. Intrepid and impetuous, he brought a new militancy and dynamism into the Indian nationalist movement. The organization of the Indian National Army was the crowning achievement of his romantic and tempestuous political career and a decisive milestone in India’s march towards independence. Nationalism in colonial India was never confined to the geographical boundaries of the subcontinent. From the late 19th century, Indian communities abroad particularly in Southeast Asia, Africa, and North America played an active role in articulating the vision of an independent India. The Ghadar Movement in North America and revolutionary activities in Europe were early examples of this transnational struggle. Against this backdrop, the Second World War opened new possibilities for organized resistance, culminating in the formation of the Indian National Army. ©»º: 13 ]Ó¨¤uÌ: 2 ©õu®: ö\¨h®£º Á¸h®: 2025 P-ISSN: 2321-788X E-ISSN: 2582-0397 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/ zenodo.17339499 126 £UP® kupah fiy kw;Wk; mwptpay; (kfspu;) fy;Y}up> jpUney;Ntyp gz;ila tuyhWk; jkpou; gz;ghLk; The INA stands out because it represented the first large-scale military attempt to overthrow British rule through armed struggle from outside India’s borders. Its formation and growth owed much to the courage of Indian prisoners of war, the support of the diaspora, and, above all, the charismatic leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose. By transcending the boundaries of geography and conventional politics, the INA embodied “nationalism beyond borders.” This article traces its formation, organization, military campaigns, and lasting impact, situating it within the broader framework of global anti-colonial struggles. Early Life of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23 January 1897, at Cuttack in Orissa. His father Janakinath was an advocate, who later became the first non-official Chairman of Cuttack Municipality in 1901 and a Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor. In 1912, he was nominated as a member of the Bengal Legislative Council and was awarded the title of ‘Rai Bahadur’ Following serious differences with the District Magistrate, he resigned from the post of Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor in 1917 and later gave up the title of Rai Bahadur protesting against the repressive policy of the Government. Subhas’s mother Prabhavati belonged to the traditional Dutt family of Hatkhola in North Calcutta. She was a woman of strong will and possessed a keen sense of reality and sound commonsense. Both she and her husband put up with great fortitude all the sufferings and sacrifices their two sons Sarat and Subhas had to undergo in the cause of the country’s freedom. In July 1917, with the help of his father he was admitted to the Scottish Church College, Calcutta. Two years later, at the age of 22, he passed the B.A. Examination with first class Honours, securing second rank in the University of Calcutta. Thereafter, he enrolled himself for his M.A. Degree with Experimental Psychology as his major subject. However, he had to discontinue his studies as his father was determined to send him to England to compete for the Indian Civil Service Examination. On 15 September 1919, he sailed for England. Though he reached slightly late, he was, however, able to join the Cambridge University and ultimately appeared for the ICS Examination in July 1920, with eight subjects - Economics, Geography, Political Science, Philosophy, English, Law, Modem European History and Cartography. When the results were announced, he was placed in the fourth rank. Historical Background of India during the Second World War The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 deeply altered the course of India’s independence movement. Without consulting Indian leaders, the British unilaterally declared India a participant in the war, sparking widespread resentment. The Indian National Congress initially opposed the war effort, demanding independence as a prerequisite for support. Meanwhile, the Muslim League saw opportunities to expand its political influence. This deadlock created a vacuum in nationalist politics that more radical leaders sought to exploit. At the same time, the war in Asia reshaped power dynamics. Japan’s rapid victories in Malaya, Singapore, and Burma shattered the myth of British invincibility and exposed the vulnerability of colonial rule. Thousands of Indian soldiers serving in the British Indian Army were captured as prisoners of war. For many, this was both a humiliation and an opportunity. Japanese propaganda encouraged the idea of an “Indian army of liberation,” and a number of captured soldiers agreed to form the INA. Thus, the INA’s birth was directly linked to the global upheaval of World War II and the political crisis in India. Genesis of the Indian National Army The genesis of the Indian National Army (INA) in East Asia is a fascinating chapter of the Indian freedom movement. During the Second World War, an army for the liberation of India, the Indian National Army was raised in South-East Asia by http://www.shanlaxjournals.com 127 £UP® Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities Gen. Mohan Singh with the help of many Indian civilians and prisoners of war. Regarding the genesis of INA, there are interesting facts which needed to be studied. Capt. Mohan Singh was keen to expand and organize the INA. He wanted to raise three divisions as early as possible and submitted his program to the Japanese. The Japanese liaison agency (Iwakruo Kikan) gave its consent to raise and arm one division of soldiers from the Indian POWs with captured arms. On 1st September 1942 the Indian National Army was official declared. The First Division of the INA comprising about 17,000 soldiers was raised. That was the date when soldiers had actually armed, equipped and paraded in the uniform. Capt. Mohan Singh was promoted the rank of General Officer Commanding (GOC). The composition of the INA consisted of (a) Headquarters, (b) Hind Field Force Group, (c) Guerilla Group Consisting of Gandhi, Azad and Nehru Brigade, (d) Intelligence Group, (e) ReInforcement Group, (f) Propaganda and Welfare Group, (g) Special Service Group. All British ranks were surrendered and new INA ranks were given to persons concerned. Bose, who had long advocated armed struggle, had escaped from British India and eventually made his way to Southeast Asia with German and Japanese support. His leadership electrified the movement. Renaming the INA as the Azad Hind Fauj, he provided it with a clear ideological direction, declaring its goal as marching to Delhi to free India. Under his command, the INA became more disciplined, better organized, and infused with nationalist fervor. Bose’s famous call, “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom,” captured the imagination of Indians both at home and abroad. Role of the Indian Diaspora in Southeast Asia The INA could not have taken shape without the active support of the Indian diaspora in Southeast Asia. By the 1940s, large Indian communities comprising traders, laborers, and professionals lived in Malaya, Burma, and Singapore. These diaspora groups, long marginalized under colonial rule, saw in the INA an opportunity to contribute to India’s liberation. The formation of the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Government) in Singapore in 1943 further galvanized support. Indians abroad contributed funds, resources, and volunteers to sustain the INA. Women, too, stepped forward, with many joining the Rani of Jhansi Regiment or serving in support roles. This transnational network of support demonstrated that India’s freedom struggle was not confined to the subcontinent but was a truly global movement. In this sense, the INA embodied “nationalism beyond borders,” showing how expatriate communities could transform diasporic identity into active political engagement. Leadership and Vision of Subhas Chandra Bose Subhas Chandra Bose’s leadership was the defining factor in the growth of the INA. Unlike many Congress leaders who emphasized nonviolence, Bose believed that only armed struggle could dislodge British power. His political journey from the Congress presidency in 1938 to his escape from house arrest in Calcutta and eventual arrival in Southeast Asia reflected his determination to seek alternative paths to independence. Bose’s vision went beyond mere military confrontation. He established the Provisional Government of Free India, complete with its own ministries, currency, and diplomatic recognition from Axis powers like Japan, Germany, and Italy. This symbolic assertion of sovereignty provided a psychological boost to Indians worldwide. Bose’s speeches and charisma inspired extraordinary loyalty among INA soldiers, many of whom saw him as the embodiment of their aspirations. His ability to fuse nationalist ideology with military discipline transformed the INA from a loose grouping of POWs into a formidable, if ultimately outmatched, fighting force. Military Structure, Training, and Organization of the INA Under Bose, the INA was reorganized along professional military lines. It was divided into brigades and regiments, with ranks and 128 £UP® kupah fiy kw;Wk; mwptpay; (kfspu;) fy;Y}up> jpUney;Ntyp gz;ila tuyhWk; jkpou; gz;ghLk; responsibilities modeled on the British Indian Army but infused with nationalist symbolism. The army adopted the tricolor flag of independent India, and soldiers took oaths of loyalty to the cause of liberation rather than to colonial masters. Training was provided with Japanese assistance, and soldiers were equipped with Japanese arms and supplies. The INA also sought to instill ideological discipline, with regular lectures emphasizing sacrifice, unity, and patriotism. By 1944, the INA had grown to nearly 40,000 soldiers, including combat units, medical corps, and support staff. The inclusion of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment as a women’s combat unit added a revolutionary dimension to its organization. Despite resource limitations and dependence on Japan, the INA demonstrated remarkable cohesion and discipline, symbolizing the possibility of a sovereign Indian military force. The Rani of Jhansi Regiment The Rani of Jhansi Regiment was the Women’s Regiment of the Indian National Army, with the aim of overthrowing