Climate Change and Vulnerability of the Arctic Elderly: An Assessment from Human Rights Point of View

Begum, Shahnaj Article Climate Change and Vulnerability of the Arctic Elderly: An Assessment from Human Rights Point of View CES Working Papers Provided in Cooperation with: Centre for European Studies, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Suggested Citation: Begum, Shahnaj (2012) : Climate Change and Vulnerability of the Arctic Elderly: An Assessment from Human Rights Point of View, CES Working Papers, ISSN 2067-7693, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Centre for European Studies, Iasi, Vol. 4, Iss. 3a, pp. 459-479 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/198191 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 459 CLIMATE CHANGE AND VULNERABILITY OF THE ARCTIC ELDERLY: AN ASSESSMENT FROM HUMAN RIGHTS POINT OF VIEW Shahnaj Begum University of Lapland, Finland [email protected] Abstract: There are increasing challenges among the elderly in the Arctic region. Global warming due to climate change is one of the major reasons for these challenges. Because of climate change temperature in the region increases, which results in rapid melting of sea ice causing various environmental, social, cultural and economic problems. Population in the region suffers from these problems where elderly people are the most vulnerable. Climate change has already affected the elderly lives in different ways, such as, by physical, social, political, cultural and psychological ways. These have serious consequences in terms of human rights of this vulnerable group of people. However, the elderly people’s human rights issues have not been adequately researched in the context of this region. The goal of this paper is to present elderly related human rights issues, particularly the rights that are affected due to climate change in this specific region. Keywords: elderly, Challenges, climate change, human rights, Arctic region, vulnerable JEL Classification: Q5, R11 INTRODUCTION The elderly* people are the fastest growing population all across the world (Mégret (a), 2011, p. 34). It is expected that this growth will be drastic in the future. The former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan stated at the 2nd World Assembly on Ageing (Madrid, 2002), “The world is undergoing an unprecedented demographic transformation. Between now and 2050, the number of older persons will rise from about 600 million to almost two billion. In less than 50 years from now, for the first time in history, the world will contain more people over 60 years old than under 15” (CESCR General Comment, 1995). As a result, elderly people‟s concerns are likely to rise gradually in all across the world. The Arctic region will not be an exception in this regard. According to the predictions of the Finland Demographic Statistics, the number of people with age of 65 will increase over 600,000 by 2030 (Patosalmi, 2011, p. 1). Another source also support that at present, people under 15 years constitute about 18% of the total population and those over 65 * Elderly‟ in this proposal refers to ‟elder persons‟, „old people‟, „senior persons‟ including „elderly men and women‟. Since in Finland, in different research the age from 65 has counted as an elderly person, I will also take that age as my reference. C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 460 years some 15%. The number of people aged 65 years or over will grow by about 400,000 (e.g. by over 50%) in the next 20 years (Järvelin, 2002, p. 1). The Arctic faces huge challenges in the event of global climate change. The effect of climate change is significant on marginalized people all over the world. As marginalized people the elderly population suffers from various problems due to the adverse consequences of climate change. On one hand climate change strengthens existing vulnerabilities (World Development report, 2010), and on the other hand it is also linked to inequality (Cameron, 2011, p. 2). Climate change motivated indirect effects also include mental and social stress which is related to loss of community and culture (Parkinson and Berner, 2009, p. 84) putting psychological pressure upon particularly the elderly people who belong to such community. Since climate change in the Arctic occurs twice faster compared to other parts of the region (Hassol, 2004, p. 12), the elderly people in the Arctic are likely to suffer the most by the climate change related consequences. The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) was issued in 2005, which was the first inclusive scientific assessment of climate change in the Arctic. The assessment came up with ten significant findings. Out of these, findings 8, 9, and 10 are particularly relevant in the context of the Arctic people.* These findings speak about community, culture, economy, health and well-being of the Arctic people in which the elderly people‟s concerns are well placed. These concerns significantly affect particular aspects of human rights of the region‟s elderly population. It may be argued that human rights-based assessment of climate change is of particular relevance in the Arctic as far as current approaches activate human rights rhetoric in the interests of perceiving inclusive system for mitigating climate change (Humphreys, 2008, p. 11). * See: Findings 8, 9, 10 are: Indigenous communities are facing major economic and cultural impacts; elevated ultraviolet radiation levels will affect people, plants, and animals; multiple influences interact to cause impacts to people and ecosystems, Arctic Council 2005. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Scientific Report, (Cambridge University Press, 2005), 863-960. C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 461 Figure 1 – Population in the Arctic regions Source: Nordregio at www.nordregio.se. While the debate over comprehensive human rights for elderly has started in recent years, and scholars argue more and more on elderly human rights to take seriously (Doron and Apter, 2010, p. 586; Butler, 2002, p. 152), there is no such particular development regarding all inclusive elderly human rights. The rights of elderly persons have not yet attracted international legal attention as there is no specific instrument exclusively addressing elderly people‟s human rights (Fagan, 2002). The reference to this assertion can be found also in the statement of the African Commission on Human and People‟s Rights (Yeung Sik Yuen, 2008). However, there are a number of international and regional instruments that address particular aspects of human rights applicable to the elderly population. They include aspects of human rights generally applicable to all as well as to a particular group of people, such as to children, people with disability, women, migrant workers, C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 462 indigenous people etc. The elderly human rights may be deduced from these instruments. Yet it is suggested that an inclusive research on the necessity to protect elderly human rights required (Mégret (a), 2011, p. 38). The Human Rights Council Advisory Committee in 2009 has also come up with similar conclusion. It is particularly important in the Arctic context, and precisely in the context of elderly people of the region, since vulnerability of elderly people from the human rights perspective has not been properly addressed elsewhere. The aim of this paper is not to examine any legal violation of human rights or any legal remedy to be provided where there is a violation of human rights. Rather, it intends to address the challenges of the elderly population of the Arctic region, resulted from climate change, and to integrate human rights aspects associated with such challenges. The aim therefore is to show how climate change consequences affect elderly people‟s human rights in this particular region. This paper thus addresses three important issues in this context. First, it examines how elderly people are affected due to the climate change in the Arctic, specifically in the Nordic Arctic. The aim is to show how elderly people in this region affect differently than that of the other region. Second, it delineates the particular provisions embodied in the human rights instruments applicable to the elderly people of the region. Third, it examines how the climate change related consequences affect the region‟s elderly population, particularly from the perspective of human rights. The methodology used for this paper is the reviews of extensive literature, which include: scientific articles and monographs, relevant international and regional legal instruments, the reports and statements published by the United Nations and other international and regional institutions as well as informal discussions with scholars and stakeholders. C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 463 Figure 2 – Population aged 65-79 years and 80 years and over, in 2011 Source: Nordregio at www.nordregio.se. 1. IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE ELDERLY POPULATION IN THE ARCTIC REGION The Arctic consists of the northern parts of eight nations: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Canada, Russia, and the United States (Alaska) (Hassol, 2004, p. 5). The region is inhabited by almost four million people. They include local people and recent arrivals, hunters and herders, city dwellers etc. These inhabitants are encompassed of different proportions of indigenous and non-indigenous peoples (Parkinson, 2008, p. 156; Hassol, 2004, p. 6). Among all these inhabitants elderly people are significant in number. Despite that fact that challenges posed by climate change affect the entire portion of inhabitants in the region, the elderly people are particularly vulnerable. While aging itself or turning age 65 does not make a people vulnerable, socio-cultural elements as well as physiological conditions exacerbated by the negative impacts of climate change create greater vulnerability (Filiberto et al., 2010, pp. 19-25). As mentioned, climate change contributes to major challenges in the region; it greatly affects the overall socio-economic, cultural, environmental and infrastructural aspects. The distinct groups of people in the Arctic, C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 464 especially in its remote regions, already survive with little public support, poor economic infrastructure and poor means of communication services. The population in the region to a great extent suffers from access to community health and acute care systems, which are minimal and poorly supported in these distant areas. These factors, when combined with the adverse consequences of climate change, create a complex social situation contributing to distracting economies, abolishing livelihoods, undermining development and exacerbating discriminations between the sexes (UN Population Fund, 2009, p.1). In many cases such changes encourage migration of the young people to the urban areas outside the region leaving their elderly generation behind, which results in isolation for the region‟s elderly. Even though climate change has both positive and negative impact to the Arctic communities, it poses distinct challenges from both social and economic perspective (Rasmussen, 2009, p. 525). The following sections highlight the instances of the effects of climate change on the region‟s elderly people. 