Cognitive and motivational effectiveness of an interdisciplinary case method experiment at the University of Stuttgart

Acke mann, Ka l-F ied ich A icle Cogni i e and mo i a ional e ec i eness o an in e disciplina y case me hod expe imen a he Uni e si y o S u ga Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Acke mann, Ka l-F ied ich (1982) : Cogni i e and mo i a ional e ec i eness o an in e disciplina y case me hod expe imen a he Uni e si y o S u ga , Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 13, Iss. 3, pp. 136-135, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 13i3.1185 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217805 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Cogni i e and mo i a ional e ec i eness o an in e disciplina y case me hod expe imen a he Uni e si y o S u ga Ka l-F ied ich Acke mann Uni e si y o S u ga , S u ga An expe imen on he alue o he case s udy me hod was ca ied ou a he Uni e si y o S u ga in he Fede al Republic o Ge many, o asce ain whe he he case s udy me hod was supe io o he adi ional eaching me hods, especially wi h a iew o inc easing eques s ha uni e si y educa ion should be mo e p ac ice- ela ed. The main de iciencies o adi ional business eaching me hods a e indica ed, as well as he pe cei ed sa is ac ion and impo ance o he basic needs as seen by a numbe o s uden s. In he expe imen i e business adminis a ion and i e enginee ing s uden s we e used, while a la ge business i m and some o i s sub-con ac o s ga e eedback om he business wo ld i sel . Towa ds he end o he expe imen he s uden s' opinions on he alue o he case me hod compa ed wi h adi ional eaching me hods was ob ained by means o anonymous ques ionnai es. They a ed he case s udy me hod as subs an ially supe io wi h ega d o inc easing knowledge, and o imp o ing bo h echnical and in e -pe sonal compe ence. The same conclusions we e d awn as o he a ec i e a ea o lea ning, including inc eased and be e sa is ied in insic mo i a ion o achie e, and o coope a e in small ask g oups. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1982, 13: 126-135 'n Ekspe imen oo die waa de an die ge alles udleme ode is by die Uni e si ei an S u ga in die Bonds epubliek Dui sland ui ge oe , om as e s el o die ge alles udieme ode mee e ek ie as die adisionele opleidingsme odes is, e al me die oog op oo du ende e soeke da uni esi ei sopleiding mee p ak ykgeo U~n ee d moe wees. Die hoo eko kominge an adisionele opleidingsme odes wo d aangedui, asook waa genome be ediging en belang ikheid an die basiese behoe es soos deu 'n aan al s uden e onde ind. In die ekspe imen is y s uden e in bed y sadminis asie en y ingenieu s uden e geb uik, e wyl 'n g oo onde neming en 'n aan al an sy sub- kon ak eu s e ug oe lng di ek an die sakewl! eld e ska he . Teen die einde an die ekspe imen is die s uden e se oplnle aangaande die waa de an die ge alles udleme ode eenoo adislonele opleidlngsme odes e k y deu mlddel an anonleme aelys e. Die s uden e beskou die ge alles udleme ode as aanslenllk be e en opslg e an die e mee de ing an kennls, asook die e be e lng an egnlese en ln e pe soonllke aa dlghede. Ten opslg e an die a ek lewe lee a ea, inslul ende be e en mee be edlgde ln lnsleke mo l e lng om e p es ee en blnne 'n g oep saam e we k, is diesel de ge olg ekking gemaak. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982, 13: 126-135 P o . D . K.-F. Acke man Be iebswi scha liches lns i u , Uni e si y o S u gan, Keple s asse 17, 7000 S u gan I, Fede al Republic o Ge many Recei ed Ma ch 1982 In oduc ion I we look back a he case me hod expe imen 1 •2•3 ha we ha e been engaged in o nea ly wo yea s, ou eelings a e somewha di ided. The e is, i s o all, a e y posi i e eeling, which has p obably g own in s eng h as ime passed. This is owing o he con en o he wo k which had o be done and o he a he unusual way in which i was pe o med in coope a ing ask g oups o business s uden s and enginee ing s uden s who closely in e ac ed wi h op manage s o a ious companies. A posi i e eeling ela es, inally, o he esul s o he expe imen in e ms o cogni i e and mo i a ional e ec i eness eached in spi e o , o maybe because o , ou ini ially e y es ic ed expec a ions o success. The eason o he la e becomes clea i one ealizes he condi ions o pa icipa ion; con a y o ou own p ejudices and o well-minded ad ice om colleagues wo king in he same ield, we consciously e used o o e any addi ional incen i es o joining he case me hod expe imen o he han ha d, in e es ing wo k and he chance o p ac ise high deg ees o sel -di ec ion and sel -con ol in la gely au onomous ask g oups. No s uden was obliged o ake pa , and no s uden could hope o ge a pe o mance eco d o any o he immedia e ad an age o his o he inal exam. We only old hem: 'The e is a p ojec in a hea y machine y company: "Planning and building a powe plan " wi h a la ge numbe o economic and enginee ing p oblems. Ca e ully s udy he documen s ha we ha e p epa ed o you, hen come and join he ask g oups.' We a e s ill su p ised ha unde hese ci cums ances he whole expe imen did no ha e o be d opped soone o la e simply because o a lack o pa icipan s eady and quali ied enough o mee he high p ojec equi emen s. In his case we elied on highe -o de needs in e ms o Maslow,4 o on 'mo i a o s' in e ms o He zbe g.' McG ego would ha e said ha we used a 'Theo y Y· app oach' ins ead o a adi ional 'Theo y X-app oach' ,6 F om his poin o