Transition from low-threshold vocational education and training to work in Switzerland: Factors influencing objective and subjective career success

Hofmann, Claudia; Müller, Xenia; Krauss, Annette; Häfeli, Kurt Article Transition from low-threshold vocational education and training to work in Switzerland: Factors influencing objective and subjective career success International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training (IJRVET) Provided in Cooperation with: European Research Network in Vocational Education and Training (VETNET), European Educational Research Association Suggested Citation: Hofmann, Claudia; Müller, Xenia; Krauss, Annette; Häfeli, Kurt (2021) : Transition from low-threshold vocational education and training to work in Switzerland: Factors influencing objective and subjective career success, International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training (IJRVET), ISSN 2197-8646, European Research Network in Vocational Education and Training (VETNET), European Educational Research Association, Bremen, Vol. 8, Iss. 2, pp. 136-159, https://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.8.2.1 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/237096 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training (IJRVET) 2021, Vol. 8, Issue 2, 136–159 https://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.8.2.1 ISSN: 2197-8646 http://www.ijrvet.net Transition From Low-Threshold Vocational Education and Training to Work in Switzerland: Factors Influencing Objective and Subjective Career Success Claudia Hofmann*, Xenia Müller, Annette Krauss, Kurt Häfeli University of Applied Science in Special Needs Education, Schaffhauserstr. 239, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland Received: 03 July 2020, Accepted: 15 March 2021 Abstract Context: There are currently two low-threshold vocational education and training (VET) options in Switzerland for young people at risk: A two-year programme for a Federal VET certificate and a practical training programme designed for young people with special needs. In the present study, we looked at transitions from these programmes to the labour market. Possible influences on objective and subjective indicators of career success, such as social background, personal disposition, and training, were considered. Methods: Data were collected from 418 apprentices in the Frenchand German-speaking parts of Switzerland at three measurement points: t1, at the beginning of training; t2, upon completion of training; and t3, 10 months later. Participants responded to a written questionnaire. Findings: Ten months after completing their apprenticeships, the majority of participating young people were either employed or continuing their education. Results of the multinomial logistic and linear regressions showed a differentiated, rather than uniform, picture depending on the criteria for career success. The background factors of gender and school (9th grade) were associated with objective success after the apprenticeship ended but not *Corresponding author: [email protected]h 137 Hofmann, Müller, Krauss, Häfeli with subjective career success (hypothesis 1). For the variables concerning person disposition and agency (hypothesis 2), we found two plausible associations: A positive attitude towards life helped with unemployment avoidance and a highly self-rated school performance was associated with later satisfaction. As predicted in hypothesis 3, situational factors related to the VET company and school showed a number of significant but sometimes weak associations with objective and subjective career success. Additionally, competencies and support of VET trainers related to continuance in the learned profession. Conclusions: The career development paths of young people are influenced by various background and personality factors, as well as the training situation. VET trainers should be aware of their crucial role and understand how their interventions affect apprentices’ self-perceptions and perceptions of their learned professions, which consequently influence their motivations and career aspirations. The situation at the VET school (as a learning and social place) is equally important, especially because of the aim to increase permeability for further training. Young people not in employment, education or training (NEET) are of particular concern. Even though this group is smaller in Switzerland than in most other countries, a number of problematic symptoms can be detected during apprenticeship that point to the need for the prevention of a later NEET status. Keywords: Vocational Education and Training, VET, Special Education, Career Development, Outcomes of Education and Training, Employment 1 Introduction The transition from school to work has become a political issue in Switzerland because of its lengthening and complexification (Bergman et al., 2011; Sacchi & Meyer, 2016). In this context, transition is an even bigger challenge for young people with special educational needs, those with a migration background, and youth at risk in general (Hofmann & Schellenberg, 2019; Bynner, 2012; Schmid, 2020). These young people may have specific problems finding suitable apprenticeships and fulfilling the relevant requirements. Furthermore, they have a higher risk of dropping out of training programmes (Hupka & Stalder, 2011). This situation is not unique to Switzerland; it is a concern for other European countries also (Bergman et al., 2011; Fasching et al., 2017). Accordingly, there is much concern about young people who do not succeed—those who are not employed or receiving education or applicable training (NEET status; Carcillo & Königs, 2015). Moreover, there is still insufficient information about the career development of youths with special educational needs, especially regarding factors that facilitate the transition from VET to the labour market for this group. 