1.1 Social and Economic Effect As far as the elderly people are concerned, one of the major problems in the region is population decrease, in particular the decrease of young people. Because of the poor condition of living and livelihood, unpredicted economic sustenance and the lack of available local and traditional resources, the region‟s young people migrate for better opportunities in the urban areas. The elderly people in most cases are left alone in the region. For the elderly losing of family tie and suffering from social bondage with the loved ones contribute to psychological stress upon them. In addition limited movement capacity obstructs them from being engaged in other social activities. Moreover, unavailability of adequate social networks and limited access to social gatherings make them feel even lonelier. The overall consequence results in isolation and helplessness. The elderly people of the region feel themselves worthless, which finally may turn to psychological problems. On one hand social isolation, and on the other hand chronic diseases linked to old age, together would cause greater risk to the region‟s elderly (Haq and Kohler, 2008, p. 19). Moreover, the elderly who are in one way or another engaged in economic activities face multifaceted difficulties. To mention one example, in the workshop entitled “Barents International Political Economy: Governance and Gender” held at the Arctic Centre in the University of Lapland on 15 December 2010, it was mentioned that climate change has negative impact to the elderly women‟s life. Especially economically they become vulnerable. The elderly women, who come from Russian border to do business in the open market in Kirkenes (Norway), suffer from a greater economic risk C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 465 because of unpredicted weather causing no business benefits. However, they have to pay in advance for the permission to the authority for a specific duration of the business function. This situation really affects elderly people‟s social and economic life. As a result, the elderly people suffer from narrow and restricted social lives. Figure 3 – Population change, 2000-2010 Source: Nordregio at www.nordregio.se. C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 466 1.2 Health related affect The affect on health is the most obvious consequences of climate change. The impacts vary from place to place due to regional differences in climate change as well as variations in health status, psychological and social characteristics, and adaptive capacity of different populations (Geller and Zenick, 2005, pp. 1257-1262). Temperature rise causes significant higher mortality risk of the elderly in the Arctic (Costello and Abbas et al., 2009, p. 373). Extreme cold and longer wet environment bring other health problem such as, hypothermia, bronchitis, pneumonia among elderly and children (Guide on Climate Change & Indigenous Peoples, 2009, p. 11). In this regard an interesting discussion has been held recently in the 10th Annual Research Seminar entitled “Science-Policy Interface – Societal Impacts of Arctic Research”, organized by ARKTIS Doctoral Programme of the Arctic Centre in the University of Lapland from 15-16 March 2012. Professor Birgitta Åhman, a keynote discussant in the Seminar, mentioned that extreme hot could be better than extreme cold for the elderly in the Arctic region. Due to aging, functional changes such as, reduced gastric acid production, changes in respiratory function, decline in blood flow, decline in pulmonary excretion, neurological degeneration can be evidenced among the elderly. Climate change accelerates these functional changes affecting particularly the elderly (Geller and Zenick, 2005, p. 1259). Physical isolation, lack of fresh water, energy insecurity, and increased prevalence and virulence of infectious diseases become apparent (Guide on Climate Change & Indigenous Peoples, 2009, p. 22). Rural Arctic residents in small, isolated communities with a fragile system of support appear to be most vulnerable because of little infrastructure and marginal or non-existent public health systems. In addition, social and economic disadvantages limit the capacity of the elderly to avoid the negative health impacts of climate change. 