iew i is o cou se a mo e su p ising ha we end o ely on he supe io i y o Theo y X, con· sciously o no , when uni e si y s udy p og ammes a e designed and e en when p og essi e eaching me hods such as he case me hod a e applied. Though McG ego 's Theo y Y s Theo y X-discussion was di ec ed a business o ganiza ions, bo h app oaches can be immedia ely ans e ed o he ield o uni e si y educa ion. I is shown s.A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982 13(3) ha he exis ing uni e si y educa ion sys em uses, o a la ge ex en , Theo y X-o ien ed means o mo i a ing s uden s o pa icipa e and pe o m in l~c u es, . semina s and cou ses. This is done by s essmg hei compulso y cha ac e , hei special impo ance o o hcoming exams and he necessi y o accomplishing ce ain exam p e e- quisi es and he like. Some i~~s case me hod appl~ca ions a e o e ed in he same ad1 1onal way, because ms uc- o s ea ha s uden s will no ake pa o he wise. We ha e al eady indica ed ha he expe imen also calls o h nega i e eelings. They a e o be epo ed a his poin be o e we ollow a well-known end in human na u e o s icking o he a ou able issues while supp essing he un- a ou able ones. The e a e ou main easons which ga e ise o such eelings du ing he expe imen : Time op ions o g oup mee ings we e e y es ic ed because he expe imen was o e ed as a supplemen o he ongoing s anda d s udy p og amme which e- qui ed, hen and oday, mos o he wo king ime o he s uden s. -P og ess in g oup wo k depended, o a la ge ex en , on he in o ma ion low be ween he coope a ing s u- den g oups as well as be ween hose g oups and he companies. In spi e o he in ensi e e o s o all pa - icipan s, in o ma ion needed was no always a ailable on ime o -e en wo se - could no be p o ided a all in he desi ed quan i y and quali y. Then, g oup wo k in ega d o a ce ain pa ial p ojec had o be empo a ily in e up ed and swi ched o o he pa ial p ojec s o he case me hod p og amme. -Coope a ion and coo dina ion o he business and enginee ing g oups in he expe imen p o ed o be a mo e di icul and ime consuming han we had ex- pec ed and ne e eached he e ec i eness we desi ed. Some o he objec i es de ined o he expe imen we e pa ially con lic ing. The objec i es will be discussed la e in he a icle. · Al hough hese p oblems had been an icipa ed o some ex en , we had clea ly unde es ima ed he high deg ee o s ess which con inued o occu . We should ha e conce ned ou sel es wi h a easonable comp omise be ween, say, s i ing o mo e echnical compe ence and o mo e in e pe sonal compe ence o he s uden s in each g oup mee ing. Bu we o en su e ed om he emp a ion o gi e up ou elabo a e 'mode a o concep ' designed o de elop in e pe sonal com- pe ence and o e u n o ou inized eache -o ien ed concep s adi ionally used o en o ce imp o emen s in echnical compe ence only. Whoe e , as an ins uc- o , has e e ied o shi mo e ac i i y, mo e sel - di ec ion and sel -con ol o he s uden s, while check- ing his own impa ience, knows wha we mean. I could be a gued ha he di icul ies obse ed in case discussion mee ings, when he scope o p ojec - ela ed ac- i i ies o he s uden pa icipan s was conside ably enla g- ed as compa ed wi h s anda d semina s and cou ses, in- dica e w ong beha iou al p emises upon which he case me hod expe imen had been buil . F om his c i icism i is ~nly a mino s ep o a ho ough ejec ion o he unde ly- ing Theo y Y-app oach as a nice bu un ealis ic u opia. ~e shall no ollow his line o easoning, bu shall con- side di icul ies o he kind men ioned as beha iou al de i- 127 ciencies which could be educed by means o he case app oach. On he whole, om he ins uc o s' poin o iew, hese nega i e expe iences do no diminish he p e ailing posi i e imp ession o he case me hod expe imen . We end o an e en mo e a ou able judgemen now han we did ea lie . Time es ic ions, incomple e in o ma ion, in e depa - men al p oblems and con lic ing objec i es all a e phenomena wide-sp ead in business i ms. Why no in e - p e hei occu ence as a p oo ha he expe imen was pa icula ly success ul in modelling eali y, possibly o a la ge ex en han we had wan ed o expec ed? The mo e we hink back abou his, he mo e easonable his a gu- men appea s o be. In he ollowing epo on he expe i- men we shall discuss in mo e de ail: he lea ning objec i es he expe imen al design and he esul s in e ms o a ious e ec i eness c i e ia as pe cei ed by he s uden s. Fo he be e unde s anding o he expe imen , howe e , i s heo e ical and empi ical backg ound will be explained i s in he nex wo sec ions. C i ical issues o he exis ing uni e si y educa ion sys em The case me hod expe imen was s ongly s imula ed by he ongoing 's udy e o m discussion' which has d awn special a en ion o he p oblem o how o imp o e he p ac ice- ela edness o uni e si y educa ion p og ammes in he ield o economics and business adminis a ion. 7•8 In ou opinion, he e a e ou main de iciencies in oday's uni e si y educa ion o u u e business execu i es which should be educed o e en elimina ed by means o p ope ly designed applica ions o he case me hod. Lack o in insic mo i a ion The e is, i s o all, a s iking de iciency in in ms1c mo i a ion when s uden s' beha iou is obse ed. Acco - ding o ins uc o s s udy is seldom unde aken because o genuine in insic in e es in he p oblems o e ed in he di - e en lec u es and cou ses, o because o a deep- oo ed belie in he immedia e use ulness o such knowledge o he desi ed