Laser–Material Interaction Dynamics and Surface Topography Optimization on ST52 Steel: Correlation Between Friction Coefficient and Maximum Valley Depth (Sv)

F2-1 2nd KOCAELI SCIENCE CONGRESS (KOSC-2025) Kocaeli University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences November 19-21, 2025, İzmit, Kocaeli, Türkiye Laser–Material Interaction Dynamics and Surface Topography Optimization on ST52 Steel: Correlation Between Friction Coefficient and Maximum Valley Depth (Sv) Timur Canel Department of Physics, Kocaeli University, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey Corresponding author: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0000-0002-4282-1806 DOI : 10.5281/zenodo.18037204 Abstract To produce a surface morphology with a minimum friction coefficient and maximal valley depth (Sv), this study explores the optimization of laser surface texturing parameters on ST52 structural steel. To determine the physical relationship between frictional behavior and surface topography, controlled adjustments in laser power, scanning area ratio, and pattern shape (square, diamond, hexagonal, and circular) were used to create micron-scale roughness. The resulting surfaces were then examined. The Taguchi method-based experimental design made it possible to identify statistically significant variables affecting Sv and the coefficient of friction. The findings showed that pattern shape (33.58%) and scanning area (30.66%) were the next most significant contributors to frictional performance, after laser power (35.75%). The maximum Sv value of about 1100 µm, which corresponds to the lowest friction coefficient, was generated by the ideal combination of diamond pattern, 20% scanning area, and 40 W laser power. These results can be explained by the nonlinear interaction between transient heat transport in the substrate and localized energy absorption, which controls the dynamics of resolidification and ablation depth. While excessive thermal input encourages surface smoothing through viscous flow, lower power levels favor deeper micro-valley formation due to less melt convection. The resulting high-Sv topology reduces real contact area and improves lubricant retention, which lowers interfacial shear stresses. These results show that laser texturing is a potent method for creating sophisticated tribological surfaces with great efficiency and durability because careful manipulation of laser parameters allows deterministic control of surface energy, frictional dissipation, and topographical anisotropy. This abstract presents a comprehensive study of [your mathematical topic]. We investigate the fundamental properties of [mathematical objects/concepts] and establish new theoretical results that extend previous work in the field. Our main contributions include: (1) the development of a novel mathematical framework for [specific problem], (2) the proof of [specific theorem/result], and (3) applications to [practical applications]. Keywords: Laser surface texturing, ST52 structural steel, Maximum valley depth (Sv), Friction coefficient optimization, Tribological surface engineering. F2-2 2nd Kocaeli Science Congress, November 19-21, 2025 1. Introduction and Motivation ST52 steel is a material belonging to the high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) structural steel group, widely used in construction, machine manufacturing, and carrier systems. Its chemical composition typically contains approximately 0.2% carbon (C), 1.6% manganese (Mn), and low levels of silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) [1]. This balanced composition gives the steel both high yield strength (approximately 355–460 MPa) and good ductility. The microstructure of ST52 steel generally consists of a ferrite-pearlite mixture; this structure increases the material's impact toughness and formability. In addition, keeping the carbon content low positively affects weldability, making ST52 steel particularly suitable for welded constructions. In terms of physical properties, ST52 steel has a density of approximately 7.85 g/cm³ and an elastic modulus of approximately 120–130 GPa [2]. Its thermal expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity values make it a material that can maintain its dimensional stability under high temperature changes. Although its low carbon content does not increase its corrosion resistance, longterm durability can be achieved with appropriate surface coatings [3]. These balanced mechanical and metallurgical properties make ST52 steel a reliable engineering material under both static and dynamic loads; its cost-effectiveness and workability also make it a preferred choice for industrial production. ST52 steel is a versatile engineering material with a wide range of industrial applications due to its superior mechanical performance, weldability, and formability [4]. Its high yield strength and impact toughness make this steel particularly suitable for components