Stakeholders and procedures in the development of national training standards - a European comparative study

Ulmer, Philipp; Geiben, Marthe; Le Mouillour, Isabelle; Milolaza, Anita Research Report Stakeholders and procedures in the development of national training standards - a European comparative study Wissenschaftliche Diskussionspapiere, No. 232 Provided in Cooperation with: Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), Bonn Suggested Citation: Ulmer, Philipp; Geiben, Marthe; Le Mouillour, Isabelle; Milolaza, Anita (2021) : Stakeholders and procedures in the development of national training standards - a European comparative study, Wissenschaftliche Diskussionspapiere, No. 232, ISBN 978-3-96208-297-0, Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB), Bonn, https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0035-0947-3 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/247661 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Stakeholders and procedures in the development of national training standards – a European comparative study Philipp Ulmer | Marthe Geiben | Isabelle Le Mouillour | Anita Milolaza ACADEMIC DISCUSSION PAPERS ACADEMIC DISCUSSION PAPERS No. 232 Philipp Ulmer | Marthe Geiben | Isabelle Le Mouillour | Anita Milolaza Stakeholders and procedures in the development of national training standards – a European comparative study The ACADEMIC DISCUSSION PAPERS issued by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) are published via the President. They appear in the form of signed contributions from their authors. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the editor. They are subject to copyright. The purpose of publication is to engage in debate with the specialist academic research community. Imprint 1st Edition 2021 Publisher: Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training Robert-Schuman-Platz 3 53175 Bonn Website: www.bibb.de/en Publication management: Strategic Office “Publications and Scientific Information Services” Email: [email protected] Website: www.bibb.de/publications Production and distribution: Verlag Barbara Budrich Stauffenbergstraße 7 51379 Leverkusen Email: [email protected] Website: www.budrich.eu Licence: The content of this work is subject to a Creative Commons Licence (licence type: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International). For more information on Creative Commons and Open Access, see Website: https://www.bibb.de/en/35836.php ISBN 978-3-8474-2915-9 (Print) ISBN 978-3-96208-297-0 (Open Access) urn:nbn:de:0035-0947-3 Bibliographic information of the German National Library The German National Library catalogues this publication in the German National Bibliography. Detailed information is available online at https://www.dnb.de/EN/Home. Printed on PEFC-certified paper Citation: Ulmer, Philipp; Geiben, Marthe; Le Mouillour, Isabelle; Milolaza, Anita: Stakeholders and procedures in the development of national training standards – a European comparative study. Bonn 2021 Table of Contents WDP 232 3 Table of Contents List of abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2 Theoretical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3 Methodological approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Portugal, and Slovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4 .1 .1 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4 .1 .2 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 4 .1 .3 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 4 .1 .4 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4 .1 .5 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 4 .1 .6 Slovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4 .2 Cooperation model for the development of national training standards . . . . . . . . 37 4 .3 Impetuses for cooperation between stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 5 In place of a conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4WDP 232 List of abbreviations List of abbreviations ANQEP Agência Nacional para a Qualificação e o Ensino Profissional (National Agency for Qualifications in Vocational Education and Training (Portugal)) B&Q Commission Kommission Berufsentwicklung & Qualität (Commission for Occupational Development and Quality (Switzerland)) BAG Berufsausbildungsgesetz (Vocational Training Act (Austria)) B-BAB Bundesberufsausbildungsbeirat (Federal Advisory Council on Vocational Training (Austria)) BBiG Berufsbildungsgesetz (German Vocational Training Act) BIBB Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (Germany)) BMBF Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany)) BMBWF Bundesministerium für Digitalisierung und Wirtschaftsstandort (Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research (Austria)) Does not exist anymore BMDW Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Forschung (Federal Ministry of Digital and Economic Affairs (Austria)) BMWi Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (Germany)) CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training CNQ Catálogo Nacional de Qualificaçõe (National Qualifications Catalogue (Portugal)) CSQ Conselhos Setoriais para a Qualificação (Sectoral Councils for Qualifications (Portugal)) DGB Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (German Trade Unions Confederation) EBBK Eidgenössische Berufsbildungskommission (Federal Commission for Vocational and Professional Education and Training (Switzerland)) EDK Schweizerische Konferenz der kantonalen Erziehungsdirektoren (Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education) EFZ Eidgenössisches Fähigkeitszeugnis (Federal VET Diploma (Switzerland)) EU European Union HwO Handwerksordnung (Crafts and Trades Regulation Code (Germany)) Ibw Institut für Bildungsforschung der Wirtschaft (Austrian Institute for Training Research in Trade and Industry) IEFP Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissiona (National Institute of Employment and Vocational Training (Portugal)) List of abbreviations WDP 232 5 KMK Kultusministerkonferenz (Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs in the Federal Republic of Germany) KoA Bund/Länder Koordinierungsausschuss (Federal States Coordination Committee (Germany)) KWB Kuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft für Berufsbildung (German Employers‘ Organisation for Vocational und Further Training) ME Ministério da Educação (Ministry of Education (Portugal)) MTSSS Ministério do Trabalho, Solidariedade e Segurança Social (Ministry of Labour, Solidarity and Social Security (Portugal)) OdA Organisation der Arbeitswelt (Professional organisations (Switzerland)) REU Rådet for de Grundlæggende Erhvervsrettede Uddannelser (Advisory Council for Initial Vocational Education and Training (Denmark)) RVCC Reconhecimento, Validação e Certificação de Competências (Recognition, Validation and certification of non-formal and informal competencies (Portugal)) SBBK Schweizerische Berufsbildungsämter-Konferenz (Swiss Conference of Vocational Education and Training Offices) SBFI Staatssekretariat für Bildung, Innovation und Forschung (State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (Switzerland)) SFIVET Eidgenössische Hochschule für Berufsbildung EHB (Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training) On 1 August 2021, SFIVET was renamed the Swiss Federal University for Vocational Education and Training SFUVET SIOV Státny institút odborného vzdelávania (State Institute for Vocational Training (Slovakia)) SOŠ Stredné odborné školy (Vocational School (Slovakia)) VET Vocational Education and Training VPETA Federal Vocational and Professional Education and Training Act (Switzerland) WKO Wirtschaftskammer Österreich (Austrian Chamber of Commerce and Industry) 6WDP 232 Preface Preface WDP 232 7 Preface This BIBB Academic Research Discussion Paper addresses important ongoing reforms in vocational education and training systems at a European level by analysing the processes involved in the formation and development of training standards. Thus a link is provided with one core element of the Council Recommendation on Vocational Education and Training for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness, and resilience.1 A reference is also made to the European Framework for Quality and Effective Apprenticeships2 and to the Osnabrück Declaration.3 Two of the 14 European criteria for framework conditions – ‘Regulatory framework’ and ‘Involvement of social partners’ – are categorized and analysed within their historical and institutional contexts for Austria, Denmark, Germany, Portugal, Switzerland, and Slovakia. A particularly clear light is shed on the cooperation that takes place between stakeholders during the process of the formation, development, and adoption of training standards. The differences regarding areas of responsibility, authorities, and roles of stakeholders become similarly apparent. This applies both when a comparison is made between the dual training systems (Germany, Denmark, Austria, and Switzerland) and when these systems are contrasted with school-based VET systems (Portugal and Slovakia). The BIBB project ‘Development of national training standards – stakeholders, procedures, and design in European comparative terms’ centres on a comparative study of the development of training standards, a major thematic area of the European VET policy agenda. Six countries were included in the comparison. These comprised four countries which are generally considered to operate a dual training model – Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Denmark. The two other countries were Portugal and Slovakia, which have a largely school-based training system in place. Both of the latter have also been collaborating closely with Germany in the field of vocational training since 2012. The main focuses of the comparative investigation were a process description of the procedures used for drawing up training standards in these six countries and an analysis of the interaction between the stakeholder groups involved, particularly in the countries with dual systems. The aim of the latter was to provide indications for the possible structuring of future international projects. The project thus ties in with a research strand that has become increasingly significant at BIBB over recent years – vocational education and training transfer.4 One of the reasons for this growing importance is that interest in VET systems with a dual model have considerably risen since the financial crisis of 2008/2009. States which were affected by high rates of youth unemployment in the wake of the crisis were especially keen to design their training systems in a more efficient way, and in some cases, they still are. In this process, they are guided by the countries with a dual training system that exhibit comparatively low levels of youth unemployment. The current coronavirus crisis may emerge as a new driver of demand for systemic consultancy in the area of vocational education and training. 