Characterization of a Reconstructed Low Voltage Grid as Propagation Medium for Narrowband Power Line Communications

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Characterization of a Reconstructed Low Voltage Grid as Propagation Medium for Narrowband Power Line Communications Idurre Larrucea*, Jon González-Ramos†, Itziar Angulo‡, Igor Fernández*, Javier Vildósola* *Dept. of Communications Engineering †Dept. of Electronic Technology ‡Dept. of Applied Mathematics University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) Bilbao, Spain [email protected] {jon.gonzalezr, itziar.angulo, igor.fernandez, javier.vildosola}@ehu.eus Bernhard Grasel Competence Field Renewable Energy Technologies University of Applied Sciences Technikum Vienna Vienna, Austria [email protected] Abstract— This paper empirically characterizes the attenuation and Non-Intentional Emissions (NIEs) of a reconstructed Low Voltage (LV) grid in the frequency band assigned to Narrowband Power Line Communications (NB-PLC). The study evaluates four situations, in which different modern power sources, such as Photovoltaic (PV) panels or Electric Vehicles (EVs), are connected. The results show that high attenuation is measured over the whole frequency band (20-500 kHz) in all situations, with mean values in each PRIME v1.4 frequency channel ranging from 39 dB to 84 dB. In addition, high-amplitude conducted emissions are recorded, especially when a three-phase EV is connected. Since in general the highest emissions are given in channel 1 (42-89 kHz), the results presented in this paper demonstrate that channels 3-8 (151-471 kHz) are more suitable for NB-PLC in terms of the channel characteristics. Keywords—Attenuation, Narrowband Power Line Communications, Non-Intentional Emissions, Reconstructed Low Voltage Grid. I. INTRODUCTION In recent years, several Distribution System Operators (DSOs) have deployed Narrowband Power Line Communications (NB-PLC) technologies for several applications in the Low Voltage (LV) grid, such as remote monitoring or load control [1]. Although this technology, which operates in the 9-500 kHz frequency range, offers a wide range of advantages over other wired or wireless alternatives, it has to deal with a harsh transmission medium with timeand frequency-dependent characteristics [2], [3], [4]. These characteristics will be affected by the introduction of modern power sources, such as Photovoltaic (PV) panels or Electric Vehicles (EVs) [5] . In this context, as a first step to evaluate the performance of NB-PLC in future scenarios, this paper aims at empirically characterizing the LV grid as propagation medium for NB-PLC signals in the presence of modern power sources. The characterization is performed in terms of attenuation and conducted emissions measured at a reconstructed LV grid. The frequency band under study is divided according to the channels defined in PRIME v1.4 standard [6]: ch1 (42-89 kHz), ch3 (151-198 kHz), ch4 (206-253 kHz), ch5 (261-308 kHz), ch6 (315-362 kHz), ch7 (370-417 kHz), ch8 (424-471 kHz). It should be noted that the previous version of the standard, PRIME v1.3.6, only considered the use of channel 1, which is the current frequency assignment in Europe for this kind of NB-PLC systems. Since the PRIME Alliance does not intend to use channel 2 in future deployments [7], the study focuses on channels 1 and 3-8. This paper is organized as follows. In section II, the reconstructed LV grid is described, as well as the procedure followed for the characterization of the grid. Section III presents the main results of the paper: section III.A presents the results related to the attenuation and section III.B characterizes the NIEs in both the frequency and time domains. Finally, in section IV, the main conclusions of the paper are summarized. II. METHODOLOGY A. Description of the Measurement Scenario This study is based on measurements conducted on the reconstructed LV grid at the University of Applied Sciences Vienna (UASV) [8]. This measurement scenario, presented in Fig. 1 , shows several advantages over laboratory and field trials. First, since it is isolated from the public LV grid, external factors that may affect the measurements are avoided; and, second, the resemblance to real network conditions is maintained, as it is recreated based on the characteristics of real public LV grids. As presented more in detail in [8], both the Secondary Substation (SS) and the feeders are recreated by means of inductances and resistances considering the statistical analysis of distributions networks presented in [9]. Fig. 1. Measurement scenario at the University of Applied Sciences Vienna. The measurement facilities consist of a SS and four houses (H1, H2, H3, and H4), to which different electronic devices can be connected. For all the measurements, a star grid topology is configured. The study evaluates the