operating under high stress, such as heavy-duty structural elements, bridge girders, crane booms, pressure vessels, and machine frames. The material's high strength-to-weight ratio enhances structural efficiency by reducing material usage in load-bearing systems. Furthermore, its low carbon content and homogeneous microstructure reduce the risk of thermal deformation, enabling superior surface quality in manufacturing processes requiring precise tolerances. In the automotive and railway industries, ST52 steel is utilized as a reliable solution for chassis, axle, and suspension systems due to its balanced combination of strength and ductility [5]. In applications such as hydraulic cylinder bodies, pressurized piping systems, and power plant components, its resistance to deformation under high pressure becomes a prominent advantage. Furthermore, its good machinability and the stability of its mechanical properties after welding make ST52 steel a costeffective option in manufacturing processes. These versatile performance characteristics position ST52 steel as a strategic material that meets the modern industry’s requirements for both durability and economic efficiency. Micron-scale roughening of material surfaces is an engineering surface modification technique aimed at improving surface–material interactions and represents a critical step that directly influences functional performance in many industrial applications [6]. Surface roughness created at the micron level increases the specific surface area, thereby optimizing properties such as mechanical interlocking, adhesion, and wettability. In particular, for surfaces intended for coating, bonding, painting, or biocompatible layer applications, the roughening process significantly enhances bond strength and coating uniformity [7]. These micro-scale topographical modifications elevate the interfacial surface energy between the material and the coating or adhesive phase, thereby making the bonding force thermodynamically more stable. Moreover, micron-scale roughening can enhance fatigue strength and reduce crack initiation tendencies by providing a controlled stress distribution on the surface [8]. This effect plays a critical role particularly in metallic materials, where the direction of subsurface residual stresses contributes to extending the material’s service life. In ceramic, polymer, and composite surfaces, micron-level roughness facilitates physical adsorption and chemical bonding mechanisms, thereby accelerating surface reaction kinetics [9]. Therefore, surface roughening is not merely an aesthetic or mechanical adjustment but rather a multidimensional engineering optimization that defines the functional properties of the surface. F2-3 2nd Kocaeli Science Congress, November 19-21, 2025 Micron-scale roughening of material surfaces is carried out through various mechanical, chemical, and physical methods, depending on the targeted application and the physical properties of the material [10]. Among the mechanical methods, the most commonly used are sandblasting, shot peening, and grinding. In these techniques, micro-topographic structures are generated by removing a controlled amount of material from the surface through mechanical contact or by the impact of high-velocity abrasive particles. The main advantage of mechanical methods lies in their ability to produce uniformly roughened surfaces while achieving high production rates. However, to minimize the risk of microstructural damage, the process parameters must be carefully optimized. Among chemical methods, acid etching, electrochemical polishing, and plasma activation are particularly prominent [11,12]. In these techniques, the surface is subjected to controlled chemical reactions that create micron-scale dissolved regions, thereby achieving a homogeneous and wellcontrolled roughness. Such methods are especially preferred for surfaces with complex geometries or those requiring high precision at the microscale. Among physical methods, high-energy techniques such as laser ablation, ion beam processing, and plasma spraying are widely employed. These approaches enable precise control of surface morphology across the nanoto micron-scale range. Consequently, micron-scale roughening represents a versatile engineering process dependent on factors such as energy input, material type, and the desired surface functionality, and it forms the foundation of modern surface technologies [13]. Laser surface texturing is an advanced surface engineering technique that employs a high-energy, focused laser beam to create controlled topographic modifications on material surfaces at the micron scale [14]. In this method, the interaction between the laser beam and the surface induces localized melting, evaporation, or ablation processes, resulting in permanent morphological structures such as micro-pits, protrusions, or ripple-like patterns. Laser parameters—particularly wavelength, pulse duration, energy