1 Council Recommendation, 24 November 2020: https://www .bibb .de/dokumente/pdf/celex _32020h1202(01)_de_txt .pdf (Status: 18 .05 .2021) . 2 Council Recommendation, 15 March 2018: https://eur-lex .europa .eu/legal-content/de/txt/pdf/?uri=celex:32018h0502(01)&from=hr (Status: 18 .05 .2021) . 3 Cf . https://www .bmbf .de/bmbf/shareddocs/downloads/files/osnabrueck-declaration .pdf?__blob=- publicationFile&v=1 (Status: 15 .10 .2021) 4 In November 2018, BIBB staged a Vocational Education and Training Research Network forum on this topic ‘Evaluation and impact research in vocational education and training’: https://www .agbfn .de/ de/agbfn_veranstaltung83134 .php (Status: 15 .10 .2021) . See also Geiben, Marthe (Ed .): Transfer in internationalen Berufsbildungskooperationen, Bonn 2017 . 14 WDP 232 3 Methodological approach These problem areas were taken into account in the project. It made a particular use of country studies, focus group discussions, case studies, and a specialist conference10 in an attempt to record the reality of vocational education and to create a basis for the conducting of comparative analyses. Country studies The first stage of the country studies11 involved collating essential information on the systems of vocational education and training in different countries. This information includes a brief outline of the historical development of vocational education and training, a presentation of legal foundations, a summary of the most important stakeholder groups, and selected statistical data. In the second step of the procedure, the development process of national standards is depicted using two examples. 1) Document and literature analysis This part of the research is based on statutory foundations of each respective country and on fundamental official documents (decrees, ordinances, recommendations, etc.) which affect vocational education and training. Additional information is taken from statistical data and from further publications related to VET (e.g. handbooks, studies). The project group collaborated with national experts from the individual countries in order to gain a picture of the national situation which would be as realistic as possible. This was also necessary because most documents in Denmark, Portugal, and Slovakia were only available in national languages. 2) Interviews with national vocational education and training stakeholders in the six selected countries The purpose of the interviews was to supplement the literature analysis and obtain findings regarding the role and self-perception of the VET stakeholder groups in the individual countries. The interview guide, which was developed to serve as a basis for the interviews in the project group, was adapted to the specific situation in the individual countries in consultation with national experts.12 Interviews were conducted in the national language. 3) Focus group discussions Focus group discussions with national stakeholders were held in the national language in Portugal and Slovakia in order to validate information from the country studies and evaluations from the expert interviews and to gain a more detailed insight in this regard. These partially structured discussions were aligned to several issues.13 10 BIBB held an international conference in Siegburg on 3–4 April 2019 as part of the project . The experts from all six countries participated . See The BIBB communication: https://www .bibb .de/ de/95478 .php (Status: 17 .07 .2019) . 11 For the information on the basic structure of the five country reports (no separate study was prepared for the analysis in Germany) see Interim Report, 20 July 2017: https://www .bibb .de/tools/dapro/ data/documents/pdf/zw_15313 .pdf, pp . 64ff: (Status: 14 .09 .2021) . 12 A basic guide, see Interim Report, 20 July 2017: https://www .bibb .de/tools/dapro/data/documents/ pdf/zw_15313 .pdf, pp . 68ff: (Status: 14 .09 .2021) . 13 Schedule of the discussions, see Interim Report, 20 July 2017: https://www .bibb .de/tools/dapro/ data/documents/pdf/zw_15313 .pdf, pp . 82 ff: (Status: 14 .09 .2021) . 3 Methodological approach WDP 232 15 4) Case studies The sectors of ‘tourism’ and ‘shoe production’ were selected for the case studies. Tourism has a high level of economic significance in Portugal, and the sector has also drawn up a new procedure for the development of national training standards over recent years. Although the shoe industry is less important in economic terms, it has seen a remarkable boom in the past few years. Moreover, from 2017 the intention of the sector was to base its procedure for the development of national training standards on that deployed by the tourism industry. This plan has, however, not yet been implemented. The area of tourism was also of interest in Slovakia. Although no dual qualifications in accordance with the new laws of 2015 have been introduced in the sector, training is highly practice-oriented and often takes place alongside close cooperation between various stakeholders. The significance of the shoe sector lied in the fact that the stakeholders in both of the country’s manufacturing locations had decided to develop dual training for their sector despite the state not planning to do so. 16 WDP 232 4 Results 4 Results 4.1 Procedures for the development of national training standards in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Portugal, and Slovakia Each portrayal of the procedures in the six countries contains three elements: ▶ A historical review of the development of vocational education and training in the respective country. This aspect is of central importance in terms of gaining an understanding of the individual VET systems (Greinert 2004, 2007; Georg 2000, 2005). ▶ A summary of the most important stakeholders involved in the development of training standards via a ‘governance structure’. The aim here is to take a closer look at all relevant stakeholders at various levels of respective VET systems. Governance structures thus permit the aspects such as commonalities and differences in the four dual model countries to be presented more clearly. ▶A description of the stages of the process. 4.1.1 Germany Historical review The origins of vocational education and training in Germany go back to the Middle Ages. The contours of the current dual training model were formed by various developments that took place at the turn of the 20th century. In order to achieve political stability in the face of revolutionary turmoil, the German Empire pursued a policy directed towards small and medium-sized enterprises which took targeted account of the interests of craft trades, retailers, and agriculture. One of the outcomes of this was the restoration of craft trades training based on the principle of regulated occupation. This found its expression in the 1897 updating of the German Industrial Code, also referred to as the ‘Craft Trades Protection Act’, through which the self-administration of the craft trade sector by chambers was enshrined in law. The continuing education colleges, set up in the 1870s with a view to provide young people with useful knowledge and societal attitudes following the completion of elementary schooling, were developed further and became vocational schools. The aim was for vocational training or occupation to act as a vehicle for the social integration of young male workers in particular. Industrialization increased the need for skills in the economy. This gradually led to a change in factory-based training which was initially strongly characterized by the prevalence of traditional craft trades apprentices. Starting with the major firms, companies began to offer dedicated and systematic training which was geared towards their own production requirements and was conducted in training workshops. The German Committee for Technical Schooling (DATSCH) was founded in 1908 and started to draw up occupational profiles, training plans, and examination requirements that would prepare the structure of the future system. The trade unions, which had been calling for statutory regulation of company-based vocational education and training since as early as 1919, were, however, not involved in this process from the outset. Their participation would not become a reality until 1969, when Germany’s first Grand Coalition passed the Vocational Training Act (BBiG). This