138 Transition From Low-Threshold VET to Work in Switzerland Qualifications at the upper secondary level have proven to be one especially important factor for labour market opportunities (Carcillo & Königs, 2015). In this context, "dual" systems for apprenticeship training with two learning places—the training company and the vocational school—have turned out to be particularly successful (Robson, 2010). In Switzerland, two-thirds of young people follow this pathway after completing their compulsory schooling (Stalder & Nägele, 2011). Youths with special needs, as well as those with linguistic or behavioural difficulties, are often guided towards a two-year programme with a federal VET certificate, which is a low-threshold alternative to the threeor four-year federal VET diploma (Hofmann & Müller, 2017; Hofmann, 2019). Apprenticeship training follows a standardised programme focused on practical activities and can be fulfilled for approximately fifty occupations. When this programme was introduced, experts in the field of special education were concerned about the increased demands. As a consequence, the association of institutions for people with handicaps, INSOS (Nationaler Branchenverband der Institutionen für Menschen mit Behinderung), introduced another two-year programme called "Practical Training" to bridge the gap to the basic federal VET programme. Both low-threshold programmes aim to improve employability and to ensure that young professionals meet the demands of the labour market in their learned professions. The results of a previous longitudinal study (Kammermann, 2010) confirmed that the chances of finding jobs in firms other than the training firms have increased; permeability for further training has also improved. Nevertheless, 12% of the young people in this study were unemployed after completing their apprenticeships—a higher figure than the average unemployment rate of 6% for those aged 15-24 years in Switzerland (BFS, 2019). This highlights the importance of knowing more about other important influencing factors related to the transition from VET to employment. Besides social background and individual resources, support and counselling are important for promoting a smooth transition for this special group of young people, according to previous studies (Kammermann, 2010). In this paper, we refer to a socio-ecological model in which dimensions of agency, as well as social resources in the proximal settings of the social context (family, migration), are considered (Schoon & Lyons-Amos, 2017). During the transition period, the training or work setting can also be important (Fouad & Bynner, 2008). According to a previous study in the context of low-threshold apprenticeships, skill variety and support from the trainer play important roles in career development following the completion of training (Hofmann et al., 2014). Moreover, a general question remains regarding how to measure career success or successful school-to-work transition for disadvantaged young people. Typically, career success is differentiated by objective (e.g. status, salary) and subjective aspects (e.g. career satisfaction) (Ng et al., 2005). However, Heslin (2005) avers that the different contexts of work life should also be taken into account. For the training period, perseverance and successful completion, as well as entry into a job or further training (e.g. higher vocational education), are important 139 Hofmann, Müller, Krauss, Häfeli objective indicators (Häfeli & Schellenberg, 2009). It is also important to consider if young people are finding adequate jobs in their professions or if they have to take any job they can get. Subjective indicators are, for example, training satisfaction or later work satisfaction. 2 Theoretical Background 2.1 Social Background First, we look at how background factors, such as socioeconomic status or parental interest, migrant status, or region, influence career success early in one’s career. Research results confirm the persistent effect of socio-demographic factors that shape school and professional success and, especially, the pathway to higher academic education (Becker & Schulze, 2013; Nägele et al., 2018). Specifically, in a comparison of different OECD countries (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), NEET status is influenced by such background factors as the socioeconomic level of parents (status) and parental education ( Carcillo & Königs, 2015). In British longitudinal studies, parental education and parental interest in a child’s education play significant roles in predicting different educational paths, especially NEET status (Bynner & Parsons, 2002; Schoon & Lyons-Amos, 2017). In the Swiss TREE panel study, socioeconomic