managemen jobs, bu mainly o no hing else han he pe cei ed need o mee he equi emen s o he cu en s udy p og amme and o pass he nex exams. I is no ou in en ion o blame s uden s o his kind o beha iou since i esul s om he exis ing uni e si y educa- ion sys em and i s adi ional ins umen s like compuls.o y s udy p og ammes, es ic ions o maximum s udy ime allowed eache -cen ed lec u es and cou ses and, inal- ly, a igh ne wo k o pe o mance con1, ols .. ~II hose !n- s umen s look e y simila o McG ego s ongmal desc ip- ion o a Theo y X-app oach which ends o supp ess a he han o e oke and de elop in insic mo i a ion. In his way one o he mos powe ul sou~ce.s o le~ ni~g, mo i a ion, emains unused by he ex1s mg um e ~1 y educa ion sys em. E en mo e impo an , a~ mo~ he~ns s and managemen expe s will ag ee, execu i es m busmess o ganiza ions should ge in insic mo i a ion om he wo k i sel and should show a dominan Theo y Y- ype beha iou as opposed o a Theo y X- ype beha iou . I 128 we ollow his iew which is la gely in acco dance wi h e- cen empi ical indings o mo i a ion esea ch in indus y, hen a se e e gap in he mo i a ional de elopmen o business s uden s becomes ob ious. P e e ence o s uc u ed cou ses Secondly, many s uden s p e e well-o ganized, well- s uc u ed lec u es and eache -cen ed cou ses which educe ue p oblem-sol ing ac i i ies by hemsel es o a minimum. Again, he disc epancy be ween he lea ning beha iou s eng hened by he exis ing uni e si y educa- ion sys em, and he job equi emen s o he employmen sys em is unaccep able. Lack o g oup p oblem sol ing oppo uni y A hi d c i ical issue is ela ed o he ac ha he exis ing uni e si y educa ion sys em p o ides e y limi ed oppo - uni y o s uden s o p ac ice g oup p oblem-sol ing, ha abili y being a highly app ecia ed quali ica ion in mode n managemen . Much emphasis is pu on knowledge and echnical compe ence, while in e pe sonal compe ence is la gely igno ed. Lack o eedback om business Finally, s uden s a e no used o ha ing eal eedback o hei wo k om business i ms. Thei si ua ion is a he simila o ha o pa icipan s in a d y swimming cou se who may always see he wa e bu a e no allowed o jump in o i . These de iciencies we e he p incipal s a ing poin s o he design o he case me hod expe imen . Be o e we ake a close look a he objec i es de ined o he expe imen , some empi ical esea ch indings abou he p esen s a e o s uden s' mo i a ion will be conside ed. Pe cei ed sa ls ac ion and Impo ance o basic needs as seen by s uden s Th ee di e en g oups o s uden s a he Business Ins i u e o he Uni e si y o S u ga and, o compa ison, a g oup o g adua es in en y-le el posi ions, we e asked o hei judgemen o pe cei ed sa is ac ion and he impo ance o basic needs in e ms o hei p esen si ua ion by means o a sligh ly modi ied Po e Need Sa is ac ion Ques ion- nai e (PNSQ). The PNSQ p o ides 13 i ems ep esen ing 5 Maslow- ype a eas o psychological needs: secu i y, social, es eem, au onomy, and sel -ac ualiza ion. Sa is ac- ion a ached o each i em is measu ed in e ms o di - e ences be ween wo sepa a e a ings on a 7-poin -scale anging om l (min.) o 7 (max.), one a ing acco ding o he ques ion: 'How much (o a ce ain i em) should he e be?' he o he acco ding o he ques ion: 'How much (o ~is i em) is he e now?' I is assumed ha , as he posi i e di e ence be ween 'should be' and 'is', app oaches i s maximum possible alue o + 6, he highe he deg ee o pe cei ed need dissa is ac ion will be, and ice e sa. The impo ance a ached o each i em is measu ed by he same 7-poin - a ing scale asking 'How impo an is his (i em) o me?' The esea ch indings a e lis ed in he Tables. (The empi ical mo i a ion s udy was done a e he case me hod expe imen had been comple ed. Howe e , he indings o he s udy con i m, o a la ge ex en , he basic p emises ha guided ou expe imen om he beginning.) S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982, I3(J) Table l clea ly shows ha unde g adua es expe ience he highes de iciencies in need ul ilmen in he a ea o au onomy needs and sel -ac ualiza ion needs compa ed wi h o he Maslow need ca ego ies in es iga ed. The deg ee o he de iciencies ob iously inc eases when s uden s p o- g ess om he wo-yea pe iod o basic cou ses (G unds u- dium) o he wo-yea pe iod o ad anced cou ses (Haup - s udium), and hen dec eases e y s ongly a e hey ha e ecei ed hei deg ee and en e ed in o en y-le el posi ions in business i ms o elsewhe e. The indings seem o e lec he inabili y o he exis ing uni e si y educa ion sys em and i s adi ional eaching a - angemen s o sa is y highe -o de needs in e ms o Maslow's need hie a chy heo y. Those indings i well wi h he 4-poin -ca alogue o c i ical issues discussed in he p e ious sec ion, pa icula ly i he i s wo o hem a e conside ed. The ac s ha ins uc o s obse ed a lack o in insic mo i a ion and o ac i e lea ning beha iou , and ha a he same ime s uden s su e ed om de iciencies in he ul ilmen o highe -o de needs, highligh he de- mand o new eaching me hods such as he case me hod. Unde p ope ly designed condi ions each s uden can and will lea n o sa is y his o he own sel -ac ualiza ion and au onomy needs by means o ac i e pa icipa ion in p oblem-sol ing. To ealize such condi ions was exac ly wha we wan ed o do when we decided o design a Theo y Y-o ien ed case me hod expe imen . I i is ue ha highe - o de needs a e 'g ow h-needs', as Maslow once poin ed ou , g owing in s eng h as hey become mo e