The genus Psilocybe in Italy

The genus Psilocybe in Italy Giuseppe Venturella1, Manuela Rollini2, Giulia Mirabile3, Nicola Favia4, Maria Letizia Gargano4 1Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze Bldg. 5, 90128 Palermo, Italy 2Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy 3Provincial Inspectorate of Agriculture of Palermo, Service 12, Via Camillo Camilliani 87, 90145 Palermo, Italy 4Department of Soil, Plant and Food Science (Di.S.S.P.A.), University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Campus “E. Quagliarello”, Via Edoardo Orabona 4, Bari, 70125, Italy Corresponding author: Giuseppe Venturella ([email protected]) Academic editor: Lorenzo Peruzzi|Received 1 December 2025|Accepted 9 December 2025|Published 22 December 2025 Citation: Venturella G, Rollini M, Mirabile G, Favia N, Gargano ML (2025) The genus Psilocybe in Italy. Italian Botanist 20: 167–181. https://doi.org/10.3897/italianbotanist.20.181001 Abstract In the absence of specific studies on the Psilocybe genus in Italy, we provide information on the taxonomy, habitat, ecology, and distribution of the nine taxa currently recorded for Italy. A nomenclatural update of Psilocybe taxa reported in the Checklist of Italian Fungi (Basidiomycetes), published in 2005, is provided and seven scientific binomials are confirmed. In addition, P. medullosa and P. serbica, recently found in Trentino-Alto Adige/ Südtirol and Calabria respectively, are added to the list of taxa of the genus Psilocybe in Italy. Data on distribution and ecological categories of each taxon are also reported together with a molecular analysis. Considering how easily Psilocybe species can be found in Italy and their psilocybin and psilocin content, the authors hope that Italy will also legalize the use of psychedelic mushrooms in clinical therapies, as already permitted in many other countries. Keywords Basidiomycetes, Habitat, Hymenogastraceae, Italy, Psilocybin fungi, Taxonomy Introduction Since ancient times, humans have come into contact with psychedelic substances found in certain species of mushrooms. Very well-known are the depictions in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe as well as the sculptures in the pre-Columbian Italian Botanist 20: 167–181 (2025) doi: 10.3897/italianbotanist.20.181001 https://italianbotanist.pensoft.net Copyright Giuseppe Venturella et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. RESEARCH ARTICLE Giuseppe Venturella et al. / Italian Botanist 20: 167–181 (2025) 168 glyphs seen throughout the Americas (Gjerde 2024), Australia, and Mexico (Pepe et al. 2023). Psilocybin mushrooms are hallucinogenic mushrooms that contain psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine), a natural occurring tryptamine alkaloid. Following oral ingestion, psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated via the acidic environment of the stomach into psilocin. Any remaining psilocybin is then converted in the gut, blood, and kidneys through alkaline phosphatase to produce the active, lipophilic form, psilocin (MacCallum et al. 2002; Passie et al. 2002). The genus Psilocybe (Fr.) P.Kumm. (Hymenogastraceae, Basidiomycetes) was described by Fries (1794–1878) as a group of the Pratella Fr. series within his vast genus Agaricus L. It was later elevated to the rank of genus Kummer (1871) where it included many species that are no longer classified within the genus. More recently, elucidation of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster and studies on the taxonomy, molecular systematics and ecology of the genus Psilocybe has overcome the traditional separation of the species into two groups (psilocybin-active and psilocybin-inactive) emphasizing that the genus Psilocybe sensu strictu includes over 150 species distributed throughout the world, and that the type