background, migrant status, gender, and region were influential for career success (Hupka-Brunner et al., 2015; Meyer, 2018). A German study shows disadvantages of migrant youth (especially the first generation) in a comparison with non-migrant youth, even when other influencing factors, such as social origin, are taken into account (Beicht & Walden, 2019). Finally, the influence of gender on career success has repeatedly been demonstrated. In most measures, existing studies show disadvantages for women ( Meyer, 2018; Robson, 2010; Schoon & Lyons-Amos, 2017). Another important predictor of NEET status (more generally, later career success) is the individual’s educational achievement during compulsory schooling (Bynner & Parsons, 2002; Häfeli & Schellenberg, 2009). Educational achievement is influenced by socioeconomic background and migrant status, but even when these factors are controlled for, early school success is linked to later career success. This holds true also for students with disabilities or special educational needs (SENs). Early tracking into special classes—compared to inclusive schooling—has negative long-term effects on VET entry or self-esteem for students with matched abilities and family backgrounds (Eckhart & Sahli Lozano, 2014). However, in another Swiss study, apprentices from SEN backgrounds had a similar rate for labour market entry when compared with those of non-SEN backgrounds, even though they experienced a slower start (Hofmann & Häfeli, 2015). These groups completed a two-year Federal VET certificate, which seemed to be well-suited to the needs of disadvantaged youth. 140 Transition From Low-Threshold VET to Work in Switzerland 2.2 Individual Disposition and Agency The literature on career success shows the influence of a variety of personality characteristics, such as cognitive ability, personality traits, and learning motivation (Ng et al., 2005; Roberts et al., 2007). An American study shows that disability—specifically, cognitive/learning disability, rather than physical disability—is strongly connected to disadvantaged pathways, mainly because it affects educational attainment and has effects consistently larger than several sociodemographic indicators (Erickson & MacMillan, 2018). In Switzerland, high Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) reading literacy scores at the end of compulsory schooling are strong predictors for enrolling in tertiary education later (Hupka-Brunner et al., 2015; Meyer, 2018). However, results from the same dataset also show that even young people with low or exceptionally low reading literacy scores can successfully complete vocational education in the Swiss context (Buchholz et al., 2012). Noncognitive skills (i.e. personality traits, such as conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness) are just as predictive as cognitive ability or socioeconomic background for a range of outcomes, including educational attainment, labour market performance, and health status (Ng et al., 2005; Roberts et al., 2007). These general findings from meta-analytic studies are supported in a review on NEET research (Carcillo & Königs, 2015). In a German project, the important role of personality traits and vocational interests in securing success (satisfaction and dropout intention) in the first months of VET is demonstrated (Volodina et al., 2015). However, a Dutch study on vocational education cites no significant association between first-year dropout cases and, respectively, personality traits and cognitive skills (Eegdeman et al., 2018). Self-efficacy and learning motivation are concepts related to certain personality traits, such as conscientiousness and emotional stability. School engagement and academic selfconcepts (as indicators of self-efficacy) are associated with distinct pathways (such as NEET), according to an English study (Schoon & Lyons-Amos, 2017). 2.3 Factors Related to Vocational Training and Work In addition to influences from social background or personality traits, situational factors related to vocational training and work can be important (Humphrey et al., 2007). These factors would be particularly relevant for the design and improvement of training. A first characteristic of the interaction between the person and work situation is the personenvironment fit (PE fit). Results in a heterogeneous sample of French employees indicate that PE fit relates positively to job satisfaction and negatively to burnout and turnover intention (Andela & van der Doef, 2018). Among Swiss apprentices, perceived fit with the occupation 141 Hofmann, Müller, Krauss, Häfeli is a good predictor of job satisfaction and the intention to complete training (Nägele & Neuenschwander, 2015). Various workplace characteristics (e.g. learning opportunities, autonomy, and skill variety) seem to have positive outcome effects (Humphrey et al., 2007). In a Swiss study on VET careers, learning opportunities—not socio-demographic factors—predicted engagement in higher vocational education (Nägele et al., 2018). Additionally, job resources (influence at work and opportunities for development) seem to protect against occupational turnover in the European nursing sector, whereas job demands (emotional demands and work-home-interference) are positively related to turnover (Van der Heijden et al., 2018). For Swiss