and mo e sa is ied, hen he expe imen should also con ibu e o he de elopmen o hose needs so la gely neglec ed by he ex- is ing uni e si y educa ion sys em. The p esen s a e o s uden mo i a ion emains in- comple ely desc ibed i he ex en o de iciencies in need ul ilmen a e conside ed alone. Ou a gumen s ha he case me hod expe imen should imp o e he sa is ac ion o au onomy and sel -ac ualiza ion needs would be e en mo e pe suasi e i s uden s ended o a ach high impo - ance o hose need ca ego ies. The esea ch indings on his ques ion a e shown in Table 2. Acco ding o Table 2 he highe -o de needs o he unde g adua es being sa is ied leas a e a ed by he same esponden s as highly impo an o hem. I one looks a he ank o de s i s , sel -ac ualiza ion is always numbe one in he h ee sepa a e subg oups o unde g adua es and in he compa a i e g oup o g adua es as well. Au onomy wi h a ank o ou in he i s wo s udy yea s seems o be a less impo an . By he s age o ad anced cou ses selec ed o he case me hod expe imen , howe e , his need ca ego y eaches a ank o h ee -la e e en a ank o wo -wi h nea ly as high a mean impo ance sco e as sel - ac ualiza ion. Fo he same easons, al hough dec easing in ank o de , social needs should no be o e looked as an impo an need ca ego y o unde g adua es in he selec ed a ea. Objec i es and design o he case me hod expe imen Objec i es o he case me hod expe imen Asking wha he pa icipan s o he expe imen should lea n in e ms o inal beha iou and wha a eas and ypes o lea ning would be in ol ed lead o a mul i-dimensional S.A , J. Bus. Mgm 1982 13(3) Table 1 Mean de iciencies in need ul ilmen D wi hin di e en subg oups o unde g adua es and g adua es o he Uni e si y o S u ga in he yea s 1979 and 1980 Need ca ego y I. Physiological needs II. Sa e y needs III. Social needs IV. Es eem needs V. Au onomy needs VI. Sel -ac ualiza ion needs Mean de iciencies in need ul ilmen D Unde g adua es G adua es (Diplom- in basic in ad anced kau leu e) cou ses cou ses in en y- (G und- (Haup s udium) le el s udium) posi ions N = 75 N = 19 N = 47 N = 28 o Rank D Rank D Rank D Rank 1,1 4 1,2 4 2,1 3 0,1 5 1,4 3 1,5 3 1,8 4 0,3 4 0,3 5 0,2 5 0,5 5 0,4 3 2,5 3,1 3,2 1,0 2 2,0 2 2,1 2 2,8 2 1,8 Table 2 Mean impo ance o each need ca ego y wi hin di e en subg oups o unde g adua es and g adua es o he Uni e si y o S u ga in he yea s 1979 and 1980 Need ca ego y I. Physiological needs II. Sa e y needs Ill. Social needs IV. Es eem needs V. Au onomy needs VI. Sel -ac ualiza ion needs Mean impo ance W o each need ca ego y in basic cou ses (G und- Unde g adua es in ad anced cou ses (Haup s udium) G adua es (Diplom- kau leu e) in en y- le el s udium) posi ions N = 75 N = 19 N = 47 N = 28 W Rank W Rank W Rank W Rank 5,3 3 4,6 4 5,4 2 5,2 3 5,5 2 4,8 3 5,1 4 4,2 5 3,8 5 3,6 5 4,1 5 4,7 4 5,1 4 4,9 2 5,3 3 5,3 2 5,8 5,5 5,5 6,0 sys em o objec i es as shown in Table 3. In he i s pa o Table 3, objec i es a e speci ied in e ms o gene al beha iou ca ego ies which should be lea ned by means o he case me hod. They ela e, in sho , o desi ed mo i a ional disposi ions o he pa icipan s (1), and o all s ages o p oblem-sol ing and p ojec manage- men (2- 8), namely: p oblem- inding, scheduling, exe- cu ing, e alua ing, con olling, in eg a ing, and epo ing. Some o hem look e y simple indeed and unwo hy o men ion in he able. The e is, o example, he objec i e ' o iden i y and de ine p oblems in eal li e inciden s'. T adi ional lec u es and semina s, dealing wi h well- de ined, clea -cu p oblems and heo ies in gene al, o e 129 Table 3 Objec i es o he case me hod expe imen Pa icipan s should lea n: I. o expe ience mo e and s onge mo i a ion ela ed o p oblem-sol ing and eam-wo k 2. o iden i y and de ine ele an sub-p oblems in eal li e inciden s (p oblem- inding) 3. o schedule a well-s uc u ed p og amme o mul i-p ojec p oblem- sol ing, including sub-p og ammes which de e mine in some de ail he succession and a ailable scope o ime o each single p ojec (scheduling) 4. o execu e he sel -de e mined p og amme and i s sub-p og ammes in la gely au onomous ask g oups unde changing managemen o sel -elec ed s uden leade s. Main ac i i ies: Sea ching o in o ma- ion, elabo a ing al e na i e cou ses o ac ion (execu ing) 5. o e alua e cou ses o ac ion o each single p ojec in he ligh o p esen heo ies, aking in o conside a ion he speci ic condi ions o he coope a ing company (e alua ing) 6. o con ol he esul s o he p oblem-sol ing p ocesses oge he wi h expe s o he coope a ing company wi h ega d o applicabili y, e - ec i eness, e c. (con olling) 7. o in eg a e he selec ed ypes o p oblems in he la ge con ex o he coope a ing company and, inally, o he whole indus y (in eg a ing) 8. o summa ize he main esul s in a inal g oup epo ( epo ing) In o de o app oach hese beha iou al objec i es, he ollowing p e e- quisi es o ypes o lea ning should be accomplished 00 = ·2 .. OS .!! ..... 0 "' .. -~ ; .. "E 0 .. "' .