law created a broad basis for societal 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards WDP 232 17 responsibility in vocational education and training and established a uniform statutory foundation in this regard. The Act governs the principles at the core of the system: duality of training, regulated occupation, and cooperation between the state and social partners. Also it introduces a number of quality factors in the form of training and advanced training regulations, the monitoring of the quality of company-based training by competent bodies (usually chambers), the suitability of the training venue, and the aptitude of staff responsible for delivering training. The BBiG also established a Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training Research (BBF). In 1976 this body was renamed as the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) and received an expanded catalogue of tasks. BIBB is subject to legal and technical scrutiny by the BMBF and executes its remit within the scope of the education policy of the Federal Government. The responsibilities include contributing to VET by carrying out academic research and involvement in the preparation of training regulations and other legal ordinances. In addition to this, BIBB develops databases and conducts analyses for annual Reports on Vocational Education and Training. The Vocational Training Act was most recently modernized in 2019. The updated law entered into force on 1 January 2020 (Greinert 2007; Herkner 2009; Metzler/Rauland/Werner 2015; Schmidt 2010; 2014). Around a quarter of trainees complete a full-time school-based training in their chosen occupation. This largely takes place at vocational schools. Healthcare, education, and social occupations clearly constitute a main focus of school-based training (Zöller 2018). Governance structure for the development of training standards (training regulations) Company-based part of training School-based part of training Federal level (national level) Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) ▶ Supports the process from application discussions onwards ▶ Acts as the coordinating ministry for training regulations ▶ Lead management role for the Vocational Training Act (BBiG) Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) ▶ Usually issues ordinances . A different ministry may issue ordinances depending on the area of responsibility (§ 4 Subparagraph 1 BBIG) ▶ Supports the process from application discussions onwards ▶ Informs the federal states about concepts updates and includes them in the harmonization process (§ 4 Subparagraph 5 BBIG) ▶ Lead management role for the Crafts and Trades Regulation Code (HwO) Federal states (Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs in the Federal Republic of Germany, KMK) ▶ Deployment of the ‘Federal Government/Federal States Coordination Committee’ (KoA) . The KoA has its basis in a Federal Government–federal states agreement of 30 .05 .1972 ▶ Consults on the initiatives put forward by social partners ▶ Responds to the drafts which have been prepared ▶ Appoints experts for the preparation of the skeleton curriculum 18 WDP 232 4 Results Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) ▶ ‘President’ body – project heads chair the process . They work on updating procedures in conjunction with coordinators and experts appointed by social partners (§ 90 Subparagraph 3 Clause 1 B BBIG) ▶ ‘Board’ body (§ 92 Subparagraph 3 BBIG) – a committee consisting of eight representatives from employers, employees, and federal states and five representatives from the Federal Government (Federal Government also has eight votes) ▶ Responds to documents such as draft training regulations (§ 92 Subparagraph 1 NO . 5 BBIG) German Employers’ Organization for Vocational and Further Training (KWB) ▶ Coordinates and represents the position of employers’ associations and that of trade and industry associations ▶ Appoints policy coordinators and experts for the development of new training regulations German Trade Unions Confederation (DGB) ▶ Coordinates and represents the position of trade unions ▶ Appoints policy coordinators and experts for the development of new training regulations Federal state level Federal states ▶ Ministers of education and cultural affairs enact the skeleton curricula which have been drawn up Federal state committees – advise the respective federal state government (§§ 82, 83 BBiG) Regional level Competent authorities (usually chambers) ▶ Carry out intermediate and final examinations (§ 39 BBiG) ▶ Advise companies and trainees (§§ 76–79 BBiG) ▶ Scrutiny of the suitability of training venues and staff (§ 32 BBiG) Local level Companies providing training Vocational schools Sources: BMBF 202014; BIBB 2017 14 Cf . https://www .bmbf .de/SharedDocs/Publikationen/de/bmbf/pdf/das-neue-berufsbildungsgesetz-bbig .pdf;jsessionid=8DCC68DBD68C25CFB27992067986B3D7 .live092?__blob=publicationFile&v=2 (Status: 18 .09 .2020) . 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards WDP 232 19 There are currently 326 recognized training occupations (pursuant to § 90 Subparagraph 3 NO. 3 BBIG). The responsible Federal Ministry, usually the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi), enacts training regulations for these recognized training occupations in agreement with the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). These regulations contain minimum standards for the company-based element of training. Part-time vocational school teaching is imparted in parallel with company-based training. This lies within the area of responsibility of the federal states. On 27 June 2008, the BIBB Board adopted a Recommendation ‘on quality assurance and quality management in regulatory procedures’.15 This recommendation states that the ‘procedural description’ regulates ‘the processes and quality assurance of the development of training regulations starting with the directive by the responsible Ministry and ending with the result being forwarded to the responsible Ministry and the Ministry of education for the final joint meeting. During this meeting, the Federation and the Länder coordinate their respective regulatory frameworks, respectively training regulations and framework curriculum. The process ends with a final version of both frameworks, formulated as a resolution of the Board and forwarded to the responsible ministry and the ministry of education for its enactment.’ (BIBB BOARD 2008, pp. 2ff; see also the description of the process below). (Source: BIBB 2017) The procedure (1) A stakeholder from within the field of vocational education and training will usually seize the initiative for the development of a training standard (of a new occupational profile) on the basis of current developments/challenges of various types. Such an initiative may also emerge from responsible ministries. (2) At first, an initial discussion and coordination of this new development takes place internally, i.e. usually on the part of the employer or the employee side. Employer and employee representative bodies subsequently establish contact and agree on the so-called ‘benchmarks’ for the new development. BIBB may be commissioned to carry out an investigation if the basis of information is insufficient for reaching agreement. (3) These benchmarks are presented and debated in ‘application discussions’ with responsible ministries. The BMBF, the KMK, and BIBB are also present. (4) The application is then forwarded to the Federal Government/Federal States Coordination Committee for Training Regulations/Skeleton Curricula (KoA). If approval is forthcoming, responsible ministries act in conjunction with the Ministry of Education to send a ‘directive’ to BIBB for the development of relevant training regulations. (5) BIBB asks the KWB and the DGB to appoint experts who then work together with BIBB as part of a so-called ‘advisory council’ to process the new development. Each side will usually nominate three experts and one coordinator. Coordinators represent the interest of the respective social party. (6) The advisory council, which is chaired by BIBB, draws up the draft for the new development (training regulations). (7) At the same time as the training regulations are being developed, the experts from the federal states prepare a draft version of the skeleton curriculum to be used in vocational 15 BIBB Board ‘Recommendation of the Board of the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training on Quality Assurance and Quality Management in the Regulatory Procedures’: https://www . bibb .de/dokumente/pdf/ha130 .pdf (Status: 11 .02 .2020) . 20 WDP 232 4 Results school teaching. The coordination of these two documents in terms of content and scheduling takes place via joint participation in the meetings. This task is normally performed by the BIBB project leads and the chairs of the skeleton curriculum committees. (8) At the end of the development phase, the experts of the Federal Government and federal states hold a joint meeting for final consultation on the two drafts, which they harmonize with regard to time and contents. (9) The agreed draft training regulations are submitted to the BIBB Board for an official response. A positive response from the Board also constitutes a recommendation to the Federal Government that the training regulations should be enacted in the form submitted. Approval from the KoA is also obtained. The Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection concludes the process by carrying out a check to ensure that the correct legal form has been adopted. (10) Responsible ministries then enact the training regulations with the agreement of the BMBF and publish them in the Federal Law Gazette. The skeleton curriculum is usually either adopted directly by the individual federal states or implemented in the form of state-specific curricula for vocational schools. 