apprentices with lower qualifications, skill variety relevant to the workplace and absence of stress while in vocational school contribute to staying employed after VET or continuing with further training (Hofmann & Häfeli, 2015; Stalder, 2012). Finally, social support in the training environment is important, especially for young people with learning or other difficulties (Hofmann et al., 2014). It has been shown to influence competency development in vocational school (Neuenschwander et al., 2007), selfesteem (Linnehan, 2003), and future career satisfaction (Ng et al., 2005). Results of a Swiss study showed that the VET teacher’s support was directly and indirectly related to career aspirations at the end of an apprenticeship, whereas the VET trainer’s support influenced career aspirations only indirectly (Hofmann et al., 2014). 2.4 Hypotheses The meta-analysis by Ng et al. (2005) showed that socio-demographic factors and "human capital" (e.g. training/work-related experience) tended to influence objective career success, whereas organisational support and stable personality traits were likely to predict subjective career success. Accordingly, Schoon and Lyons-Amos (2017) argued that if the demands of the developmental transitions are not matched to the capabilities of the individual or if they amplify previous difficulties, there can be a negative effect on mental health and well-being. This argument also refers to the concept of fit and perception of fit, a central theme in works on transition and training paths (Neuenschwander & Gerber, 2014). The fit between the requirements of training paths and the skills and interests of targeted youths is an important influencing factor on subjective and objective career success. Based on the literature cited, we assumed the following: 1. Socio-demographic factors (e.g. gender, parental education, migration status) have only a marginal influence on objective career success because earlier selection processes are more crucial. 142 Transition From Low-Threshold VET to Work in Switzerland 2. Individual disposition (e.g. effort/concentration, life attitude) influence subjective career success. 3. Training and work conditions (e.g. skill variety, fit perception) have an influence on objective and subjective career success. Figure 1 summarises the influencing factors relevant in the context of this study. Figure 1: Relationships Between Background, Apprenticeship Situation, Persons, and Later Occupational Situation 3 Method 3.1 Participants and Procedures Data were collected in the Frenchand German-speaking parts of Switzerland from four sectors of the federal VET certificate and practical training: Gastronomy, joinery, home economics, and building. These four sectors (out of approximately 50 occupations) were chosen for different reasons. They are numerically important (number of contracts) and some were already taken into account in previous studies, which allows for comparisons. The sectors vary in their content and in their gender composition. Furthermore, there is much concern about the number of early interruptions of the training in the building and gastronomy sector, which is an important question for the whole study. For our analyses, sectors were not taken into account because there were no indications of differences between sectors concerning Apprenticeship Situation t1–t2 –VET company: Stress, competencies of VET trainer, variety at work –VET school: Stress, support from VET teacher, variety at school – Fit perception with learned profession Backgroung (t1) – Country of birth (Switzerland vs. foreign country) – School career (last year at regular vs. special school/school abroad) – Gender Person (apprentice) t1–t2 – Positive attitude towards life – Effort/concentration at work/school – Self-rated performance in work/school Professional Situation (t3) Objective: Work (learned profession, other), further education, unemployed status Subjective: Satisfaction with occupational situation 143 Hofmann, Müller, Krauss, Häfeli the question of how different factors relate to career outcomes. There were three measurement points. The first (Tt1) took place in autumn 2016 when participants were beginning their two-year vocational training programme. T1 took place at the Vocational School with 788 participants that responded to a written questionnaire in a classroom setting (everybody present on that day, thus response rate was 100%). They were asked about their backgrounds, career choices, and current apprenticeship situations. The researchers were present during data collection to provide assistance. T2 took place in spring 2018 at the end of the training programme (714 participants)1. The procedure was the same as that for t1. Apprentices were asked about their situations at school and companies; additionally, they were asked about their future perspectives. T3 followed in summer 2019, 10 months after training ended (424 participants)2. Each participant received a letter and questionnaire. Those who did not answer were contacted by phone and asked to respond orally to the questions. Again, they were asked about their current situations. In this study, data of persons who participated either in all three measurement points, or at t1 and t3, or at t2 and t3, were included in the analyses (a total of 418 participants). The mean age of participants at t1 was 18.97 years (SD = 4.33); 40.4% were females. Regarding the qualification level, 81.6% were basic VET certificate learners and 18.4% were practical training learners. Sectors were represented as follows: 23.4%, joinery; 19.9%, building; 29.7%, gastronomy; and 25.4%, home economics. Additionally, 1.7% were from other training sectors. 