~ ~ ·2 00 :c 0 OS u -0 = OS :l ~ Vl I Concep s and ac s 2 Rou ines and heu is ics in ol ed 'o 3 Classi ica ion schemes o s uc u ing inciden s ac- co ding o gene al ypes o p oblems ~ 1l 4 C i e ia o e alua ing me hods, echniques and 'i 0 = ::.: cou ses o ac ion 5 Al e na i e me hods, echniques and cou ses o ac- ion o special ypes o p oblems 6 Unde s anding he inciden , including he abili y o ansla e a ailable in o ma ion in o scien i ic con- cep s, o in e p e and o d aw conclusions 7 Applica ion o gene al knowledge a ailable o speci ic p oblems in he inciden 8 Analysis o complex inciden s in o well-de ined sub- p oblems and elemen s 9 Syn hesis: Design o complex cou ses o ac ion o speci ic p oblems IO Compa ing and e alua ing al e na i e cou ses o ac- ion o speci ic p oblems J I Openness owa ds eedback in o ma ion in g oup mee ings .u J 2 Abili y o communica e and o coope a e wi h peo- S ~ pie in he same discipline, o he disciplines, and wi h ~ .. ~ g, company expe s ~ E 13 Abili y o collec i e p oblem-sol ing and decision- = 0 -u making in g oup mee ings 14 Abili y o lead indi iduals and ask g oups e ec i e!) I s P oblem consciousness and selec i e pe cep io~ owa ds he ask 16 Readiness o espond in he ace o challengin11 p oblems 17 Mo i a ion o achie e and coope a e in p oblem-sol ing e y li le help o he s uden s in de eloping his abili y. As p oblem- inding is an essen ial skill in managemen posi ions, i seems o be well jus i ied o co?side i _as. an impo an objec i e o he case me hod expe unen . Sun1la a gumen s could be ad anced in a ou o he o he 130 speci ied objec i es in he able. These objec i es a e based on he a he b oad abili ies ha indus y expec s om uni e si y g adua es, and a e ma ched by adi ional eaching me hods in a e y es ic ed sense only. The objec i es lis ed in he second pa o Table 3, a e classi ied, in ough ou line, acco ding o Bloom's well- known axonomy o cogni i e and a ec i e ypes o lea ning.9•1° Cogni i e lea ning includes he acquisi ion o new, and he imp o emen o al eady exis ing knowledge, in ellec ual skills and abili ies, while a ec i e lea ning is mo e ela ed o changes in mo i a ional disposi ions, a - i udes and alues. Each o he ca ego ies jus men ioned includes hie a chically o de ed sub-classes o lea ning ob- jec i es, indica ing inc easing complexi y. Fo he pu pose o he case me hod expe imen Bloom's axonomy was modi ied in some espec . Apa om using mo e b oadly-de ined sub-classes o lea ning objec- i es, we did no es ic he ca ego y o skills and abili ies o ' echnical compe ence' only, as Bloom seems o sugges , bu also ex ended i o 'in e pe sonal compe ence'. Some yea s ago A gy is in es iga ed in e pe sonal compe ence ho oughly and s essed i s impo ance o e ec i e g oup p oblem-sol ing and decision-making. 11 • 12 • 13 The e o e, an ex ended concep o skills and abili ies is sugges ed in Table 3, hough a sha p dis inc ion be ween in e pe sonal com- pe ence and a ec i e aspec s o lea ning will no always be possible. The axonomy modi ied in his way u ned ou o be a e y use ul amewo k o de ining in mo e de ail he ob- jec i es o he case me hod expe imen in e ms o mo e knowledge, mo e echnical compe ence, mo e in e pe sonal compe ence and, inally, in e ms o an inc ease in desi ed a i udes, mo i a ions and alues. This amewo k helped a g ea deal, no only in he designing s age o he expe i- men , bu e en mo e in he subsequen execu ing s ages, when a ious di icul ies caused a endency o lose sigh o he o e all in en o he expe imen . We poin ed ou in he in oduc ion o his pape ha mo e ' echnical compe ence' and mo e 'in e pe sonal com- ~e e~ce' we e expe ienced as pa ially con lic ing objec- i es m he cou se o he expe imen . Nea ly all pa icipan s had had so much exposu e o eache -cen ed cou ses ha du ing a a he long ini ial pe iod, s uden s ended ~ wai o de ailed expe ad ice and ins uc ions om uni e si- y s a ins ead o deciding hemsel es wha o do in he ace o ac ual case inciden s. On he o he hand, uni e si- y s a ~e e, _ om adi ion, only oo eady o s ep in on g o~p discussions, ake o e ini ia i e, p ess o a ional s aigh o wa d decision-making, minimize ial-and-e o beha iou and look o esul s sa is ying high scien i ic s an~a ds. F om hei poin o iew, s uden g oup mee ings when la gely le o s uden managemen seem- ed. o be clea ly less e ec i e han adi ional eache - onen ed cou ses. Howe e , he ca alogue o objec i es always eminded us ha a somewha slowe g ow h a e o kno~~edge and echnical compe ence migh be he cos o eahzmg o he equally aluable objec i es like mo e in- e pe sonal c~mpe ence and imp o emen s in he a ec i e a ea o lea mng. Un il his poin in he discussion, he objec i es o he case me hod expe imen lis ed in Table 3 ha e been con- S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 198i, ll(l) sid~ ed sepa. a ely depending. on whe he hey we e de in- ed m beha iou al e ms, as m he i s pa , o in e ms o he axonomy, as in he second pa . Recen model h b h . . so uman e a 10u pom ou ha hey a e highly in e - el.a ed. In h~~e. models, cogni i e ac o s like knowledge, skills and abih ies on he one hand, and mo i a ions on he o he , a e combined as main de e minan s o beha iou . 14 F om his kind o heo e ical easoning i becomes clea now ha he beha iou al objec i es shown in he i s pa o he able a e expec ed o be he esul s o lea ning in he cogni i e and/ o a ec i e a ea. The eby i should be no iced ha no a emp was made o speci ; he means-end- ela ionships o indi idual ypes o beha iou . Design o he case me hod expe imen The case me hod expe imen was designed as an ins umen o accomplish he objec i es lis ed abo e. In he p esen pape we con ine ou sel es o a sho summa y o he essen ials which should help us o unde s and be e wha is measu ed la e on in e ms o cogni i e and mo i a ional e ec i eness. 