attenuation and NIEs in four different situations, as shown in TABLE I. . The default situation (situation 0) includes the connection of a set of modern power sources, which are listed in TABLE II. . The SMs do not operate PLC, but rather use IEC 62056-21 standard. In addition to this, situations 1 to 3 involve an EV Charging Process (EVCP). In these situations, a cable of 30 meters is used to connect the EV Charging Station (EVCS) to the network. In TABLE I. and TABLE II. , the phase (L) to which each device is connected is indicated between parentheses. L123 refers to tri-phased connections. TABLE I. SITUATIONS CONSIDERED IN THE STUDY. Situation 0 Default situation Situation 1 Default situation + EVCP1 (L1) Situation 2 Default situation + EVCP2 (L123) Situation 3 Default situation + EVCP3 (L1) TABLE II. CONNECTED DEVICES AT EACH HOUSE IN SITUATION 0. Location Connected devices H1 2 SMs (L123) H2 3 SMs (L123) PV system (L2) H3 2 SMs(L123) PV system (L2) 1200 W load (L123) H4 3 SMs (L123) PV system (L123) Storage system (L123) B. Methodology for the Characterization of the Attenuation The measurements of the spectral characteristics of the attenuation were performed by means of an ad-hoc system designed by the authors, which is described in detail in [10]. This measurement system is based on the injection of a sweep in the frequency band under study (20-500 kHz). Then, the frequency-dependent attenuation is calculated as the difference between the amplitude of the voltage at the transmitter and receiver sides for each frequency bin. In all cases, the signal is injected at the SS and received at the corresponding house. As an example, in Fig. 2 , the spectrogram of the received signal at H3 when EV2 is charging (situation 2) is shown. Fig. 2 shows that, in general, the amplitude of the received sweep exceeds the amplitude of the background noise at H3. However, at specific frequencies, due to high-amplitude tonal emissions, the amplitude of the received signal is below the noise. At those frequencies, since the attenuation is calculated considering the amplitude of the noise instead of the desired signal, the attenuation could be even higher than the one obtained by the measurement procedure. In order to characterize the coupling effects between electrical phases, the study presents the attenuation measured from the SS to each house considering the nine electrical phase combinations (L1-L1, L1-L2, L1-L3, L2-L1…) for the four situations under study. This results in a total of 4x4x9 measurements of the spectral characteristics of the attenuation. Fig. 2. Spectrogram of the received signal transmitted at the SS and received at H3 when EV2 is charging (situation 2). C. Methodology for the Characterization of the NIEs The NIEs were recorded by means of an ad-hoc system designed by the authors, which is described in detail in [11]. The study evaluates the NIEs measured at phase 2 (L2) in situations 0, 2, and 3, during 600 s in the frequency band from 9 kHz to 500 kHz at the SS and the four houses. This gives a total of 5x3 measurements of the conducted emissions. The characterization of these emissions is based on the procedure proposed by the authors in [11], which allows evaluating NIEs in both the frequency and time domains. The frequency analysis is based on the representation of the spectra of the emissions for 50-second periods according to the CISPR 16-1-1 standard [12], as well as on the calculation of two parameters: the Total Supraharmonic Voltage (TSHV) and the percentage of emissions exceeding the PLC out-of-band limits (PFBL). More details about these parameters, which are defined in (1) and (2), can be found in [11]. Moreover, with the aim of relating the amplitude of the NIEs with their potential impact on NB-PLC technologies, the TSHV for each PRIME v1.4 channel [6] is also calculated, which is referred to as Partial SHV (PSHV) in the paper. In (1) and (2), n_bins takes a value of 9801 in the calculation of the TSHV and PFBL, while it takes a value of 940 when calculating the PSHV in each frequency channel. n_bins 2 1i i TSHV V   (1) numberof frequencybinsabovethelimit 100 n_bins PFBL  (2) The time analysis, in turn, is divided into two stages. First, the QP values of the amplitude of the emissions according to the CISPR 16-1-1 standard for each 50-second period within the 600 s are compared. Then, the maximum variation of the TSHV and PFBL [11] amongst the twelve 50-second periods are calculated, as defined in (3) and (4).     