species is Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) P.Kumm. (Guzmán 1983). Members of genus Psilocybe have different contents of psilocybin, but this prodrug can also be found in many other genera, namely Conocybe Fayod, Galerina Earle, Hypholoma (Fr.) P.Kumm., Inocybe (Fr.) Fr., Gymnopilus P.Karst., Panaeolina Maire, Panaeolus (Fr.) Quél., Pholiotina Fayod, and Pluteus Fr., with psilocybin content ranging from 0.16 to 1.78 % and of psilocin from 0.01 to 0.59 %, on dry mushroom weight (Tylš et al. 2014). The greatest species diversity of genus Psilocybe is found in the neotropics, from Mesoamerica through to Brazil and Chile (Guzmán et al. 1998). Mexico possesses the highest number of taxa (53) followed by Canada and the USA with 22 taxa. In Europe, only 16 taxa have been recorded to date, while 15 are reported from Asia, 4 from Africa and Australia, respectively, and 19 from Easter Island (Chile). As regards distribution, there are some similarities between regions, in fact P. cubensis (Earle) Singer and P. subcubensis Guzmán are reported throughout the tropics, P. argentina (Speg.) Singer in several high mountains, in the Austral and Boreal regions; and P. fimetaria (P.D.Orton) Watling and P. semilanceata (Fr.) P.Kumm. in Europe, Canada, and the USA (Guzmán 2005). Psilocybe species are small in size, with a fimicolous growth habitat, on fertilized soil or on mosses. The cap varies from hemispherical to conical-bell-shaped, viscous in some species and with flaky residues of the general veil. The stem is slender and longer than the diameter of the cap, flaky in some species, with a fleeting ring or without one. The basidiospores are smooth, with an evident germinative pore. The color of basidiospores in mass is brown-purple or brown-purplish or blackish purple (Nashikkar et al. 2024). Some Psilocybe species instantly develop an intense blue color when scratched (Lenz et al. 2019). The bluish coloration of basidiomata after rubbing as in the case of Psilocybe azurescens Stamets & Gartz, P. cubensis (Earle) Singer, and P. semilanceata (Fr.) P.Kumm. is a fundamental characteristic that historically defined one of the two main lineages (bluestaining and non-bluing species) within the genus before it was reclassified (Bradshawa Psilocybe in Italy 169 et al. 2024). Among the European species of Psilocybe only a few shows bluish discolorations and are considered hallucinogenic, such as P. cyanescens Wakef., P. semilanceata var. caerulescens (Cooke) Sacc., P. serbica Moser & Horak, P. fimetaria (P.D.Orton) Watling, and P. liniformans Guzmán & Bas. A very limited number of studies on the distribution and ecology of Psilocybe species are reported from Italy. The habitat and distribution of two species, Psilocybe semilanceata and P. serbica M.M.Moser & E.Horak, were recently characterized (Samorini 1992; Valletta 2023), and P. medullosa (Bres.) Borov. was reported in a conifer forest of northern Italy (Voto 2017). The study of psilocybin mushrooms and their applications in medicine is booming worldwide (Griffiths 2016; Ziff et al. 2022; Spiers et al. 2024). In Italy, the cultivation and trade of hallucinogenic mushrooms is currently illegal. Psilocybin, considered a narcotic substance, is listed in the table of narcotic and psychotropic substances of the Italian Ministry of Health, even though it is not addictive and has low toxicity (https:// www.salute.gov.it/new/it/tema/medicinali-stupefacenti-e-precursori-di-droghe/). In 2025, the Italian Drug Agency (AIFA) authorized the first clinical trial in Italy, at a hospital in Chieti (Abruzzo, central Italy), involving 68 patients suffering from depression. In the absence of specific studies on the Psilocybe genus in Italy, we provide information on the taxonomy, habitat, ecology, and distribution of the nine taxa currently known