1 •2•3 Subjec : Cons uc ion o a s eam gene a o o a powe plan . Basic case ma e ial: Ch onological su ey o he p ojec and i s comme cial and enginee ing execu ion, including a comple e se o ele an documen s, con ac s and sup- plemen a y ag eemen s. Selec ed pa ial p ojec s: Cos accoun ing and p ice de e mina ion o he s eam gene a o in ques ion; Sel -cons uc ion o ce ain s eam gene a o equip- men o componen s s. p ocu emen om o he i ms; Financial p oblems connec ed wi h he execu ion o he o de ; De e mining op imal dimensions o special s eam gene a o equipmen . The i s h ee p ojec s we e selec ed o ea men by he business s uden s, he las one by he enginee ing s uden s. As he basic case ma e ial p o ided ou ine solu- ions o he cons uc o o each o hose ypes o p o- blems, he s anda d ques ion was wha al e na i e cou ses o ac ion we e possible and how hey we e o be e alua ed compa ed wi h he ou ine solu ions obse ed. Condi ions o pa icipa ion o s uden s: Ad anced s uden s o he Business Ins i u e a he Uni e si y o S u ga wi h special in e es s in p o- cess echnology; Ad anced enginee ing s uden s o he Ins i u e o P ocess Technology a he same uni e si y wi h special in e es s in plan cons uc ion. In con as o adi ional s udy p og ammes o he diploma in business adminis a ion (Diplomkau mann), all s uden s o he Business Ins iU, e in S u ga , in o de o quali y o his diploma, ha e o pass inal exams in p o- cess echnology o in ano he enginee ing discipline, besides a ious economics subjec s. The e o e, he condi ions o pa icipa ion jus men ioned a e no un easonable. S.A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982 13(3) Ac ual pa icipan s: Two membe s o he Business Ins i u e and one membe o he Ins i u e o P ocess Technology as ins uc o s; Ten ad anced s uden s, among hem i e business and i e enginee ing s uden s, being egula pa icipan s and, in addi ion, a small and changing numbe o s uden s as occasional pa icipan s; On he company side, a la ge i m engaged in he hea y machine y sec o and some o i s sub-con ac o s. When he case me hod expe imen was s a ed in he win e e m o 1977 /78, he s udy p og amme o he business deg ee was less han 3 yea s old. Fo his eason, and because o he s ic condi ions o pa icipa ion, he numbe o po en ial pa icipan s was e y small. Nea ly all po en ial pa icipan s joined he expe imen . S uc u e o ac i i ies: Indi idual wo k o s uden s; Team wo k in wo disciplina y ask g oups o business and enginee ing s uden s; Plena y mee ings oge he wi h ins uc o s; Join mee ings wi h op managemen mid s a membe s o he coope a ing companies in a ious o ms, o example indoo and ou doo discussions, plan isi s, e c. A simpli ied model o he case me hod expe imen in- dica ing he s uc u al elemen s and he communica ion channels be ween hem migh look like Figu e l. In he wo-semes e pe iod o he expe imen abou 30 plena y mee ings we e held, mos o hem wi h only one o he ask g oups, bu almos one- hi d as in e disciplina y mee ings wi h bo h g oups oge he . Du ing he same pe iod, six join mee ings wi h coope a ing companies ook place, co e ing one o wo days each; special mee ings o ins uc o s wi h company membe s a e no included. No a emp was made by ins uc o s o eco d he a endence a he independen ask g oup mee ings and he ime spen 131 on indi idual wo k. Business s uden s indica ed ha hey had o spend an a e age o a leas i e hou s pe week on he case me hod expe imen . Ins uc o s said ha hey hemsel es had o in es , on he whole, wo o h ee hou s pe week. Func ional cha ac e is ics: Plena y mee ings deal mainly wi h p oblem- inding and ough scheduling o successi e p oblem-sol ing ac i i ies in ask g oups, de ining in o ma ion needs wi h ega d o coope a ing companies, discussing esul s o disciplina y g oup wo k, exchange o in o - ma ion and indings be ween he wo g oups, and p epa a ion o join mee ings wi h company expe s. Task g oup mee ings co e ed unc ions such as de ail- ed scheduling and execu ing o p oblem-sol ing ac- i i ies acco ding o ixed guidelines, de ining addi- ional in o ma ion needs, alloca ing speci ic asks o indi idual g oup membe s and discussing he esul s, and elabo a ing summa ies and discussion pape s o o hcoming plena y mee ings. Indi idual wo k o each g oup membe was p ima i- ly di ec ed o pe o m sepa a e asks speci ied in he cou se o he g oup mee ings. Ins uc o s had as one o hei mos impo an unc- ions o o ganize and o sc een he con inuous in o - ma ion low be ween he lea ning sys em and he coope a ing companies. Some hing mo e abou hei ole in he case me hod expe imen will be said in he con ex o he managemen app oach used. The in o ma ion low be ween he lea ning sys em and he coope a ing companies u ned ou o be he c ucial poin in he case me hod expe imen . Whene e one o hi ask g oups ied o es al e na i e cou ses o ac ion agains eali y, hei need o mo e and highly de ailed in o ma ion inc eased o an ex en which could no always be sa is ied comple ely by company membe s in he ime a ailable. These obs acles should be aken in o accoun Coope a ing companies -------------, I I I I I I I I Join mee ings ' : L-----------·J ! I Plena y mee ings I - - ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _;.,,..__ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -, -; 1 I Enginee ing sec o _.. ..