4.1.2 Austria Historical review The roots of vocational education and training in Austria also stretch back to medieval times. The key events leading to the establishment of dual training took place between the end of the 19th and the start of the 20th century. The Industrial Code of 1859 abolished the guilds and introduced extensive freedom for the exercising of trades. In order to counter the consequent loss in the significance of craft trade organizations, the state attempted to support craft trade apprenticeships by offering additional school-based provision. The updated Industrial Law of 1897 introduced compulsory attendance at continuing education colleges and also governed the contents of apprenticeship contracts (including such aspects as wages). Further general conditions relating to dual vocational education and training were put in place during the First Republic (1918 to 1938). These improved the degree of protection afforded to apprentices via, for example, a 1919 ban on night work for young people, the stipulation of a 44-hour working week, and the creation of works councils. Chambers acting as lobbies for workers and salaried employees were set up in 1920. These labour chambers quickly turned their attention to vocational education and training. Apprentice protection centres were established the very next year in order to monitor a proper treatment of trainees (Gruber 2008, pp. 43ff; Trampusch 2014, p. 172). Within this context and in comparison with Germany, Trampusch points out that in Austria ‘collective wage agreement policy (was) less of a factor than state social policy in terms of ensuring inter-company regulation of the company-based part of training and apprenticeship wages in particular and also incorporated the trade unions at the same time’. However, unions also took part in the administration of schools as were involved in company-based training (Trampusch 2014, p. 174). The Industrial Code remained the legal basis for the company-based element of apprenticeship training until the end of the 1960s. The Vocational Training Act (BAG) of 1969 set out new general conditions for dual VET. The BAG was last updated in 2015, and its underlying 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards WDP 232 21 principles still apply today. Apprentices have an employee status. The execution of the BAG was transferred to ‘apprenticeship offices’ which are operated by the federal state chambers of trade and industry. These receive support from advisory councils on vocational training, in which the employer and employee sides are equally represented (Bliem/Petanovitsch/ Schmid 2016; Gruber 2008, p. 45). Full-time school-based vocational education and training has been gaining significance in Austria since the 1970s. It now accounts for a proportion which is almost as high as that of dual training. A fundamental distinction can be drawn between two forms of full-time school-based vocational education and training: ‘intermediate vocational schools’ that mostly provide three years training and ‘higher vocational schools’ offering five years programmes. The completion of training at the latter leads both to a vocational qualification and to an upper secondary school leaving certificate (‘Matura’) which confers an unrestricted higher education entrance qualification (Ebner/Nokolai 2010, pp. 618ff). Governance structure for the development of training standards (training regulations) Company-based part of training School-based part of training Federal level (national level) Federal Ministry of Digital and Economic Affairs (BMDW) ▶ Lead management role for the Vocational Training Act (BAG) ▶ Pursuant to the BAG, the BMDW is responsible for the coordination and fostering of cooperation between the authorities and institutions charged with vocational education and training ▶ Enacts ordinances for the individual apprenticeship occupation ▶ The highest supervisory authority for the company-based part of training Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research (BMBWF) ▶ Lead management role for the School Organisation Act (SchOG) ▶ Enacts skeleton curricula for the vocational schools for each apprenticeship occupation Federal Advisory Council on Vocational Training (B-BAB) ▶ Equal membership of social partners (the Austrian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Federal Chamber of Labour) . Council members also include vocational school teachers ▶ Draws up assessments of new occupational profiles which form the basis for the development of training regulations and skeleton curricula for the vocational schools (§ 31 BAG) Austrian Institute for Training Research in Trade and Industry (ibw) The ibw is a research institute which has close ties with the Austrian Chamber of Commerce and Industry . Its tasks include working on behalf of the BMDW to draw up proposals for new apprenticeship occupations together with experts 22 WDP 232 4 Results Federal state level Apprenticeship offices of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry ▶ Tasks include checking the suitability of companies which wish to provide training ▶ Carry out final examinations (§ 19 BAG) ▶ A state advisory council on vocational training is established at each apprenticeship office . Social partners also make up the membership of this advisory body Federal states ▶ The administration of vocational schools and specific design of the skeleton curricula are incumbent upon the federal states ▶ Pedagogical and technical supervision via the directorates of education Local level Companies providing training Vocational schools Sources: WKO (Portal of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry) 2019; Gutknecht-Gmeiner/Tritscher-Archan 2016 There were 205 ‘apprenticeship occupations’ in Austria as of 1 August 2019.16 These are governed by ‘training regulations’. The duration of training is two, two and a half, three, three and a half, or four years, depending on the apprenticeship occupation. Training regulations contain a relevant occupational profile and the information on the structure and procedure of the final examination. Various follow-up measures may be instigated once the new training regulations have been enacted. The Chamber of Commerce and Industry prepares ‘training documentation’’ which provides a summary of the entire training content. If necessary, the ibw develops a ‘training guide’ with the aim to support company-based training staff in the structuring of learning processes.17 The procedure in Austria is characterized by its high degree of flexibility. Several variants exist alongside the conventional procedure presented below.18 The procedure (1) A stakeholder from the field of vocational education, usually social partners/companies, takes the initiative to create or update an apprenticeship occupation on the basis of current developments/new challenges of various types. It may also be the case that an association and a trade union within a particular sector take action jointly. The initiative may also emerge from the BMDW and the Federal Advisory Council on Vocational Training (B-BAB). (2) The harmonization takes place within the Austrian Chamber of Commerce and Industry if more than one sector is affected. The agreement also frequently occurs between the employer and the employee sides. The proposal is then submitted to the BMDW. (3) The BMDW will normally task the ibw with drawing up a competence profile in conjunction with occupational and branch experts. This ensures that the training regulations take applicable standards and formal requirements into account. In some cases external experts (e.g. from craft trade associations) are involved with regard to specific aspects of the respective occupations. 16 Cf . ibw: https://lehrberufsliste .bic .at/ (Status: 17 .12 .2019) . 17 Cf . WKO: https://www .wko .at/service/t/bildung-lehre/Ausbildungsplanung_und_Ausbildungsdokumentationen .html (Status: 15 .10 .2021) . 18 Cf . WKO 2019 . 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards WDP 232 23 (4) The Chamber of Commerce and Industry balances the interests of the branches affected in the draft which has been prepared. The draft is then discussed with the employee side before being submitted to the BMDW. It is then forwarded to the Federal Advisory Council on Vocational Training (B-BAB). (5) The B-BAB debates it and endeavours to provide a unanimous response since this is a prerequisite for any expectation that the BMDW will enact the new training regulations. The simplest scenario is that the council directly issues a positive response. This may be the case if the draft has already been the object of prior and detailed agreement between the employer and the employee sides. A committee is usually set up to work together with experts in order to revise the draft with regard to the differences between the employer and the employee sides. If no agreement is reached, the procedure will be discontinued at this point or else referred back to the initiators. (6) The BMDW is notified once the draft has been accepted by the B-BAB. The Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research (BMBWF) then works in conjunction with school specialists to draw up a corresponding skeleton curriculum for use at vocational schools. The draft training regulations are also forwarded to the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Consumer Protection. (7) Both documents, the draft training regulations and the draft skeleton