3.2 Measures Background At t1, all participants were asked about country of birth, educational backgrounds of their parents, and school setting for each year of compulsory education (regular school, special school, or special classes). Stress at the VET Company Stress at the VET company was measured with a scale based on research by Semmer et al. (1999) consisting of five items (e.g. "Time-pressure at work is high", "I have to do difficult things that I have not yet learned"). Participants answered on a Likert scale ranging from 1 = "very rarely/never" to 5 = "very often". At t1, Cronbach’s α was .75; at t2, it was .76. 1 Some apprentices prematurely dropped out of the VET, others entered because they were downgraded from the VET diploma, thus the composition of the sample changed. 2 The analysis of missing data shows no significant systematic dropouts regarding gender, former school career, migration background, sectors. This is also true for the scales that we used in our analyses with one exception: Perceived fit is higher for participants compared to non-participants (only answering at t1 or at t1 and t2). 150 Transition From Low-Threshold VET to Work in Switzerland Table 4: Predicting Satisfaction With Situation 10 Months After Completion of Apprenticeship (Linear Regression, N = 300) Model 1 Model 2 ßSE ßSE Background Gender (1 = female, 2 = male) -.16 .17 -.01 .14 Country of birth (1 = Swiss origin, 2 = abroad) .03 .19 .01 .16 School at 9th grade (1 = regular, 2 = special) -.02 .18 -.02 .15 Situation at VET company Stress at work -.08 .14 -.10t .12 Competencies of VET trainer -.06 .18 -.05 .15 Variety at work .22** .18 .23*** .15 Situation at VET school Stress at school -.02 .13 .06 .11 Support from VET teacher .04 .13 .04 .10 Variety at school -.12t .15 -.10 t .13 Perceived fit with learned profession .12t .20 .04 .17 Person Effort/commitment at work .06 .21 .06 .18 Performance at work (self-rated) .03 .15 .02 .13 Effort/concentration at school -.01 .23 -.01 .19 Performance in school (self-rated) .10 .16 .13* .13 Positive attitude towards life .08 .14 .01 .12 Situation at t3 (0 = unemployed/NEET, 1 = employed/further education) .53*** .20 Note. tp < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001; ß = regression coefficient; SE = standard error. The independent variables in Model 1 significantly explained satisfaction with the situation 10 months after the end of the apprenticeship (F (15) = 3.02, p < .001), but the overall explained variance was small (i.e. R2 = .14; R2cor = .09). According to our analyses, skill variety at work seemed to be the most influential factor. apprentices rating variety at work at t1 and t2 more positively were also more satisfied with their situations at t3 (ß =.22, p < .01). Variety at school had an opposite effect (ß = -.12, p < .10): Apprentices who rated variety at VET school more positively were less likely to be satisfied with their situations at t3. Perceived fit with the learned profession also had a weak effect in the expected direction: Apprentices perceiving a better fit at t1 and t2 were more satisfied with their situations at t3 (ß = .12, p < .10). Adding the situation at t3 as an independent variable to explain satisfaction at t3 led to a much better fit of the model (F (16) = 11.68, p < .001): R2 is .36 (R2cor = .40). The situation at t3 151 Hofmann, Müller, Krauss, Häfeli had the strongest effect: Young workers or students pursuing further education were far more satisfied with their situations than persons of NEET status (ß = .53, p < .001). Even when controlling for this variable, variety of work at the VET company was still important: Those who perceived more variety at work during the apprenticeship were more satisfied with their situations later (ß = .23, p < .001). In addition, stress at the VET company during apprenticeship had a weak, negative effect on later satisfaction with the situation in Model 2 (ß = -.10, p < .10). Furthermore, the weak, negative effect of variety at VET school persisted in this model (ß = -.10, p < .10). Finally, we found that performance at VET school significantly influenced later satisfaction with one’s situation (ß = .13, p < .05). 