- Business sec o I I . ! I I ' 1 Ins i u e o p ocess echnology (ins uc o s) Task g oup I~ Enginee ing s uden s + Indi idual wo k Enginee ing s uden s Fiaa e 1 Simpli ied model o he case me hod expe imen Task g oup Business s uden s ' Indi idual wo k Business s uden s Business ins i u e (Ins uc o s) 132 when he esul s o he comple ed p oblem-sol ing ac i i ies a e e alua ed agains scien i ic quali y s anda ds. Managemen o g oup discussions: -All plena y mee ings we e guided by ins uc ? s. A 'mode a o concep ' was used as a comp omise be- ween 'laissez- ai e' discussion and igh ' eache - cen ed' discussion, shi ing as much ac i i y, disc e- ion and esponsibili y as possible o he s uden pa icipan s. Task g oup mee ings we e guided by changing s uden leade s elec ed by he g oup membe s. Wi hin he amewo k ixed in ough ou line by plena y mee ings, pa icipan s in ask g oups could p ac ice and ex- pe ience ull sel -di ec ion and sel -con~ ol. . . . A e ha ing o e come la ge di icul ies m he m1 1al phase, i became inc easingly easy in he co_u se o o~go- ing lea ning p ocesses o he s uden s o ealize he desi ed 'mode a o concep ' in plena y mee ings and o delega e asks wi h inc easing complexi y o he le el o sel -di ec i e and sel -con olling g oups, as was in ended acco ding o he objec i es de ined o he case me hod expe imen . Classi ica ion o he case me hod expe imen In a su ey o case me hod li e a u e Pe li z and Vassen 15 iden i ied ou basic ypes o cases: Case P oblem Me hod, Inciden Me hod, In Baske Exe cises and, inally, Case S udy Me hod. T ying o classi y he case me hod expe i- men acco ding o his scheme, we encoun e di icul ies. I is shown ha he expe imen includes componen s o di e en basic ypes. Ob iously, he sea ch o mo e in- o ma ion is a ypical cha ac e is ic o he Inciden Me hod, bu some cha ac e is ics o he classical Case S udy Me hod (and e en o he Li e Case Me hod as one o i s mo e ecen e sions) a e also in ol ed. On he o he hand, he a ious o ms o immedia e con ac wi h business eali y, which we e a e y impo an componen o he case me hod expe imen , a e no adequa ely conside ed by he o iginal classi ica ion scheme. The e o e, i is sugges ed ha we dis inguish an addi ional ype o case me hod ap- plica ion which migh be called 'P ojec S udy Me hod' and will co e he case me hod expe imen desc ibed in his pape as a special example. 16 Pe cei ed e ec i eness o he case me hod expe i- men om he s uden s' poin o iew F om he di e en me hods o e alua ing a aining p o- g amme like he case me hod expe imen , an ancnymous s uden ques ionnai e a he end o he expe imen was selec ed. Though he e a e ce ainly mo e elabo a e and objec i e e alua ion app oaches, 15 we ound ha we had no eal choice i we did no wan o gi e up ou sys em o objec i es de ined ea lie . As a as he expe imen was designed o encou age in insic ins ead o ex insic mo i a- ion o wo k, and o de elop in e pe sonal as well as echnical compe ence and knowledge, any e alua ion de ices which equi ed ei he some kind o pe o mance es be o e and a e he expe imen o close obse a ions du ing he ongoing p ojec wo k we e likely o be pe cei - ed as a con adic ion and as a clea o ence agains he ules. Fu he mo e, a s uden ques ionnai e was expec ed o be in bes acco dance wi h he sel -e alua ion concep S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982, 13(3) o he unde lying Theo y Y app oach. The pe cei ed e - ec i eness o he case me hod expe imen was measu ed sepa a ely o cogni i e and a ec i e objec i es discussed ea lie . Pe cei ed inc eases in knowledge and echnical compe ence We ha e al eady men ioned ha in he ea lie s ages o he expe imen , he p e ailing opinion claimed supe io i- y o adi ional eache -cen ed cou ses when knowledge and echnical compe ence we e o be imp o ed. Howe e , his opinion was no con i med by judgemen s o he pa - icipan s, as is shown in Table 4. Bo h g oups, he business s uden s and he enginee ing s uden s, a ed he case me hod expe imen mo e e ec i e han compa able uni e si y cou ses in ega d o knowledge inc ease and de eloping echnical compe ence. Al hough he business and enginee ing s uden s e alua ed he case me hod nea ly he same in e ms o mean i em sco es, hey pe cei ed i s di e ence om adi ional cou ses a he di - e en ly. Table 4 shows ha he business s uden s in he expe imen e alua ed adi ional cou ses a less a ou ably han hei enginee ing colleagues. The easons a e no qui e clea . Whe he hose judgemen s e lec ue quali y di - e ences in cou ses augh in he wo disciplines conside ed, o whe he hey a e due o pe sonali y di e ences be ween business and enginee ing s uden s, canno be decided on he da a a ailable. We suppose ha ano he explana ion is a mo e plausible. The in ended concep o he case me hod expe imen was ealized almos in i s pu e o m in he business g oup; howe e , o he enginee ing g oup some modi ica ions in he di ec ion o a adi ional cou se we e una oidable, because hey had o be acquain ed wi h some business concep s. The e was an objec i e eason, hen, which migh explain why he sepa a e esponden g oups pe cei ed he supe io i y o he case me hod di e en ly. One should emembe ha a mix u e o lea ning si ua- ions we e used du ing he case me hod expe imen . When each o hose app oaches we e e alua ed sepa a ely by he esponden s, he ollowing indings esul . . The esul s shown in Table 5 lead o some in e es ing conclusions. Lea ning a angemen s p o iding close and di ec con ac wi h coope a ing companies we e anked highes in e ec i eness. On such occasions, pa icipan s could expe ience immedia e sa is ac ion o hei in o ma- ion needs and ob ain impo an help o hei ongoing ask