curriculum, are sent for evaluation to the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, to the Chamber of Labour, to any ministries involved, and to any other stakeholders affected. All are afforded an opportunity to express their views within a stipulated deadline and to submit proposals for revisions. (8) The B-BAB evaluates the responses, revises the training regulations and skeleton curriculum where necessary, and presents these amended versions to the BMDW and the BMBWF. (9) The BMBWF and the BMBWF enact relevant ordinances. (10) Apprenticeship offices pass on the information to all companies providing training in order to publicize the new/modified apprenticeship occupations. Training guides are prepared by the Ministry of Economic Affairs or by lobbying groups of the companies (often in conjunction with employee representative bodies or VET research institutes) with the aim of enhancing the quality of company-based training. Vocational information centres inform young people about the new/modified apprenticeship occupation provision. (Source: Gutknecht-Gmeiner/Tritscher-Archan 2016) 4.1.3 Switzerland Historical review The foundations of Swiss vocational education and training were established between the end of the 19th and the start of the 20th century. This took place against the background of the introduction of free enterprise across the entire country (1874) and of the socio-economic change taking place in the wake of industrialization. The craft trades sector entered a deep crisis as a result, and this also caused a continuous decline in apprenticeships. The first bodies to react were ‘trade associations’ which had been founded during the final decades of the 19th century in order to represent the interests of certain occupations or economic sectors. They began by drawing up ‘apprentice regulations’ to ensure ‘proper and methodologically structured apprenticeships’ (Wettstein 2005, p. 5). One of the most prominent of these associations was the Swiss Association of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises, an employer body established in 1879. It produced a proposal that led to a 1884 decision by the Confederation – Switzer- 30 WDP 232 4 Results There are currently 107 training regulations with further specializations in Denmark. The development of regulations is characterized by the flexible procedure and by the decentralized specification of training which takes account of local general conditions. At a national level, only the so-called ‘guidelines’ are drawn up. They include school subjects taught, learning objectives of a company-based training, the required level for transition to the main training, and examination requirements (Lamscheck-Nielsen 2016, p. 18). The procedure (1) Impetuses for the development or modernization of training regulations may emanate from national trade committees (de faglige udvalg), from companies, from the Ministry of Children and Education, and from vocational schools themselves. (2) This is followed by discussion and agreement between social partners and a relevant national trade committee. Employers and employees have equal representation on these committees. (3) If only a ‘minor change’26 affecting a company-based training is involved and if social partners are in agreement regarding the matter, then the initiative will be directly included in the annual Monitoring Report for the Ministry of Children and Education (Udviklingsredegørelse). All national trade committees are required to submit such a report to the Ministry each year (§ 38 Paragraph 5 Vocational Training Act). (4) In this case the Ministry consents to the desired changes, and they are then included and published in the ‘Catalogue of Laws, Ordinances and Training Regulations’. The changes enter into force one year later. (5) If, on the other hand, a major change is involved,27 experts from the committees will work in conjunction with ‘consultants’ from the Ministry of Children and Education to draw up guidelines for new training regulations (the consultants are usually the experts from vocational schools). The guidelines cover school subjects taught, learning objectives of the company-based training, the required level for transition to the main training, and examination requirements. (6) The Advisory Council for Initial Vocational Education and Training (Rådet for de Grundlæggende Erhvervsrettede Uddannelser) is incorporated into the process if the major change forms part of the categories stated in § 35 of the Vocational Training Act, such as provisions relating to vocational education and training in general (Paragraph 1), the establishment or abolition of VET programmes (Paragraph 2), or the organization of initial vocational education and training (Paragraph 9). (7) A major change is deemed to have been accepted if all groups participating in the updating procedure reach a consensus or if the Advisory Council for Initial Vocational Education and Training gives its approval in instances where it is mandatorily involved. (8) The change is then published in the ‘Catalogue of Laws, Ordinances and Training Regulations’. It enters into force one year later. (9) The guidelines are subsequently specifically formulated for company-based and schoolbased training under the lead management of vocational schools via local training committees (de lokale uddannelsesudvalg), which have equal representation. 26 Cf . Lamscheck-Nielsen 2016; own notes made at the BIBB International Conference in Siegburg on 3 April 2019 . 27 As Note 26 . 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards WDP 232 31 4.1.5 Portugal Historical review Vocational education and training in Portugal has undergone fundamental changes over the past four to five decades. An initial turning point occurred in 1974, when the military dictatorship came to an end. Vocational education and training was almost entirely abolished in the wake of the so-called Carnation Revolution. It had been largely directed at young people from disadvantaged families and was therefore viewed as a synonym for social inequality. Existing vocational schools were either closed or else converted into general schools. The aim was to provide all groups in society with access to higher education. Nevertheless, these measures achieved no success. The level of education and training of the population remained low, and there was an urgent need for skilled workers. This led to a rethink in the 1980s when vocational education was re-established in several stages. This second turning point was followed by a further fundamental change in the form of the introduction of the National Qualifications System (Sistema Nacional de Qualificações, SQN) in 2007.28 This reform, which is still in force today, created a uniform institutional framework for various education and training pathways which had not thus far been integrated. The reform also strengthened the role of social partners in vocational education and training, especially with regard to the development of new skills profiles. Two ministries are responsible for vocational education and training: the Ministry of Education (primary and secondary school sectors) and the Ministry of Labour, Solidarity and Social Security (apprentice training, continuing training). The National Agency for Qualifications in Vocational Education and Training (ANQEP) and the Institute of Employment and Vocational Training (IEFP) are both further major stakeholders. The ANQEP was founded in 2007, and one of its tasks is to administer the National Qualifications Catalogue (CNQ). The CNQ encompasses qualifications which are not acquired via a higher education degree. All qualifications registered in the catalogue lead to a dual qualification for young people – a vocational qualification and a higher education entrance qualification. This double certification is of particular significance to the acceptance of vocational education and training in Portugal because equal access to education was a central outcome of the revolution of 1974. The qualifications have a modular structure. The fact that individual modules are certifiable makes the Portuguese VET system flexible in many ways. It makes it easier for pupils to switch between various education and training programmes, and adults are able to update their skills by acquiring partial qualifications. The system also facilitates the recognition, validation, and certification of non-formal and informal competencies. Within the scope of the ‘New Opportunities’ national project, employees who have many years of occupational experience are thus able to obtain certification for the know-how they have acquired without needing to undertake relevant training. The IEFP was established in 1979. It manages 29 VET centres directly and administers 23 further qualifications-focused centres in relevant sectors together with social partners. The ANQEP and the IEFP are responsible for two most important vocationally oriented training programmes. Cursos Profissionais are pursued by a proportion of approximately 29.1 percent of young people at the upper secondary level (these fall within the remit of the ANQEP and the Ministry of Education). About 5.4 percent follow Cursos de Aprendizagem29 (for which the IEFP and the Ministry of Labour are responsible). The main difference between 28 Cf . Legislative Decree No . 396/2007, 31 December 2007 . 29 Pordata 2018: https://www .pordata .pt/portugal/alunos+matriculados+no+ensino+secundário+total+e+por+modalidade+de+ensino-1042 (Status: 14 .09 .2021) . 