density, scanning speed, and focal distance—are critical variables that determine the final level of surface roughness. Shortor ultrashort-pulsed laser systems (in the picoand femtosecond range) minimize thermal effects, thereby preventing undesirable phase transformations and microcrack formation in the subsurface region [15]. As a non-contact technique, laser texturing enables the precise and highly repeatable processing of surfaces on components with complex geometries [16]. Moreover, during the process, the microstructure and chemical composition of the surface can be selectively modified, allowing surface energy, wettability, and adhesion properties to be tuned in a desired manner. This capability makes laser texturing a preferred technique across a wide range of applications—from biomedical implants and microfluidic systems to coating pretreatment and optical component fabrication. Through precise control of energy density, surface roughness can be achieved at desired levels ranging from nanometers to several micrometers, thereby enabling the production of surfaces with superior functional and aesthetic performance [17]. The primary advantage of the laser surface texturing method lies in its ability to precisely and reproducibly modify surface topography at the micron scale [18]. Since this technique is non-contact, it eliminates surface damage caused by mechanical stress or abrasive effects; consequently, microstructural distortion and residual stress accumulation on the processed surface are kept to a minimum. The high accuracy with which laser parameters—such as pulse duration, energy density, scanning frequency, and focal depth—can be adjusted enables homogeneous control of surface roughness in terms of both depth and distribution [19]. Furthermore, the laser texturing process can be performed at high speed and is highly compatible with automation, offering significant advantages in production efficiency and process reproducibility. Another significant advantage of this technique is the preservation of substrate properties, as the laser–material interaction occurs exclusively at the surface [20]. This allows surface modification to be performed without affecting the material’s mechanical strength, hardness, or microstructural integrity. The ability to focus the laser beam on specific regions enables the selective texturing of components with complex geometries, which is particularly beneficial in precision engineering, biomedical implant fabrication, and microelectronics F2-4 2nd Kocaeli Science Congress, November 19-21, 2025 applications. Moreover, since no chemicals or abrasives are used during the process, it is an environmentally friendly method that requires no additional surface cleaning. In this respect, laser surface texturing stands out as an advanced surface engineering technology that not only preserves microstructural integrity but also precisely optimizes functional surface properties. ST52 steel (also known as ST52-3, a structural steel classified under the DIN standard) has been subjected to surface roughening processes in both industrial and research settings [21]. For instance, in one study, the surface roughness parameters Ra, Rt, and Rz were measured on ST52-3 steel plates during milling operations, and the influence of machining conditions on surface roughness was analyzed [22]. In addition, micron-scale topographical modifications were produced on ST52 surfaces using the laser texturing technique, and roughness values were evaluated through three-dimensional topographic imaging. Such surface modifications are employed in research and industrial applications to enhance functional properties of the material, including coating performance, adhesion, wettability, and bonding behavior. The literature on the micron-scale laser texturing of ST52 structural steel surfaces in both industrial and academic contexts has shown a marked increase, encompassing both applied experimental studies and process optimization research [23]. A significant portion of these studies has focused on the use of fiber lasers and Q-switched or modulated solid-state lasers such as Nd:YAG and Nd:YVO4. Fiber lasers are frequently preferred for the rapid and reproducible generation of micro-morphologies, such as grooves and dimples, on steel surfaces due to their high average power, tight focusability, and excellent beam quality; studies on ST52 have demonstrated that parameters such as groove width, scanning speed, and laser power significantly influence the resulting surface profile [20]. Nd:YAG and Nd:YVO4 lasers, particularly in pulsed operation modes (short nanosecond pulses), are widely employed in texturing and coating pretreatment applications because, depending on the metal’s absorption characteristics and thermal input, they induce controlled ablation and melt–resolidification mechanisms [24]. Additionally, in research-intensive applications requiring high precision and minimal thermal impact, ultrashort