1.3 Health implication due to food consumption Climate change in the Arctic effects availability of traditional food, especially in the distribution of fish and wildlife. As a result significant changes occur with major health implications. Decreases in commercially important species, such as salmon, are likely to create economic hardship and health problems associated with reduced income in the traditional small communities (Parkinson, 2008, p. 161). Because of lack of traditional food, the region‟s population is forced to rely on imported western food, which on one hand is expensive, and on the other hand, C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 473 Right to health: Numerous health effects caused by climate change pose a greater risk for the Arctic elderly. Their old age physical health is exacerbated by the introduction of other invasive diseases, which is resulted from climate change. At the same time climate change related consequences also affect the health care facilities. There are four main aspects involved concerning the health care facilities to guarantee right to health, which are: availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality. It is far from the case that the region‟s elderly, particularly the elderly people living in the country side are effectively safeguarded by this right. The negative influence of climate change limits these aspects of health care facility in the Arctic. It is stated that the right to health in the context of climate change will demand wide-ranging measures, by raising importance to protecting vulnerable individuals and communities (Anton and Shelton, 2011, p. 19), including its elderly by virtue of, for example, article 12 of the ICESCR as well as article 17 of the San Salvador Protocol concerning right to special protection at old age. Right to protect family life: Right to have protected family life has strong influence to the Arctic‟s elderly people. In a study conducted by Rasmosen Ole Rasmosen, (2009) noted that younger women from the north are increasingly moving to the urban areas. The decline of the number of younger women poses a risk for elderly since they are mostly taken care of by the younger women at family. Consequently, they are deprived of their right to protected family life enshrined in article 10 of the ICESCR. Right to Culture: Culture constitutes the identity, especially for the Arctic people who are composed of, among others, groups of indigenous and coastal population. Maintaining identity and practice of culture is guaranteed in a number of human rights instruments. The adverse consequences of climate change affect this aspect of human rights in general. Losing culture and cultural identity is significant for the elderly as they suffer from the loss of community customary norms and values as well as confidence in their traditional knowledge. In the Arctic elders, for example, can no longer predict, the weather using their traditional knowledge (Henrikson, 2007, p. 22). Effect of climate change makes such knowledge unpredictable. These issues of culture and cultural identity are the core of their existence. Since in the Arctic traditional communities they are the custodian of traditional culture and traditional knowledge, loss of culture due to climate change challenges causes mental and psychological distress to the region‟s elderly population. C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 474 CONCLUSIONS Elderly people‟s human rights issues are becoming noticeable at the point of raising awareness, creating ethical demands for action and constructing coalitions (Cameron, 2011, p. 22). In the Arctic context however the mention on elderly human rights is hardly seen. This paper therefore roughly endeavours to show how climate change related consequences affect the lives and livelihood of the Arctic elderly population. The particular focus in this context has been placed on the human rights perspective. The elderly as the most vulnerable group in the region, as shown in this paper, are affected by various ways which have particular impact on human rights, such as right to life, right to health, right to access to food, health, family life, culture etc. The paper addressed these human rights concerns in order to show the vulnerability of the elderly people in terms of the enjoyment of their human rights. This paper therefore suggests some recommendations that may help the elderly to cope with the challenges they face. For example, the elderly people‟s participation in tackling climate change related problem can be developed. In this way they could contribute to problem solving mechanisms where they may involve in the policy making functions. Local authority of the region should give more concentration to ensure the safer, healthier communities for elderly people. The situation of elderly people of the region will be improved if elderly themselves, relevant stakeholders and academia work together, which will invent a national policy framework to improve the quality of life of older people. This collective effort would facilitate to tackle the impacts of climate change to the elderly lives in this region. Moreover, the elderly people have enormous spans of experiences to draw upon in the above mentioned problems. Traditional knowledge of indigenous people, for example, should be more recognized and respected in the national and international level. REFERENCES Arctic Council (AC) (2005) Arctic climate impact assessment scientific report, Cambridge University press, pp. 863-960. Alfredsson, G. (2010) Polar Law Textbook, Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers. p. 150. Anton, D.K., Shelton, D. (2011) Environmental Protection and Human Rights. Cambridge Univ. Press, p. 3. C CE ES S W Wo or rk ki in ng g P Pa ap pe er rs s 475 Butler, R.N. 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