5 Discussion and Conclusions 5.1 Discussion Looking at the careers of young people in low-threshold VET programmes in Switzerland, we found that 10 months after completing their apprenticeships, the majority (80%) were either employed or pursuing further education. Already, the heterogeneity of occupational pathways was evident, though these young people were in the early period of work life. In our study, we took a broad perspective regarding possible influences on the pathways, which included indicators of objective and subjective career success. We not only looked at social background, personal disposition, and agency, but we also included the training situation, thus expanding the socio-ecological model of human agency (Schoon & Lyons-Amos, 2017). While trying to become independent from their families, young people aged 16–20 might be especially receptive to workplace influences as well as those at the VET schools. Results of the multinomial logistic and linear regressions showed a differentiated picture, rather than a uniform one, depending on the criteria for career success. For example, background factors of gender and school (9th grade) were associated with one’s objective status after completion of the apprenticeship but not with subjective career success (hypothesis 1). As in other studies, young men, even at this early stage, demonstrated greater career success than women by continuing their education at the next level (Hupka-Brunner et al., 2015; Schoon & Lyons-Amos, 2017). The basis for this finding is probably related to the sectors in which males were working, where further education is generally expected and valued by the labour market. Their higher rates of occupational changes could be interpreted as the search for better prospects regarding pay (Müller & Schweri, 2009) or a temporary solution until the beginning of military service. The influence of school background persisted even after completion of a standardised training programme. People from special classes and schools were less often pursuing further 152 Transition From Low-Threshold VET to Work in Switzerland education and more often employed in occupations other than their learned ones. These results confirm those of other studies: Early tracking and separation often continues after compulsory education (Eckhart & Sahli Lozano, 2014). Young people with SENs are often guided towards the secondary labour market, and apprenticeships take place in specialised institutions; these situations influence future career success (Hofmann & Schaub, 2014). For the variables concerning person disposition and agency (hypothesis 2), we found only two plausible associations. A positive attitude towards life helps one avoid unemployment (or more generally, NEET) and a high self-rated school performance is associated with future satisfaction, which partly confirms the results of Schoon & Lyons-Amos (2017) and Volodina et al. (2015). However, "agency" seems to be less important for the group of learners with SENs than for other groups, probably because of a selection bias. Schoon and Lyons-Amos (2017) found that people with higher aspirations were less likely to be in NEET status but also less likely to be in VET or employed. Moreover, apprentices in low-threshold training situations were usually more dependent on their social networks; generally, other external factors (e.g. unemployment rate) could have played an important role at the time of entry to the labour market (Müller & Schweri, 2009). As expected (hypothesis 3), situational factors related to the VET company and school showed a number of significant but sometimes weak associations with objective and subjective career success. So, competencies and support of the VET trainer were related to staying in the learned profession. The VET trainer probably acts as a role model and motivates this choice after apprenticeship. Surprisingly, the VET trainer’s influence did not work for undertaking further education in our study, which contradicts findings of other studies ( Hofmann et al., 2014; Nägele et al. 2018) but can be explained by the high correlation with other independent variables (e.g. skill variety) that mediate these associations. However, one of two predictors of further education was stress experienced at VET school, which seems to undermine the intention to continue one’s education. In view of the higher intellectual demands to obtain a VET diploma, this is comprehensible. The other (even stronger) predictor is perceived fit with the learned profession, which is confirmed by other studies (Andela & van der Doef, 2018; Nägele & Neuenschwander, 2015). Another important factor—not for objective but for subjective career success—is skill variety at the VET company (Humphrey et al., 2007). Apprentices who rated skill variety highly were more likely to be satisfied with their later situations. Stalder (2012) also found that skill variety at the VET company was related to satisfaction and successful transition to the labour market, but skill variety at VET school did not have that effect. We found the same surprising result; apprentices who rated variety at VET school positively were less satisfied with their later work situations. It is likely that those who enjoyed being intellectually challenged missed this learning place, whereas more practically skilled young people did not. 153 Hofmann, Müller, Krauss, Häfeli 5.2 Limitations and Further Research Our findings should be interpreted in light of certain limitations. First, although we conducted our research with a special sample that was representative of young people with learning difficulties in four major fields of vocational training, this sample was not representative of young people in transition, nor did it represent young people with handicaps, learning disabilities, and other difficulties in general. Second, we were faced with the problem of missing responses at t3 (the labour market situation), which reduced our sample sizes, particularly for different groups needed for our comparisons. Under these circumstances, even large effect sizes might not reach statistical significance. Furthermore, there may be an effect on our results even though we analysed missing data and did not find indications of systematic drop-out. Third, we relied on self-reported data; some measures were based on single items (i.e. less stable than multi-item scales); a few scales showed only modest reliability. Finally, we observed only a short period for the transition to employment (i.e. the first 10 months). Though this is a crucial period, further research should follow the changes in transitions at later time points because former studies illustrated that the first years after training are not very stable (Hofmann & Häfeli, 2015). 