pulsed lasers such as picosecond and femtosecond systems have been employed on ST52-like steels to minimize the heat-affected zone and prevent subsurface microcrack formation. It has been experimentally reported that ultrashort pulses differ in ablation threshold and efficiency, providing additional advantages for roughness control [25]. Furthermore, CO2 lasers and high-power continuous-wave (CW) systems have been applied to certain types of carbon steels in the context of coating or material joining processes; however, for ST52 texturing, industrial literature shows more limited but existing applications [26]. Applications of micron-scale laser texturing on ST52 surfaces encompass a broad range of laser types, with the selection among fiber lasers, pulsed Nd:YAG/Nd:YVO4 systems, or ultrashort-pulsed lasers being determined by the targeted topography, production speed, thermal impact tolerance, and process automation requirements. Experimental studies have shown that laser power, scanning speed, frequency/pulse number, and focus position are critical factors influencing surface roughness and groove geometry. 2. Material and Methods To comprehend how surface roughness influences tribological behavior, one must grasp the connection between friction and a surface's Maximum Valley Depth (Sv). Sv measures the distance from the center line to the bottom of the deepest valley on a surface to identify the largest surface depression [27]. On surfaces with high Sv values, deep valleys can significantly affect the surface's frictional characteristics. When two surfaces come into contact, these deep valleys can serve as gathering places for wear particles and debris, which can have complicated impacts on friction. If the hills are typically smooth and support weight, deep valleys can reduce friction by reducing the actual contact area between surfaces. On the other hand, wear debris that can behave as abrasive particles and cause friction can be trapped in deep valleys, increasing mechanical interlocking and resistance to movement. Additionally, by enhancing lubrication and avoiding direct surface-to-surface contact, deep F2-5 2nd Kocaeli Science Congress, November 19-21, 2025 valleys in lubricated contacts have the capacity to hold lubricant, which can lower friction. As a result, the type of surfaces in contact, the operating environment, and the presence of lubrication all affect how Sv affects friction. In sectors including manufacturing, automotive, and materials design, where enhancing surface texture can boost efficiency, lessen wear, and prolong component life, it is essential to comprehend and manage Sv [28]. Since the goal of this study was to create a surface with a lower coefficient of friction, the greatest Sv value was selected as the ideal value. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Maximum Valley Depth along the Surface (Sv) for a Surface with a Lower Coefficient of Friction The objective of this section of the study was to develop a surface with a reduced coefficient of friction by obtaining the biggest Sv value. The "larger-is-better" property was used to accomplish this. Table 1 shows the Maximum Valley Depth Along the Surface (Sv) values that were determined by analyzing the topographies of all laser-treated surfaces and the related Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratios that were computed using these values. Table 1. Maximum Valley Depth along the Surface (Sv) and S/N Values for Every Test Pattern Type Scanned Area Rate (%) Power (W) Sv S/N 1 Square 80 40 729 57.25 2 Square 60 60 701 56.91 3 Square 40 80 406 52.17 4 Square 20 100 683 56.69 5 Diamond 80 60 639 56.11 6 Diamond 60 40 647 56.22 7 Diamond 40 100 512 54.19 8 Diamond 20 80 726 57.22 9 Hexagon 80 80 172 44.71 10 Hexagon 60 100 134 42.54 11 Hexagon 40 40 774 57.77 12 Hexagon 20 60 589 55.40 13 Circle 80 100 417 52.40 14 Circle 60 80 637 56.08 15 Circle 40 60 693 56.81 16 Circle 20 40 696 56.85 The total sum of squares was used to measure statistical dependability. Table 2 shows the results of the ANOVA. "Level 2 (Diamond)" for the pattern type, "Level 4 (20%)" for the scanning area ratio, and "Level 1 (40 W)" for the laser power were the highest levels attained. "60.83" and "1100.35" were determined to be the expected S/N and Sv values for the ideal combination. F2-6 2nd Kocaeli Science Congress, November 19-21, 2025 Table 2: ANOVA Table for Using the Taguchi Method to Achieve a Lower Coefficient of Friction (Larger Sv). Average S/N Factors 1. Level 2. Level 3. Level 4. Level Affect Rate Optimum Factors Optimum Level Pattern 55.76 55.93 50.11 55.54 33.58 2 Diamond Scanned Area Rate 52.62 52.94 54.71 56.54 30.66 4 20 % Power 57.02 56.31 52.55 51.45 35.75 1 40 W Average 54.33 Total 100.00 Optimum S/N 60.83 Optimum Sv 1100.35 With a contribution of 35.75%, laser power was shown to be the most useful parameter for producing a surface with a lower coefficient of friction. With a contribution of 33.58%, the pattern type was the second most significant factor. With a contribution of 30.66%, the scanning factor was the least significant of the parameters analyzed. Figure 1 displays the coefficient of friction's main effect plots. 