1,2,...12 1,2,...12 max min ii i i TSHV TSHV TSHV      (3)     1,2,...12 1,2,...12 max min ii i i PFBL PFBL PFBL      (4) Second, in order to analyze the time variability of the emissions within a period of 50 s, a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis is performed following the methodology described in [11]. III. RESULTS A. Attenuation In Fig. 3, as an example, the spectral characteristics of the attenuation measured from the SS to H3 when EV3 is charging (situation 3) is presented, considering the nine phase combinations. Fig. 3. Attenuation measured from the SS to H3 when EV3 is charging (situation 3) considering the nine phase combinations. It might be expected that the three combinations where the signal is injected and received in the same electrical phase (L1-L1, L2-L2, L3-L3) would be those where the lowest attenuation would be reported. However, Fig. 3 shows that there is no such a clear tendency in the results. Therefore, these results lead to the conclusion that there is high coupling between phases. For this reason, in order to obtain a single spectral pattern for the attenuation that represents each situation under study, the mean value and the standard deviation of the spectral components of the attenuation measured in the nine phase combinations are calculated (see Fig. 4 as an example). As also reported in Fig. 3, Fig. 4 shows that the attenuation exhibits a frequency-dependent behavior when measuring from the SS to H3 when EV3 is charging. Similar frequency-dependent characteristics are also registered in the remaining analyzed cases. With the aim of quantifying the attenuation for all the cases under study (4 situations x 4 receiving locations) and relating it to the PRIME v1.4 standard [6], the mean attenuation in each frequency channel is depicted by means of a bar chart in Fig. 5. Fig. 5 shows that, in all the analyzed cases, mean attenuations greater than 40 dB are reported in both channel 1 and channels 3-8 defined in PRIME v1.4 [6]. This high attenuation can be critical to the performance of NB-PLC systems, reducing the maximum distance coverage of the communications. The obtained values are higher than those presented in [13], [14] in the LV grids in Turkey and Spain, respectively, and are more aligned to those reported in [15] in the LV grid in China (between 30 dB and 70 dB in the 20-500 kHz frequency band). These differences may be explained by the topology of the LV grid in each measurement scenario. Fig. 4. Mean and standard deviation of the attenuation measured from the SS to H3 when EV3 is charging (situation 3). Although higher attenuation values might be expected at higher frequencies, as also shown in [13], [14], [15], the results in Fig. 5 do not show this trend. For instance, in the case of H1, regardless of the situation under study, the lowest attenuation is obtained for the highest frequency channels (7 and 8). This behavior might be a consequence of the spectral shape of the grid impedance, which has been demonstrated to play a key role in the spectral pattern of the channel response [10]. Moreover, it should be mentioned that the charging of an EV does not seem to imply higher attenuation values. As shown in Fig. 5, the attenuation measured in situations 1-3 (EV charging) is similar to the one registered in situation 0 (no EV charging) for a certain location and PRIME channel. In some cases, such as in channel 8 at H2, even a higher attenuation can be measured in the default situation (74 dB compared to 57 dB, 59 dB, and 70 dB). B. Non-Intentional Emissions 1) Frequency analysis In Fig. 6, as an example, the QP values of the amplitude of the emissions at H4 when no EV is charging (situation 0), when EV2 is charging (situation 2), and when EV3 is charging (situation 3) are represented, considering the first 50 s of the recording. Moreover, for comparison purposes, the PLC out-of-band limits defined in [16] are depicted. The tonal emissions exceeding these limits are indicated with circles. Fig. 6 shows that the emissions recorded in the reconstructed LV grid at H4 are frequency-dependent with values ranging from 30 dBµV to 105 dBµv. It should be noted that, at several frequencies, tonal emissions exceeding the PLC out-of-band emission limits are reported. In [17], it was observed that Forward Error Correction (FEC) and repetition codes implemented in PRIME v1.4 receivers are able to cope with this kind of tonal emissions, since they only affect a certain subcarrier. The spectral shape of these NIEs does not seem to be critical for NB-PLC systems in terms of Frame Error Rate (FER) vs Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) curves. However, in frequency bands where a large number of high-amplitude emissions are concentrated (for instance, the 9-100 kHz band in situation 2), the performance of the communications may be degraded, especially if the attenuation between the transmitter and receiver devices is high. Furthermore, Fig. 6 shows that the emissions measured at H4 in situation 0 and situation 3 are similar, both in terms of the amplitude and spectral shape, in the whole frequency band. In situation 2, in turn, considerably higher emissions are measured, although the spectral pattern is maintained in the 9-500 kHz frequency