to grow in Italy. Materials and methods Macroand micro-morphological analyses Based on literature and field data, nine species of Psilocybe have been recorded in Italy. In particular, we refer to the Checklist of Italian Fungi (Basidiomycetes) (Onofri et al. 2005) to provide a nomenclatural update and for finding herbarium specimens useful for characterization of the macroand micro-morphological features, distribution data, and for molecular analysis of Psilocybe aurantiaca (Cooke) Noordel., P. cyanescens, P. semilanceata, P. semistriata (Peck) Guzmán, P. subcoprophila (Britzelm.) Sacc., P. subviscida (Peck) Kauffman, and P. turficola J.Favre. Herbarium specimens of the species listed above were requested on loan from the herbaria (acronyms follow Thiers 2025) CAT and PI (P. aurantiaca), CAT and GE (P. cyanescens), CAT and MOD (P. semilanceata), AMB (P. semistriata, P. subcoprophila), HUBO (P. subviscida), and MCVE (P. turficola). On the contrary, new collections of P. medullosa and P. serbica previously recorded in Italy (Samorini 1992; Voto 2017; Valletta 2023), were obtained by us in autumn and spring 2024, from conifer forests in the Paneveggio Pale di S. Martino Regional Park (province of Trento, Trentino Alto Adige) and in the conifer forests of the Sila National Park (province of Cosenza, Calabria), in the framework of the activities of the Network for the Study of Mycological Diversity (NDM) sponsored by the Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA). Species collected Giuseppe Venturella et al. / Italian Botanist 20: 167–181 (2025) 170 in the wild were wrapped in aluminum foil and then transferred to the mycology lab of the Department of Agricultural, Food, and Forest Sciences (SAAF) of the University of Palermo, for micromorphological examination. For each taxon, we analyzed macroscopic features (pileus, flesh, lamellae, stipe, type of habit: solitary, grouped, clustered, cespitose, color of spore, etc.), microscopic characters (spores, basidia, cystidia, element of the stipe surface, etc.), and analytical keys related to the genus Psilocybe (Stamets and Weil 1996). Colors refer to the RAL matching system (RAL is a color matching system that defines colors for paints, coatings, and plastics; the RAL standard is managed by the RAL Deutsches Institut für Gütesicherung und Kennzeichnung, based in Bonn, Germany). The dried specimens, prepared in a universal dryer 475-Watt stainless steel structure with five baskets, are deposited in the herbarium SAF of the University of Palermo (SAF 1003, 1004). The nomenclature of Psilocybe taxa mostly follows Index Fungorum; however, considering the nomenclatural problems in the genus, the similar morphology of some species, and the variable presence of key characteristics like blue staining, we referred to the most recent phylogenetic and chemical studies (Lenz et al. 2019) or other manuscripts dealing with the systematics of psilocybin-producing taxa (Valletta 2023 Bradshawa et al. 2024). Molecular identification DNA was extracted from dried Psilocybe samples using the Extract-N-Amp kit (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA) following the manufacturer’s instructions. DNA purity and concentration were measured using the NanoDrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, USA) at 260/280 nm and 260/230 nm. ITS1/ ITS4 primers were used to amplify the internal transcribed spacer region of rDNA (ITS) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR mix consisted in a total reaction volume of 20 µL containing 4 µL of extracted DNA, 10 µL of the Extract-N-Amp PCR reaction mix (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA), 1 µL of each primer at 10 µM and 4 µL of sterilized distilled water. The amplification was carried out in a MultiGene OptiMax thermocycler (Labnet International Inc.) with