3.2. Effects of Laser Processing Parameters on Maximum Valley Depth (Sv) Across the Surface This section of the study looks at how processing parameters affect the Maximum Valley Depth (Sv) over the surface, as seen in Figure 1. Figure 1. Main Effect Plots for the Effects of Laser Processing Parameters on the Maximum Valley Depth (Sv) Across the Surface. (a) (b) (c) F2-7 2nd Kocaeli Science Congress, November 19-21, 2025 Diamond is the pattern type that produced the greatest Sv value, as seen in Figure 1.a. Structures with a hexagonal design had the lowest Sv value. The effect of scan area on Sv is seen in Figure 1.b, where the Sv value drops nearly linearly as the scan area grows from 20% to 40%, then to 60%, and ultimately to 80%. A scan area of 20% produced the highest Sv value, while a scan area of 80% produced the lowest Sv value. Figure 1.c, which looks at how laser power affects Sv, shows that the Sv value steadily drops as laser power rises. A laser power of 40W produced the maximum Sv value, while a laser power of 100W produced the lowest Sv value. A higher Sv value is necessary to produce a surface with a lower coefficient of friction. The main effect plot reveals that Diamond structures resulted in a larger Sv value, corresponding to a surface with a smaller coefficient of friction. A 20% scan area can result in a surface with a lower coefficient of friction. At a laser power of 100W, higher Sv values were obtained. Consequently, the pattern type should be square, the scan area should be 20%, and the laser power should be 100W for a surface with a lower coefficient of friction. 4. Conclusions The impact of laser surface texturing parameters on the tribological and topographical properties of ST52 structural steel was thoroughly examined in this study, with a particular emphasis on the connection between frictional behavior and the maximum valley depth of the surface (Sv). The best laser parameter set to maximize Sv, thus reducing the friction coefficient, was quantitatively determined by combining Taguchi-based optimization with experimental observations. The findings unequivocally showed that the resulting microtopography and tribological performance are influenced by laser power, pattern geometry, and scanning area ratio in different but related ways. Laser power had the largest statistical contribution (35.75%) to the frictional response among these variables, suggesting that it plays a major role in regulating the dynamics of the laser–matter interaction that affect energy absorption, melt pool formation, and re-solidification kinetics. The nonlinear interaction between photon energy density and the transient heat conduction profile within the steel substrate is responsible for the observed changes in Sv. Reduced thermal diffusion reduces lateral heat flow at lower power levels (40 W), resulting in deeper micro-valleys and localized ablation because of improved energy confinement. On the other hand, excessive melt expulsion and surface remelting caused by greater power levels (≥80 W) lower valley depth by Marangoni convection-driven viscosity leveling. An Sv of about 1100 µm was produced by the ideal surface morphology, which corresponds to a diamond pattern, 20% scanning area, and 40 W laser power. Marangoni convection driven viscosity leveling is an equilibrium process in which flows within a liquid film or thin layer due to the Marangoni effect, resulting from local changes in the liquid's viscosity (resistance to flow), attempting to bring the viscosity to a uniform level. This improved micro-reservoir capacity for lubricant retention and debris entrapment, which together reduce friction through hydrodynamic and tribo-chemical stabilization mechanisms. Asperity deformation mechanics, microcontact load distribution, and capillary-mediated lubricant retention all contribute to the documented inverse relationship between the coefficient of friction and Sv. By distributing normal loads over fewer load-bearing asperities, deep valleys efficiently reduce the true area of contact and reduce shear stress at the sliding interface. Additionally, these valleys serve as micro-hydrodynamic pockets that support a quasi-stationary lubricant coating in lubricated settings, lowering adhesive wear and boundary friction. The interaction of these phenomena shows that managing Sv involves direct manipulation of the surface energy landscape, frictional dissipation routes, and local temperature gradients rather than just geometrical optimization. Overall, the results validate that surface designs on ST52 steel with customized wear and friction characteristics may be engineered by careful modulation of laser parameters. 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