the British Raj in colonial India. It was one of the all-female combat regiments of the Second World War. Led by Lakshmi Sahgal),the unit was raised in July 1943 with volunteers from the expatriate Indian population in South East Asia. The unit was named the Rani of Jhansi Regiment after Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi. When the Provisional Government of Azad Hind was formed on 21st October 1943, Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan was appointed minister for women’s affairs. Subhas, sometimes back, also had asked her to raise a regiment of women to fight alongside men. The idea of a women’s regiment was there with Bose, who held women in high esteem. He was particularly impressed by the fighting spirit displayed by women of caliber like the queen of Jhansi Rani Manikarnika or Lakshmi Bai. She had ridden to fight the British when they conspired to rob her of her kingdom after her husband’s death by the Doctrine of Lapse proclamation. Her heroism during the 1857 mutiny had earned her the respect of friends and foes alike. To fight against men on an open battlefield and hold her ground against an impossibility would make her immortal forever. It is her spirit that Netaji invoked when he decided to form a regiment for the women of India. Being a devotee of mother Goddess Durga Kali, he was highly respectful of women like her mother Prabhavati Devi, Basanti Devi, Kasturba Gandhi, his sister-in-law Bibhavati Devi and the women freedom fighters and revolutionaries of India. Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose announced the formation of the Regiment on 12 July 1943. Most of the women were teenage volunteers of Indian descent from Malayan rubber estates; very few had ever been to India. The initial nucleus of the force was established with its training camp in Singapore with approximately a hundred and seventy cadets. The cadets were given ranks of noncommissioned officer or sepoy (private) according to their education. Later, camps were established in Rangoon and Bangkok and by November 1943, the unit had more than three hundred cadets. Training in Singapore began on 23 October 1943. The recruits were divided into sections and platoons and were accorded ranks of Non-Commissioned Officers and Sepoys according to their educational qualifications. These cadets underwent military and combat training with drills, route marches as well as weapons training in rifles, hand grenades, and bayonet charges. Later, a number of the cadets were chosen for more advanced training in jungle warfare in Burma. The Regiment had its first passing out parade at the Singapore training camp of five hundred troops on 30 March 1944. Some 200 of the cadets were also chosen for nursing training, forming the Chand Bibi Nursing Corps. During the INAs Imphal campaign, an initial contingent of nearly a hundred of the Rani of Jhansi troops moved to Maymyo, part of which was intended to form a vanguard unit to enter the Gangetic plains of Bengal after the expected fall of Imphal. A part of the unit also formed the nursing corps at the INA hospital at Maymyo. Following the failure of the siege of Imphal and the INAs disastrous retreat, the Rani http://www.shanlaxjournals.com 129 £UP® Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities troops were tasked with coordinating the relief and care of the INA troops who arrived at Monywa and to Maymyo and were not used in combat. After the fall of Rangoon and the withdrawal of the Azad Hind government and Subhas Chandra Bose from the city and through Burma, the troops originally from Burma were allowed to disband, while the remainder of the regiment retreated along with the retreating Japanese forces on foot and, when available, on mechanised transport. During the retreat it suffered some attacks both, Allied air attacks, as well the Burmese resistance forces. The total number of casualties suffered is not known. The unit later disbanded . INA and the Japanese Alliance: Opportunities and Challenges The INA’s growth was inseparable from its alliance with Japan. Japan provided arms, training, logistical support, and territorial bases from which the INA could operate. The Japanese saw the INA as a useful ally in their broader strategy of dismantling British power in Asia. For Bose, the alliance offered a rare chance to translate his dream of armed struggle into reality. However, this relationship was fraught with challenges. Many Indians questioned the sincerity of Japanese support, suspecting that Japan’s motives were imperialist rather than altruistic. The INA often faced shortages of supplies, and its strategies were constrained by Japanese military priorities. Moreover, after Japan’s defeat in battles like Imphal and Kohima, the INA’s fate was sealed. Despite these limitations, Bose maintained that aligning with Japan was a strategic necessity in the larger battle for independence. The INA-Japan alliance remains one of the most debated aspects of the movement, reflecting the complexities of wartime nationalism. Campaigns, Battles, and Military Strategies The INA fought alongside Japanese forces in campaigns across Burma and Northeast India. Its most ambitious