32 WDP 232 4 Results these two programmes is the amount of company-based learning which takes place. Company placements of around twelve weeks (about ten percent of the programme) are stipulated for the Cursos Profissionais. By way of contrast, the proportion of company-based learning for Cursos de Aprendizagem is about 40 percent. Social partners are represented in various organs within the sector of vocational education and training. The Economic and Social Council is a constitutional body for which social partners normally exercise a consultancy function. They are also involved in the boards and monitoring committees of organs which are responsible for the implementation and supervision of measures within the scope of the VET system. They have further representation in the boards of the ANQEP and the IEFP and in the advisory councils of vocational education and training centres. Several centres are managed by social partners themselves together with the IEFP. The introduction of the so-called Sectoral Councils for Qualifications (CSQ) in 2009 further strengthened the influence exercised by social partners in vocational education and training. The 18 Sectoral Councils (which include Agriculture and the Food Industry, Artisan Craftwork and Jewellery, Construction and Urban Planning, Energy and the Environment, Information technology, Electronics and Telecommunications, Wood, Furniture and Cork, Metalworking and Tourism and Leisure) support the ANQEP in the development of qualification profiles. (Sources: Costa Artur 2016; Flake 2015; CEDEFOP 2016, 2018; Oliveira/Sousa/Fino Nogeira 2017; Sousa/Fino Nogeira (no year stated)) Governance structure for the development of training standards (standards de qualificação) Company-based part of training School-based part of training National level Ministry of Education (Ministério da Educação, ME) ▶ Is responsible for the primary and secondary school sector . The ministry is also responsible for the vocationally oriented education and training programme with the highest proportion of young people at the upper secondary level, the Cursos Profissionais ▶ the areas of science, technology, and higher education were transferred to an independent department in 2015 (Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior) Ministry of Labour, Solidarity and Social Security (Ministério do Trabalho, Solidariedade e Segurança Social, MTSSS) ▶ Takes charge of tasks in the areas of vocational education and training and company-based apprenticeships (Cursos de Aprendizagem) via its Institute of Employment and Vocational Training (IEFP) National Agency for Qualifications in Vocational Education and Training (Agência Nacional para a Qualificação e o Ensino Profissional, ANQEP) ▶ This agency assumes a coordinating role and a bridging function . This is also revealed by the fact that it lies within the area of responsibility of the two ministries, ME and MTSSS ▶ It is responsible for the National Qualifications Catalogue (Catálogo Nacional de Qualificaçõe, CNQ) ▶ It administers RVCC provision (Reconhecimento, Validação e Certificação de Competências) for the recognition, validation, and certification of non-formal and informal competencies 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards WDP 232 33 National Institute of Employment and Vocational Training (Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissiona, IEFP) ▶ This institute forms part of the remit of the MTSSS . It is responsible for the implementation of the labour market policy measures ▶ It manages twenty-nine VET centres directly and administers twenty-three further qualifications-focused centres in relevant sectors together with social partners ▶ It is responsible for the second most important vocationally oriented education programme, the Cursos de Aprendizagem The 18 Sectoral Councils for Qualifications (Conselhos Setoriais para a Qualificação, CSQ) ▶ Were established by the ANQEP in 2009 by Decree No . 396/2007 ▶ Comprise working groups, the members of which represent ministries, the ANQEP, the IEFP, social partners, companies, schools, training providers, and experts ▶ The task of the Sectoral Councils is to identify areas within the National Qualifications Catalogue (CNQ) which require updating and to support the ANQEP in drawing up new qualifications profiles Regional level Network of IEFP centres A network of VET centres, of which several have established branches in some of the country’s 18 districts, including CENFIM (metal), CECOA (retail), CENFIC (construction), and MODATEX (fashion and clothing) Local level Companies providing training Vocational schools Sources: ANQEP30; Costa Artur 2016; Flake 2015 The Qualifications Catalogue covers 41 areas of education and training and currently contains 310 qualifications.31 Alongside the CSQ procedure, which will be described below, the Portuguese vocational education and training system provides for an ‘open consultation model’. The aim here is to facilitate the broadest possible degree of participation by all relevant groups in vocational education and training. Any company or organization (for instance, vocational education and training centres) is able to seize the initiative and submit proposals for the updating of the catalogue. Such proposals are disseminated via the website of the ANQEP and integrated into a relevant profile. Sectoral Councils are not involved in this case. Nevertheless, a very little use is made of the open consultation model. The Portuguese government introduced the System for the Early Recognition of Training Needs (SANG) in 2015 in order to support stakeholders. This falls within the remit of the ANQEP.32 The SANG is coordinated via a council in which the ANQEP, the IEFP, and employer and employee organizations are all represented. One major goal of the SANG is to collate information with the aim of helping to make decisions on the relevance of qualifications. The SANG issues annual recommendations for this purpose. The procedure (1) A member of a Sectoral Council usually takes the initiative. The members include employer and employee organizations, ministries, the ANQEP, the IEFP, vocational schools, training providers, and experts. The actual composition varies across the sixteen Sectoral Councils. (2) The initiator submits a proposal to the ANQEP. 30 http://www .catalogo .anqep .gov .pt/home/csq (Status: 09 .10 .2020) . 31 CEDEFOP 2018, p . 39 . 32 Cf . Decree No . 82 A/2014, 31 December 2014 . 34 WDP 232 4 Results (3) The ANQEP conducts an analysis and calls upon the initiator to furnish evidence in the form of information related to the labour market and training. (4) The ANQEP subsequently organizes a meeting of the Sectoral Council affected where the proposal is presented and debated. (5) If the proposal is approved, the initiator develops a new qualifications profile and the curriculum with the support of the ANQEP. Experts from companies, trainers, and teaching staff participate in this process. (6) The Sectoral Council is notified of the result of the partial updating if only a minor change is involved. The outcome is then published in the National Qualifications Catalogue for which the ANQEP is responsible. (7) If there is to be a fundamental change or a new qualification, the Sectoral Council convenes once more to consult on the result of the new development. The update is published in the National Qualifications Catalogue if the Council gives its consent. (8) Every qualification recorded in the catalogue comprises learning objectives and competencies required for the dual qualification. The training content is divided into modules. The aims here are to enhance transparency between various forms of training and to allow adults to obtain certified partial qualifications via this route. (Source: Costa Artur 201633) 4.1.6 Slovakia Historical review The reform of the legal foundations underlying the educational policy in Slovakia began immediately after the political restructuring of 1989 and before the country gained full independence on 1 January 1993. The first step was to remove Marxist–Leninist teachings from all curricula. The democratic and pluralist character of the education system was proclaimed in 1990, and the establishment of private or church-run schools was facilitated. A process of democratization was instigated in schools during the same year. This was followed by further updates, although these did not include any fundamental changes (Kopp 1997; Kosová/ Porubský 2017). The major reform was ushered in by the Vocational Training Act of 2008. Various vocational schools offering training of a duration of two, three, four, or five years were consolidated under the name of Stredné odborné školy (SOŠ), and a designation of the respective profile of the school was added in each case (e.g. Vocational School for Cosmetics).34 The curricular development was decentralized. Schools developed their own training programmes on the basis of ‘state education programmes’ containing framework stipulations regarding the content and scope. These comprise theoretical and practical parts which vary according to specialism. The aim of the 2009 act was to achieve better harmonization between the VET system and skills requirements in trade and industry. A national vocational education and training committee (Government Council) was established at the national level for this purpose. The bod33 Supplemented by our own notes made at the BIBB International Conference in Siegburg on 3 April 2019 . See also Note 10 . 34 According to Kopp, full-time vocational schools in Slovakia enjoy a “high degree of esteem’ (as is also the case in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland) . His view is that this differentiates the states of Central Europe from many countries in the West, South, and North of Europe where ‘fulltime vocational schools are seen as being second choice behind upper secondary schools, and the apprenticeship system is perceived as being third choice’ (Kopp 1997, p . 