range. This might be due to the fact that the EV charging in situation 2 is three-phased. However, in situation 3, EV3 is charging in the electrical phase L1, while the NIEs are recorded at L2. Thus, this implies that significant emissions from EV3 are not observed at an electrical phase different to which it is connected. However, it might be generating conducted emissions at the same electrical phase to which it is connected, but this situation was not measured. In order to characterize the amplitude and spectral distribution of the emissions in all the situations and locations under study, Fig. 7 depicts the TSHV, PSHV per PRIME v1.4 channel, while TABLE III. gathers the PFBL at each location and situation under study. (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig. 5. Mean attenuation in each PRIME channel in each situation at each location: H1 (a), H2 (b), H3 (c), and H4 (d). Fig. 6. QP values of the amplitude of the emissions (dBµV) measured when no EV is charging (situation 0), when EV2 is charging (situation 2), and when EV3 is charging (situation 3) at H4. Fig. 7 (a) shows that, in situation 0, except for channel 1, the highest PSHVs are reported at the SS, even though no electronic devices (emission sources) are connected at this location. The higher amplitude of the emissions at the SS might be explained by the aggregation of the NIEs propagating from the four houses to the SS, which have already been discussed in previous studies from the authors [11]. Fig. 7 also reveals that the amplitude of the emissions is considerably higher in channel 1 (highest PSHV in this channel) compared to channels 3-8. Thus, these results indicate that the higher frequency band is more suitable for NB-PLC systems in terms of the amplitude of the NIEs. The TSHV and PSHV per PRIME v1.4 channel are higher in situation 2 (EV2 is charging) compared to situation 0 (no EV), but this behavior is not observed when situations 0 and 3 are compared. As previously mentioned, this may be a consequence of the electrical phase to which each EV is connected and the phase at which the NIEs measurement is performed. In addition, TABLE III. reveals that, except for situation 2, the high-amplitude emissions exceeding the PLC out-of-band limits are concentrated in a few frequency bins (PFBLs lower than 7 % in situations 0 and 3 regardless of the location). In situation 2, in turn, considerably higher PFBLs are registered. In fact, when the NIEs are recorded at H2, the location at which the EV is charging, all the frequency bins in the 9-500 kHz frequency band are above the limits (PFBL = 100 %). TABLE III. PFBL (%) FOR EACH SITUATION AND LOCATION UNDER STUDY. Situation Situation 0 Situation 2 Situation 3 Location SS H1 H2 H3 H4 SS H1 H2 H3 H4 SS H1 H2 H3 H4 PFBL (%) 3 0 0 7 0 3 34 100 8 31 3 1 2 6 0 (a) (b) (c) Fig. 7. TSHV, PSHV per PRIME v1.4 channel, and PFBL at each location in (a) situation 0, (b) situation 2, and (c) situation 3. 2) Time analysis a) Analysis of the time variability within the recording time (600 s) With the aim of evaluating the time variability of the emissions within the recording time (600 s), the QP values of the amplitude of the emissions measured in each period of 50 s are calculated. In Fig. 8, as an example, the QP values of the amplitude of the emissions of the twelve 50-second period within 600 s recorded at H3 are superimposed when EV3 is charging (situation 3). Fig. 8 shows that, although the spectral pattern of the emissions is maintained in the 9-500 kHz frequency band between 50-second periods, slight differences in the amplitude are reported at several frequencies. In order to quantify these variations in all the analyzed cases (3 situations x 5 locations), the maximum variations of the TSHV and PFBL are gathered in TABLE IV. . TABLE IV. reveals that there are no substantial differences in the TSHV and PFBL between periods of 50 s in all the analyzed cases, with maximum variations of 1 dB and 4 %, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that the emissions measured in this reconstructed LV grid do not significantly vary between successive periods of 50 s if a measurement time of 600 s is considered. TABLE IV. MAXIMUM VARIATION BETWEEN 50-SECOND PERIODS OF THE TSHV AND PFBL AT EACH LOCATION IN EACH SITUATION UNDER STUDY. Situation Situation 0 Situation 2 Situation 3 Location SS H1 H2 H3 H4 SS H1 H2 H3 H4 SS H1 H2 H3 H4 ΔTSHV (dB) 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 ΔPFBL (%) 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 0 0 1 1 0 Fig. 8. QP values of the amplitude of the emissions (dBµV) measured at H3 when EV3 is charging (situation 3) in each period of 50 s within the recording time. b) Analysis of the time variability within 50 s The analysis of the time variability within 50 s is focused on the tonal emissions exceeding the PLC out-of-band emission limits. For this