an initial denaturation cycle at 94 °C for 3 min, followed by 35 cycles at 94 °C for 30 s, annealing at 55 °C for 30s, elongation at 72 °C for 45 s and a final extension at 72 °C for 10 min. PCR product was separated by electrophoresis in 1.5% agarose gel and detected under UV transilluminator. PCR product was purified following the Exo I-SAP protocol according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) and then sent to BMR Genomics (Padova, Italy) for sequencing. The obtained sequence was manually adjusted when needed and compared with those reported in GenBank through BLASTn tool (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). The new sequence was deposited in GenBank. Sequence with 100% similarity, as well as representative sequences of Psilocybe sp. pl. were retrieved from GenBank and aligned with our sequences. Alignments were made using ClustalW tool and a molecular analysis was performed using the Maximum Likelihood method and the Tamura-Nei model. MEGA12 software was used both for alignment and molecular analysis. Confidence values for individual branches were determined by the bootstrap test (1,000 replicates). Psilocybe in Italy 171 Results Diversity of Psilocybe taxa in Italy A list of 40 psychedelic fungal taxa (36 species and 4 varieties) has been reported (Table 1). Table 1. Nomenclatural update of Psilocybe taxa reported in the Checklist of Italian Fungi (Basidiomycetes) (Onofri et al. 2005). The new binomials refer to Index Fungorum (November 2025). Taxon Nomenclatural update Family Psilocybe aeruginosa (M.A.Curtis) Nooderl. Stropharia aeruginosa (Curtis) Quél. Strophariaceae Psilocybe albonitens (Fr.) Noordel. Stropharia albonitens (Fr.) Quél. Strophariaceae Psilocybe aurantiaca (Cooke) Noordel. Binomial confirmed Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe caerulea (Kreisel) Nooderl. Stropharia caerulea Kreisel Strophariaceae Psilocybe capnoides (Fr.) Noordel. Hypholoma capnoides (Fr.) P.Kumm. Strophariaceae Psilocybe coprophila (Fr.) Noordel. Deconica coprophila (Bull.) P.Karst. Strophariaceae Psilocybe coronilla (Bull.) Noordel. Stropharia coronilla (Bull.) Quél. Strophariaceae Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef.Binomial confirmed Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe elongata (Pers.) J.E.Lange Hypholoma elongatum (Pers.) Ricken Strophariaceae Psilocybe ericacea (Pers.) Quél. Nomen nudum – Psilocybe ericaeoides (P.D.Orton) Noordel. Hypholoma ericaeoides P.D.Orton Strophariaceae Psilocybe fascicularis (Huds.) Noordel. Hypholoma fasciculare (Huds.) P.Kumm. Strophariaceae Psilocybe fascicularis var. pusilla (J.E.Lange) Noordel. Hypholoma fasciculare (Huds.) P.Kumm. Strophariaceae Psilocybe halophila (Pacioni) Noordel. Stropharia halophila Pacioni Strophariaceae Psilocybe hornemannii (Fr.) Noordel. Stropharia hornemannii (Fr.) S.Lundell & Nannf. Strophariaceae Psilocybe inquilina (Fr.) Bres. Deconica inquilina (Fr.) Pat. ex Romagn. Strophariaceae Psilocybe inquilina var. crobula (Fr.) Hoiland Deconica crobula (Fr.) Romagn. Strophariaceae Psilocybe inuncta (Fr.) Noordel. Stropharia inuncta (Fr.) Quél. Strophariaceae Psilocybe luteonitens (Fr.) Park-Rhodes Protostropharia luteonitens (Fr.) Redhead Strophariaceae Psilocybe marginata (Pers.) Noordel. Hypholoma marginatum J.Schröt. Strophariaceae Psilocybe melanosperma (Pers.) Noordel. Stropharia melanosperma (Bull.) Gillet Strophariaceae Psilocybe merdaria (Fr.) Ricken Deconica merdaria (Fr.) Noordel. Strophariaceae Psilocybe montana (Pers.) P.Kumm. Deconica montana (Pers.) P.D.Orton Strophariaceae Psilocybe phyllogena (Sacc.) Peck Deconica phyllogena (Sacc.) Noordel. Strophariaceae Psilocybe polytrichi (Fr.) Sacc. Hypholoma polytrichi (Fr.) Ricken Strophariaceae Psilocybe pratensis P.D.Orton Deconica pratensis (P.D.Orton) Noordel. Strophariaceae