10) . 4 .1 Procedures for the development of national training standards WDP 232 35 ies represented include the Ministries of Education, Labour, Economics and Agriculture, the self-autonomous regions, the professional organizations (chambers), the professional bodies (employer/trade associations), and trade unions. The role of this committee is to advise the Ministry of Education. District Councils were deployed at a regional level to advise the country’s eight semi-autonomous regions. In 2015, a dual system was introduced to supplement the school-based VET model. The new Vocational Training Act allows dual training programmes in various occupations for the first time. The dual training features a practical component of 60 percent and leads to a double certification (a vocational qualification and an upper secondary school leaving certificate). Companies select their trainees and conclude a learning agreement with them. An agreement is also concluded with the vocational school (SOŠ). This sets out the areas within which training will take place and sets out provisions for organizational issues related to ‘practical teaching’. The learners have the status of a pupil. According to the business magazine TREND, the dual system has integrated about 6,000 trainees and around 1,000 companies in the five school years since 2015. The aim of the Slovakian government is to increase the number of trainees to 12,000 by the end of 2020 (Csepe-Bannert 2016; Petanovitsch/Schmid/Bliem 2013; BMWi 2019; Ministère de l’Education et de la Jeunesse 2018; GTAI 2019). Governance structure for the development of vocational curricula (state education and training programmes/ vzdelávacie programy) Company-based part of training School-based part of training National level Ministry of Schools, Science, Research and Sport (Ministry of Education) ▶ Directs and administers the school system ▶ Is responsible for the regulation of vocational education and training . The semi-autonomous regions and the professional organizations and bodies (§ 30 Subparagraph 1a Vocational Training Act of 2015) are also involved in these processes ▶ Issues state education programmes in conjunction with professional and vocational organizations (§ 30 Subparagraph 1c) ▶ Works with the Ministry of Labour, the semi-autonomous regions, and the professional organizations and bodies to draw up an index of study programmes and teaching subjects (§ 30 Subparagraph 2) ▶ Supervises the State Institute for Vocational Training (SIOV) and the State Pedagogical Institute (SPU) (The respective specialist ministry is responsible for some occupations . The Ministry of Health, for example, takes charge of healthcare professions, (§ 31 Subparagraph 2)) National Government Council (Rada Vlady) ▶ The Ministries of Education, Labour, Economics and Agriculture, the semi-autonomous regions, the professional organizations (chambers), the professional bodies (employer/trade associations), and trade unions are all represented in the Council . The National Government Council advises the government on matters related to vocational education and training (§§ 29, 35) . All eighteen working groups covering selected occupational fields dedicate themselves to the task of better adjusting education and training programmes to the requirements of the labour market State Institute for Vocational Training (SIOV) ▶ Is responsible for the development of state education and training programmes . SIOV experts, teaching staff, and practitioners are all involved ▶ Provides support for the development of school vocational curriculum 36 WDP 232 4 Results State Pedagogical Institute (SPU) ▶ Assists with curriculum development for general subjects at vocational schools Professional organizations and professional bodies ▶ Check the ‘suitability’ of companies providing training to deliver ‘practical teaching’ (§§ 14, 33 Subparagraph 3a) . ▶ Draw up skeleton curricula in cooperation with the Ministry of Education (§ 33 Subparagraph 3e) Regional level Semi-autonomous regions (the total of eight) ▶ Providers of vocational schools ▶ Develop VET strategies in conjunction with respective vocational education and training committees (District Councils) Regional District Councils ▶ Representation in the District Councils includes professional organizations (chambers), professional bodies (employer/trade associations), and trade unions . They advise the semi-autonomous regions on matters related to vocational education and training Local level Companies providing training ▶ Conclude a contract with trainees ▶ Conclude an agreement with the vocational school Vocational schools ▶ Develop their own education and training programme which is based on the state education and training programme Vocational curricula have been developed in a decentralized manner since 2008. Since this date, the stipulation has also been that both the national framework for state education and training programmes and the programmes which are developed autonomously on this basis need to be agreed upon with professional and employer associations prior to entry into force. There are 28 specialist groups in which vocational education and training can be completed. Dual training is possible in 17 of these. The same curricula have been deployed for vocational schools and for dual VET since the 2018/2019 school year. The procedure (1) The initiative for a new training programme usually comes from the employer. It may, however, also emerge from the vocational school. (2) The initiators submit an application to the Ministry of Education. This proposal should be supported by the semi-autonomous region affected (which maintains vocational schools) and should also be discussed with regional/local employer associations and sector representatives. (3) A new training programme is then drawn up together with experts from the SIOV. Vocational schools, chambers, and employer organizations are all involved in this process. Trade unions may also participate in the procedure. The draft of the new training programme contains the following framework stipulations: ▶The necessary core skills and occupational competencies ▶The thematic areas of training ▶An implementation schedule ▶The necessary financial and human resources. 4 .2 Cooperation model for the development of national training standards WDP 232 37 (4) The proposal is then presented to the working group in the National Government Council. The proposal is approved by the Ministry if it is recommended by the Council. (5) The SIOV subsequently recommends piloting the new training programme at least at three vocational schools. The initiators suggest the pilot phase partners to the ministry. (6) The Ministry of Education arranges for the piloting. Evaluation and monitoring take place via the SIOV and the SPU. (7) The initiators submit the final version of the training programme to the Ministry. A final recommendation by the SIOV and independent experts also forms part of this process. The training programme is included in national provision if the recommendation is positive. (8) Every vocational school is now able to offer this training programme. Schools develop more specific training programmes adjusted to regional needs on the basis of the state framework stipulations. Representatives of professional and employer associations are involved. (Sources: Csepe-Bannert 2016; CEDEFOP 2016,35 CEDEFOP 2018;36 CEDEFOP 2019;37 BMWi 2019; Ministère de l’Education et de la Jeunesse 2018) 4.2 Cooperation model for the development of national training standards A second main focus of the research project was the question regarding the core of cooperation between stakeholders in the development of national training standards in the dual model countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Denmark), which is largely categorized as being successful by the fields of VET policy, research, and practice.38 The main emphasis was therefore placed on the following issue: which factors foster cooperation between stakeholder groups in this central action area of vocational education and training? The comparison of governance structures, process descriptions in four dual model countries, and analysis of expert interviews39 enabled the identification of six factors which expressly favour and support cooperation between stakeholders in the development of training standards. Because these factors are not equally pronounced in all four countries, the project developed a model in which six characteristics are identified. A further aim of drawing up the ‘Cooperation model for the development of national training standards’ was to contribute to the further development of the governance approach. (1) Rights for cooperation. This first feature is fundamental to cooperation between the state and social partners. The involvement of social partners is formally specified in all four countries with codified laws relating to vocational education and training.40 The parti35 Cf . https://www .cedefop .europa .eu/en/publications-and-resources/country-reports/slovakia-vet-europe-country-report-2016 (Status: 19 .12 .2019) . 36 Cf . https://www .cedefop .europa .eu/fr/publications-and-resources/country-reports/vocational-education-and-training-europe-slovakia-2018 (Status: 19 .12 .2019) . 37 Cf . https://www .cedefop .europa .eu/de/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/slovakia (Status: 19 .12 .2019) . 38 One example is the general evaluation by the participants at the BIBB International Conference in Siegburg on 3–4 April 2019 . Cf . https://www .bibb .de/de/95478 .php (Status: 17 .07 .2019) . 