5.3 Practical Implications Though the results of many studies point to various background and personality factors as related to the career development of young people, our results indicate that the situations at the VET company and VET school might compensate for some young people, especially those with disadvantages or handicaps. First, VET trainers should be aware of their crucial role and how their interventions affect apprentices’ self-perceptions and perceptions of their learned professions, which consequently influence motivation and career aspirations. It is important to be aware of apprentices with special needs in VET but it is also crucial not to underestimate these young people because opportunities at the VET company (e.g. skill variety) prepare them for future work situations and facilitate their transition. The situation at the VET school (as a learning and social place) is equally important, especially for increasing permeability towards further training. Because stress at VET school seems to be a predicting factor, it is important to be aware of the aspirations and doubts of apprentices. Furthermore, stress at VET school is also related to a later NEET status, which points to the role of VET teachers in identifying young people at risk. Young people classified as NEET are of special concern. Even though this group is smaller (12%) in Switzerland than in most OECD countries (Carcillo & Königs, 2015), they show a number of problematic symptoms during their apprenticeships (e.g. lower perceived fit with learned professions, less positive attitude towards life) and are less satisfied with their situations after completing VET. Programmes with a daily structure and training opportunities are important for pre- 154 Transition From Low-Threshold VET to Work in Switzerland paring unemployed young people to enter the labour market. Assisting low-achieving youth in this effort remains challenging; the training company and VET school must support these vulnerable groups in their career development. 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Job characteristics and experience as predictors of occupational turnover intention and occupational turnover in the European nursing sector. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 108, 108–120. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.06.008 Volodina, A., Nagy, G., & Köller, O. (2015). Success in the first phase of the vocational career: The role of cognitive and scholastic abilities, personality factors, and vocational interests. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 91, 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.08.009 Biographical Notes Claudia Hofmann, Dr phil., is Senior Researcher at the University of Teacher Education in Special Needs in Zurich (Switzerland). She studied psychology, media sciences and sociology at the University of Berne and worked as a career counsellor for several years. Her research interests include professional orientation, school-to-work transition for young people with disabilities and special needs, low-threshold vocational education, transition to working-live and career develompment. Annette Krauss, M.Sc., is Junior Researcher at the University of Teacher Education in Special Needs in Zurich. She does research in developmental and health psychology, and applied vocational psychology. She is particularly interested in the prevention of mental and behavioral disorders in adolescence and works currently on her dissertation project entitled "Well-being and coping of adolescents with ADHD-symptoms and the role of various protective factors". 159 Hofmann, Müller, Krauss, Häfeli Xenia Müller, Dr phil., is Senior Researcher at the University of Teacher Education in Special Needs, Zurich. After her diploma in special needs education (2003), she worked as a special teacher in several schools for children and youth with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Her main topics in research and teaching are children and youth with behavioural and emotional problems in the classroom, low-threshold vocational education and quantitative statistics. Kurt Häfeli, Prof. Dr, studied psychology, pedagogy and social psychology at the University of Zurich, Switzerland and University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA. He has worked in the fields of vocational and adult education in public and private organisations and was Head of Research and at the University of Teacher Education in Special Needs in Zurich. His research interests include transition school-to-work, youth at risk, special needs education, apprenticeship, resilience, life course development, longitudinal studies.