purpose, a FFT of the time samples corresponding to each frequency bin is performed, providing a simplified model that characterizes the time-dependent behavior of the NIEs. This model is composed of a delta train at 0 Hz, 50 Hz, 100 Hz, 150 Hz, and 200 Hz, which demonstrates that the emissions measured in the reconstructed LV grid are periodic with the fundamental frequency of the mains (50 Hz). Then, in order to be able to compare the amplitude of the FFT components for different frequency bins and cases under study (situation/location), the amplitude of the FFT components are normalized with respect to the component at 0 Hz. More details of this model can be found in [11]. In Fig. 9, as an example, the modulus of the normalized FFT of the time samples corresponding to the emissions measured at 21.6 kHz when EV3 is charging (situation 3) at H3 are depicted. With the aim of characterizing the time variation of the high-amplitude tonal emissions exceeding the PLC out-of-band limits in all the cases under study, Fig. 10, the boxplots of the amplitude of the FFT components at 50 Hz, 100 Hz, 150 Hz, and 200 Hz are represented, considering all the frequency bins in which high-amplitude tonal emissions are measured for all the situations/locations. Fig. 9. Modulus of the normalized FFT (dB) of the time samples corresponding to the emissions measured at 21.6 kHz when EV3 is charging (situation 3) at H3. As shown in Fig. 9 for a specific emission, Fig. 10 also reveals that the component at 100 Hz is generally the major contributor to the variability of the tonal NIEs exceeding the PLC out-of-band limits. Previous studies from the authors demonstrated that these fast variations can have a negative effect on the performance of NB-PLC systems [10]. Fig. 10. Boxplot of the amplitude of the FFT components (dB) at 50 Hz, 100 Hz, 150 Hz, and 200 Hz for all the tonal emissions exceeding the PLC out-of-band limits for all the situations/locations under study. IV. CONCLUSIONS This paper presents an empirical characterization of a reconstructed LV grid in Austria, in terms of attenuation and NIEs, in the frequency band assigned to NB-PLC. Regarding the attenuation, the results demonstrate that high coupling between phases is reported in all the cases under study. Furthermore, high attenuation values are registered in the whole 20-500 kHz frequency band, with similar attenuations in channels 1 and 3-8 defined in PRIME v1.4 standard (mean values within channels ranging from 39 dB to 84 dB). This high attenuation might reduce the coverage range of NB-PLC systems or even lead to the interruption of the communications when working near the sensibility thresholds of the receiver [10]. Moreover, as also reported in previous studies [13], [14], [15], these measurements do not reveal a clear trend between attenuation and frequency in the NB-PLC band. Concerning the NIEs, the frequency analysis shows that the amplitude of the recorded emissions is considerably higher in channel 1 (highest PSHV) compared to channels 3-8. Moreover, the FFT analysis presented in this study demonstrates that the emissions recorded in the reconstructed LV grid are periodic with the fundamental frequency of the mains (50 Hz), being generally the FFT component at 100 Hz the one with the largest amplitude. Therefore, this paper presents relevant results regarding the characterization of the LV grid as a transmission medium in presence of modern power sources, which is a first step before evaluating NB-PLC technologies in this controlled LV grid. Considering the higher amplitude of the emissions in channel 1 and comparable attenuation values in the whole frequency band, channels 3-8 of PRIME v1.4 seem to be more suitable for NB-PLC than channel 1. Future studies should evaluate the performance of PRIME v1.4 standard in terms of Bit Error Rate (BER) or FER vs SNR under these circumstances, in order to relate the potential degradation of NB-PLC systems with these channel characteristics. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was financially supported in part by the Basque Government under the grants IT1436-22, KK-2024/00089, by the Spanish Government under project THERESA, grant PID2021-124706OB-I00 funded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and ERDF/EU and by the MET4EVCS Euramet European Project 23IND06. REFERENCES [1] S. Galli, A. Scaglione, and Z. Wang, “Power Line Communications and the Smart Grid,” in 2010 First IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications, 2010, pp. 303–308. doi: 10.1109/SMARTGRID.2010.5622060. [2] G. Hallak, C. Nieß, and G. Bumiller, “Accurate Low Access Impedance Measurements With Separated Load Impedance Measurements on the Power-Line Network,” IEEE Trans Instrum Meas, vol. 67, no. 10, pp. 2282–2293, 2018, doi: 10.1109/TIM.2018.2814138. [3] M. 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