g oup wo k. F om his poin o iew he a ou able abo e- a e age e alua ions o he i s h ee i ems in Table 5 a e unde s andable. Among he o he h ee lea ning si ua ions, eamwo k was e alua ed as mo e e ec i e han indi idual wo k ?n he p ojec , al hough he la e was ce ainly an essen ial p e equisi e o he i s . Conside ing ha s uden s had conside able di icul ies a he s a o he case me hod ex- pe imen in handling p oblem-sol ing in au onomous ask g oups acco ding o he p inciples o sel -di ec ion an_d sel - con ol, he esul o hei judgemen s a he end 1s su - p isingly posi i e. Apa om he inc ease in kn_owl~dge and echnical compe ence gained om he g oup s1 uauon, he pe cei ed e ec i eness also poin s o success ul lea n- ing p ocesses in he a ea o in e pe sonal compe ence and S.A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982 13(3) Table 4 Pe cei ed inc eases in knowledge and echnical compe ence acco ding o 7-poin - a ing scales o case me hod expe imen compa ed wi h adi ional uni e si y cou ses Pe cei ed mean inc eases by means o ... Case me hod expe imen T adi ional cou ses Knowledge and Business Enginee ing Business Enginee ing echnical compe ence g oup g oup g oup g oup Inc ease in knowledge and p oblem-sol ing abili y S,7 6,0 4,3 s,s Inc ease in abili y o deal wi h eal company condi ions S,7 s,s 1,7 3,5 Inc ease in abili y in scheduling s,o 4,S 2,0 3,S Table 5 Pe cei ed inc eases in knowledge and echnical compe ence acco ding o 7-poin a ing scales o di e en ypes o lea ning si ua ions us- ed in case me hod expe imen Types o lea ning si ua ions used in Mean inc ease in knowledge and echnical compe ence as pe cei ed by ... Business g oup Enginee ing g oup case me hod expe imen Rank Mean sco es Rank Mean sco es Semina s in coope a ing companies wi h op managemen In o ma ion isi s o he wo k-place and depa - men s o he coope a ing companies Uni e si y semina s wi h op managemen o he coope a ing compa- nies Wo king in la gely au onomous ask g oups Indi idual wo king on he p ojec Discussion in plena y mee ings 2 3 4 s 6 6,7 6,0 S,7 S,3 5,0 4,0 3 2 4 s 6 6,7 5,3 6,S S,3 4,0 3,0 mo i a ion - wi hou hese no such inc ease would ha e been possible. We shall ha e a close look a he o he c i e ia o e ec i eness la e . F om he s uden s' poin o iew, 'discussion in plena y mee ings' guided by uni e si y s a , was clea ly he leas e ec i e o all he lea ning si ua ions used in he case me hod expe imen . This esul needs some in e p e a ion. Fi s o all, i should be bo ne in mind ha he unc ions o he 'plena y mee ings' we e qui e di e en om hose o ask g oup sessions and o he a angemen s. Thei ac- complishmen ga e less ise o pe cep ions o immedia e inc eases in knowledge and echnical compe ence. Howe e , he e is no doub ha he compa a i ely low e - ec i eness was also in luenced by some speci ic p oblems associa ed wi h his ype o lea ning a angemen . Fo ex- 133 ample, de iciencies in coope a ion be ween he business and he enginee ing g oups, di icul ies in ob aining needed in- o ma ion and, p obably, ini ial p oblems in ge ing ac- quain ed wi h he mode a o app oach ollowed in plena y mee ings. Pe cei ed inc eases in in e pe sonal compe ence The pe cei ed e ec i eness o he case me hod is e en highe in he a ea o in e pe sonal compe ence, when com- pa ed wi h adi ional cou ses. The esul s shown in Table 6 we e o be expec ed because adi ional cou ses, which a e no designed o imp o e in- e pe sonal compe ence, a e e alua ed e y low in e ec- i eness. Fu he , in hese s uden s' expe ience, business cou ses seem o be poo e in his espec han enginee ing cou ses. The highe a ings o he case me hod expe imen a e pa icula ly imp essi e when he i s wo i ems in Table 6 a e conside ed. These indica e s ong inc eases in in- e pe sonal compe ence ela ed o eam-wo k and o coope a ion wi h company membe s. The e a e su icien easons o belie e ha he esponden s eac ed e y sensi i ely o di e en condi ions. As was poin ed ou ea lie , among he wo g oups con- side ed, he business g oup had mo e and be e oppo - uni y o p ac ice eam-wo k acco ding o ou concep . This ac may explain why he business g oup expe ienced highe inc eases in hei in e pe sonal compe ence o eam-wo k han he enginee ing g oup. Ano he example is he ela i ely less a ou able a ing on he side o bo h g oups when hey had o e alua e he case me hod expe imen wi h ega d o pe cei ed p og ess in coope a ion wi h each o he . Those judgemen s can be aced back o ac ual ba - ie s we ha e men ioned. On he whole, Table 6 leads o he conclusion ha he case me hod expe imen was pe cei ed by he esponden s as a e y e ec i e ool o inc easing hei in e pe sonal compe ence. I in e pe sonal compe ence is a p e equisi e o expe ience, inc easing knowledge and imp o ing echnical compe ence by means o eam-wo k and coope a ing wi h o he s, as A gy is 11 has poin ed ou , hen Table 6 Pe cei ed inc eases in in e pe sonal com- pe ence acco ding o 7-poin a ing scales o case me hod expe imen as compa ed wi h adi ional uni e si y cou ses In e pe sonal compe ence Inc ease in abili y o do eam-wo k Inc ease in abili y o coope a e wi h com- pany manage s and expe s Inc ease in abili y o coope a e wi h en- ginee ing s uden s and business s uden s espec i ely Pe cei ed mean inc ease by means o . . . Case me hod expe imen T adi ional cou ses Business Enginee ing Business Enginee ing g oup g oup g oup g oup 6,0 4,3 1,3 2,S S,7 s.s 1,7 3,5 4,0 3,3 1,3 1,3