effort came in 1944, during the Imphal-Kohima campaign, where INA soldiers attempted to breach British defenses and march into India. Despite initial advances, the campaign ended in disaster due to logistical failures, poor supplies, and the resilience of Allied forces. INA soldiers demonstrated remarkable bravery, but they were hampered by inadequate equipment, disease, and dependence on Japanese strategy. Many were killed or captured, and morale declined as Japan’s military fortunes waned. Nevertheless, the INA’s campaigns had a psychological impact: they proved that Indians could take up arms against the British and inspired nationalist pride. Even in defeat, the INA symbolized the possibility of an independent Indian army fighting for its own cause. The INA Trials and Their Impact on Indian Politics After the war, captured INA officers were brought to trial at the Red Fort in Delhi in 1945–46. The British charged them with treason, murder, and waging war against the King-Emperor. Instead of discrediting the INA, however, the trials generated massive sympathy across India. Political parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, rallied to defend the INA prisoners. Public demonstrations, strikes, and student protests erupted in support of the INA, uniting Indians across communal and regional lines. The trials exposed the declining legitimacy of British rule and highlighted the deep resonance of Bose’s message of sacrifice. Even within the British Indian Army, sympathy for the INA ran high, culminating in the Royal Indian Navy mutiny of 1946. The INA trials thus marked a turning point, convincing British authorities that their hold over India was unsustainable. INA and India’s Freedom Struggle Though the INA was militarily defeated, its legacy far outlived its campaigns. The movement redefined the scope of nationalism by demonstrating that Indians abroad were integral to the freedom struggle. Its experiments in gender inclusion, its assertion of sovereignty through the Azad Hind Government, and its ability to inspire mass 130 £UP® kupah fiy kw;Wk; mwptpay; (kfspu;) fy;Y}up> jpUney;Ntyp gz;ila tuyhWk; jkpou; gz;ghLk; mobilization in India all left enduring marks on history. The INA also reshaped the psychology of colonial power. By revealing cracks in the loyalty of the British Indian Army and inspiring mass unrest during the trials, it hastened the end of British rule. Post-independence, the INA’s veterans were celebrated as patriots, though debates about its alliance with Japan remain unresolved. Above all, the INA symbolized the idea that nationalism knows no borders that Indians, wherever they lived, were united in the quest for freedom. Conclusion The Indian National Army occupies a unique place in the history of India’s independence. Formed outside the borders of the subcontinent, sustained by the diaspora, and led by Subhas Chandra Bose, it embodied a vision of “nationalism without boundaries.” Its campaigns may not have altered the military balance of the Second World War, but they transformed the political climate in India. The INA challenged colonial authority not only with arms but also by inspiring unity across class, gender, and regional divides. Ultimately, the INA’s greatest achievement lay in its psychological and symbolic impact. It demonstrated that independence was not merely a political demand but a cause worth dying for. By mobilizing Indians across continents and challenging the might of the British Empire, the INA left behind a legacy of courage, sacrifice, and transnational solidarity. In India’s march to freedom, the INA remains a reminder that the struggle for independence was truly global in scope. End Notes 1. Bose, Sugata. His Majesty’s Opponent: Subhas Chandra Bose and India’s Struggle Against Empire. Harvard University Press, 2011 2. Fay, Peter Ward. The Forgotten Army: India’s Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945. University of Michigan Press, 1993 3. Popplewell, Richard. Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of the Indian Empire, 1904–1924. Routledge, 1995 4. Raghavan, Srinath. India’s War: The Making of Modern South Asia, 1939–1945. Penguin, 2016 5. Sahgal, Lakshmi. Women in the INA: The Rani of Jhansi Regiment. New Delhi: Publications Division, 1999 6. Government of India Archives: INA Trial Records, Red Fort, 1945–46 7. Uma Mukherjee, Two Great Indian Revolutionaries, Calcutta, 1996 p. 146 8. INA File No. 799 (National Archives of India) 9. INA File No. 800 (National Archives of India) 10. A.E. Percival, The War in Malaya, London, 1949, p. 332 11. INA File No. 295 (National Archives of India) 12. INA File No. 259 (National Archives of India) 13. K.S. Giani, The Indian Independence Movement in East Asia, Lahore, 1947, pp. 24-25 14. Bangkok Chronicle, Bangkok, 19 December 1941 (National Archives of India) 15. Bombay News Chronicle, Bombay, 8 December 1946(National Archives of India) 16. T.R. Sareen, Selected Documents on the Indian National Army, New Delhi, 1992, pp. 16-19 17. Foreign-Department File No. 313-X/1942 (National Archives of India) 18. Bombay News Chronicle, Bombay, 8 December, 1946 (National Archives of India) 19. https://amritkaal.nic.in