39 Interviews were conducted with four experts from Germany (referred to as DE 1, DE 2, DE 3, DE 4), four from Austria (referred to as AT 1, AT 2, AT 3, AT 4), four from Switzerland (referred to as CH 1, CH 2, CH 3, CH 4) and four experts from Denmark (referred to as DK 1, DK 2, DK 3, DK 4’) . 40 In Germany, § 92 Subparagraph 1 BBiG states that the BIBB Board, on which employer associations and trade unions are represented by law, must be consulted on draft training regulations that are drawn up by BIBB . – In Austria, § 31 Subparagraph 3 BAG (Vocational Training Act) makes the fol- 38 WDP 232 4 Results cipation of employer and employee organizations enables the design of occupations to be informed by the necessary know-how from practice. However, the co-involvement of stakeholder groups is identifiable in different forms in the four countries. An equal representation of social partners plays a central role in Denmark, Germany, and Austria, for example. By way of contrast, this issue is of secondary importance in Switzerland. (2) A procedure which is organized by the state and social partners jointly. The procedure may be supported by written documents (such as the handbook Process of occupational development in vocational education and training41 in Switzerland, the Recommendation for quality assurance and quality management in regulatory procedures in Germany,42 and the annual Monitoring Report produced for the Ministry of Children and Education in Denmark), or by institutions like the BIBB (Germany) and the ibw (Austria). The stated benefits are that the support of this nature ‘sets the pace (of the procedure)’ (CH 1) and gives certainty to the course of the process (CH 2, DE 1) as well as for the development of drafts with regard to form and structure (AT 2 and DE 4).43 Nevertheless, there is also a warning that a ‘challenge’ may ensue if the ‘administrative burden’ is too high (CH 1). If the process is arranged too rigidly, there is a risk that the positive effects of dialogue between stakeholders cannot be fully unfurled. One Danish expert points out within this context: ‘The revising process (in Denmark) is not structured rigidly but implies high flexibility and openness to dialogue’ (DK 2). lowing stipulation in respect of the Federal Advisory Council on Vocational Training: ‘If the Federal Minister of Economy, Family and Youth intends to issue or amend one of the ordinances listed in para . 2 .7, he/she shall obtain the opinion of the Advisory Council by setting a reasonable deadline of at least two months and shall take into account any opinion submitted within the deadline when issuing the corresponding ordinance’ . - Article 19 § 3 of the Swiss Federal Act on Vocational and Professional Education and Training sets out the following provision in respect of ordinances on vocational education and training: ‘The structuring and enactment of training ordinances by the SBFI requires the involvement of the cantons and of the professional organisations’ . - § 38 Subparagraph 3 of the Danish Vocational Training Act stipulates: ‘The committees determine training regulations for the individual training programmes’ . 41 The preface to the handbook states: ‘The entry into force of the Federal Act on Vocational and Professional Education and Training on 1 January 2004 instigated the reform of all vocational education and training qualifications’ . The handbook on ordinances was a reliable companion for all stakeholders during the reform process . (…) The handbook is designed in such a way so as to render it ‘periodically adaptable to the status of developments with the agreement of the collaborative partners’ (SBFI 2017, p . iii) . 42 The Recommendation of the Board of the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training on quality assurance and quality management in the regulatory procedures of 27 June 2008 states: ‘This procedural description governs “the processes and quality assurance for the drawing up of training regulations from the time when a directive is passed from the responsible ministry responsible until the outcome is forwarded to the ministry responsible and to BMBF for a final joint meeting, in which the regulatory instrument of the Federal Government (training regulations) and of the federal states (skeleton curriculum) are coordinated with each other and until a resolution is adopted by the Board’ (cf . https://www .bibb .de/dokumente/pdf/ha130 .pdf, pp . 2, 3 (Status: 19 .12 .2019) . 43 AT 2 is of the opinion that the support provided by the ibw is ‘of major significance’ . This expert believes that sector experts are important technically ‘(but) usually do not understand how an occupational profile is drawn up and how it needs to be formulated so that it stays in the system (…) and provides a coherence which enables related areas to be taken into account’ . Also with regard to the structuring of occupations, DE 4 expresses the view that the occupations ‘are relatively standardized in form, and these stipulations are governed by the recommendations rather than via the BBiG’ . This aspect is important . 4 .2 Cooperation model for the development of national training standards WDP 232 39 (3) This brings us directly to the third factor – a continuous dialogue between stakeholders. Like the ‘rights for co-determination’, this is a fundamental characteristic of the ‘cooperation model for the development of national training standards’. One aspect of considerable significance is that the dialogue also takes place within individual groups on an ongoing basis rather than merely occurs between relevant stakeholder groups. Continuity is supported by the fact that the dialogue is institutionalized44 and that in many cases stakeholders have known each other for years.45 The consequence is that the dialogue is regularly instigated at an informal level, for example when difficulties emerge during a procedures and solutions are initially sought in personal discussions.46 The continuous dialogue thus results in the establishment of trust between stakeholder groups47 and also leads to a growth in mutual understanding of different positions. Over the course of years, however, the organizations involved come to possess extensive expertise in the various action areas of vocational education and training and increasingly view VET as a ‘policy field’ (DE 3).48 (4) The understanding of the other side which is developed via continuous dialogue is a crucial prerequisite for the fourth characteristic – ability to compromise. The object of negotiation forms one point of reference here since stakeholders are usually able to view the arguments and ideas of the other side as legitimate demands.49 ‘People know one another. We know what our counterpart wants and what is enforceable in respective institutions. Everyone in the Council is equipped with a certain “backpack”’. (…) All these (opinions) need to be taken into account. But an attempt is made to reach agreement’ (AT 3)50. This aspect further relates to the atmosphere in which discussions take place. The regular contacts, which in many cases stakeholders have maintained over a period of years, exert a beneficial effect on personal dealings and are conducive to negotiations. People speak ‘as equals’, and this has ‘very positive impacts’ (CH 1).51 DE 1 summarises: ‘The crucial thing 44 In Germany, for instance, the BIBB Board usually convenes three times a year while the Standing Committee meets on six occasions annually . The Standing Committee comprises sixteen members of the Board . It prepares the Board’s meetings and conducts its business during the interim periods (cf . https://www .bibb .de/hauptausschuss) . In Austria, the Federal Advisory Council on Vocational Training generally meets once a month (AT 1) . 45 AT 2 remarks that ‘the continuity of support’ is required . Many members of the Federal Advisory Council on Vocational Training know one another well because they have been working together for years . CH 2 emphasizes that it is a ‘huge advantage’ when stakeholders have known each other for many years . 46 DE 2, for example, points out that continuous networking does not only take place officially, it also occurs on an ‘ad hoc’ basis as opportunities arise, ‘And if we meet up in a different procedure, we talk about the process we are involved in . We try to come to an arrangement somehow’ . AT 2 also underlines the importance of ‘informal networking meetings’ . 47 One expert from Denmark presents the view: ‘It is important to understand that personal relations and an open-minded approach are crucial’ (DK 2) . One interviewee from Switzerland (CH 2) also emphasizes that the fact of being able to work with the same contact partners over a longer period of time is ‘very valuable’ . 48 Speaking from the point of view of trade unions, DE 3 states that vocational education and training is ‘an important area of trade union policy’ and gives the following explanatory example: ‘One of the areas of policy we pursue is “good work” . A publication is issued (…) in conjunction with the German Confederation of Trade Unions each year . It formulates standards, and research is also conducted at the companies .’ 49 Horan Lee also alludes to this aspect in his essay ‘Good Will Hunting – Sozialpartnerschaft und Konfliktregulierung in der betrieblichen Weiterbildung’ (Lee 2015, p . 50) . 50 One Swiss expert expresses a clear demand within this context: ‘Everyone should be in a position to recognize the positions of others to a greater of lesser degree’ (CH 1) . 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