Psilocybe pseudocyanea (Desm.) Noordel. Stropharia pseudocyanea (Desm.) Morgan Strophariaceae Psilocybe radicosa (J.E.Lange) Noordel. Hypholoma radicosum J.E.Lange Strophariaceae Psilocybe rugosoannulata (Farl. ex Murrill) Noordel. Stropharia rugosoannulata Farl. ex Murrill Strophariaceae Psilocybe semiglobata (Batsch) Noordel. Protostropharia semiglobata (Batsch) Redhead, Moncalvo & Vilgalys Strophariaceae Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) P.Kumm. Binomial confirmed Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe semistriata (Peck) Guzmán Binomial confirmed Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe squamosa (Pers.) P.D.Orton Leratiomyces squamosus (Pers.) Bridge & Spooner Strophariaceae Psilocybe squamosa var. thrausta (Kalchbr.) Guzmán Leratiomyces squamosus (Pers.) Bridge & Spooner Strophariaceae Psilocybe subcoprophila (Britzelm.) Sacc. Binomial confirmed Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe subericaea (Fr.) Sacc. Hypholoma subericaeum (Fr.) Kühner Strophariaceae Psilocybe subviscida (Peck) Kauffman Binomial confirmed Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe subviscida var. velata Noordel. & Verduin Psilocybe subviscida (Peck) Kauffman Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe turficola J.Favre Binomial confirmed Hymenogastraceae Psilocybe uda (Pers.) Gillet Bogbodia uda (Pers.) Redhead Strophariaceae Giuseppe Venturella et al. / Italian Botanist 20: 167–181 (2025) 172 The nomenclatural update, referred to Index Fungorum (https://www.indexfungorum.org/names/names.asp) as of November 2025, has led to a drastic reduction in the number of taxa actually attributed to the genus Psilocybe, as ten taxa have been transferred to Stropharia (Fr.) Quél., nine taxa to Hypholoma (Fr.) P.Kumm., seven taxa to Deconica (W.G.Sm.) P.Karst., two taxa to Protostropharia Redhead, Moncalvo & Vilgalys, two taxa to Leratiomyces Bresinsky & Manfr. Binder ex Bridge, Spooner, Beever & D.C.Park, and one taxon to Bogbodia Redhead. Psilocybe ericacea (Pers.) Quél. is considered a nomen nudum, probably confused with P. semilanceata or P. cubensis. The total number of taxa of the genus Psilocybe in Italy is currently nine (Table 2), since P. medullosa (Guzmán 2005) and P. serbica, recorded during the activities of the NDM, should be added to the seven confirmed taxa reported in Table 1. Distribution and ecology of Psilocybe taxa in Italy As with other critical fungal groups, the distribution of Psilocybe species is also affected by the limited exploration of certain territories and the small number of experienced mycologists working in Italy. Currently, the distribution of some species is restricted to a single region, as in the case of Psilocybe medullosa and P. semistriata (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol), P. serbica (Calabria), P. subviscida (Emilia Romagna), and P. turficola (Veneto). P. subcoprophila is recorded for Emilia-Romagna and Trentino-Alto Adige/ Südtirol while P. semilanceata is distributed in central and northern administrative regions of Italy. Two species, i.e. P. aurantiaca and P. cyanescens, are also distributed in the islands of Sardegna and Sicilia (Table 2). Some Psilocybe species are found, solitary or in group, on dead wood within coniferous and deciduous forests but most are observed in meadows and pastures rich in organic matter mainly of animal origin. In particular, P. aurantiaca and P. serbica are usually found in meadows and on wood chips, P. cyanescens grows on decaying woody material (chips, bark, mulch), Table 2. List of Psilocybe taxa occurring in Italy with indications of family, distribution and ecological category. Administrative region: CAL = Calabria; EMR = Emilia-Romagna; LIG = Liguria; LOM = Lombardia; SAR = Sardegna; SIC = Sicilia, TAA = Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol; TOS = Toscana; VEN = Veneto. Ecological categories: Sd = Saprotroph on dung, Sm = Saprotroph on mosses, St = Terricolous saprotroph, Sw = Saprotroph on wood. The regional distribution is the result of a combination between the data reported by Onofri et al. (2005) and our recent personal investigation (*). Taxon Region Ecological categories Psilocybe aurantiaca (Cooke) Noordel. EMR, LOM, SIC, TOS Sw/St Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef.CAL, EMR, LIG, SAR, SIC, TAA Sw Psilocybe medullosa (Bres.) Borov. TAA*Sm Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) P.Kumm. EMR, LIG, TAA, VEN St/Sd Psilocybe semistriata (Peck) Guzmán TAA St Psilocybe serbica M.M.Moser & E.Horak CAL*Sw/St Psilocybe subcoprophila (Britzelm.) Sacc. EMR, TAA Sd Psilocybe subviscida (Peck) Kauffman EMRl Sm Psilocybe turficola J.Favre VEN Sd/St Psilocybe in Italy 173 P. semilanceata and P. turficola grows on grass roots and on dung, P. subcoprophila was collected only on dung, P. semistriata was found in meadows while P. medullosa and P. subviscida on mosses. Macro-and micro-morphological characters of Psilocybe taxa in Italy Psilocybe aurantiaca Pileus 3–5 cm, bright red to orange, convex to plane, cuticle usually dry, slightly viscid when moist. Flesh thin, ochre-colored, without any particular smell or taste. Lamellae, adnexed to adnate, notched, white to pale grey, then darker purple/brown or purplish grey with whitish edges. Stipe whitish, often with dark orange stains around the base, turns a deep red color when rubbed, 3–8 × 0.5–1 cm, equal to slightly larger at the base, mycelium residues attached. White partial veil remnants at first, as a thin, fragile ring. Stipe surface smooth above the ring and fluffy with tiny scales below, which often wash off with rain. Basidia tetrasporic, 12–14 × 6.5–8.5 µm. Basidiospores in deposit dark purple-brown, elliptical and smooth, with visible germinative pore, 10–13.5 × 6–8.5 µm. Pileipellis consisting of parallel hyphae and fíbulas. Cheilocystidia, 15–25 × 4–8 µm on the edges and on the faces of the gills, elongated, cylindrical, sinuous, with ends sometimes slightly enlarged, sometimes diverticulated. Pleurocystidia fusoid-ventricose, to sublageniform, 17.5–25 × 4.6–10 µm. Psilocybe cyanescens Pileus 1.5–5 cm, convex at first, then flat with a wavy margin when mature. Cuticle slimy when moist, caramel-colored, lighting as it dries, turning blue when rubbed. Flesh solid and white, changes color when rubbed or cut. Mealy smell and taste. Lamellae dense, adnate or slightly decurrent, cream at first, then dark purple. Stipe 3–11 × 0.2– 0.7 cm, thin, whitish with a tendency to turn blue where rubbed. Basidia tetrasporic, rarely 2-spored, 20–30 × 7–10.5 µm. Basidiospores in deposit dark purplish brown, ellipsoidal and smooth, oblong to oval, 9–12 × 5–9 µm, with distinct broad germ pore. Pileipellis with a surface layer of ixocute clearly visible even at low magnifications. Cheilocystidia, 15–30 × 4–7 µm, sublageniform to fusoid-ventricose, cylindric at base with extended singly or split neck, 6 × 1.5–3.5 µm. Pleurocystidia, 17–33 × 5–9 µm, fusoid-ventricose to subpyriform, sometimes mucronate, more common near gill edges. Psilocybe medullosa Pileus 1–2 cm, striated margin, obtusely conical to campanulate, orangish-brown to brown with a lighter margin, slimy cuticle that cannot be separated, not distinctly hygrophanous but fading when mature, veil not very evident at first, fleeting (Fig. 1). Flesh with a more or less faint horseradish smell. Lamellae moderately broad, with lamellulae, slightly ascending, adnate, dull brown to rusty in color, gill margin white. Stipe 5–8 × 0.2–0.3 cm, central, cylindrical, hollow, slightly sinuous, light brownish Giuseppe Venturella et al. / Italian Botanist 20: 167–181 (2025) 174 Figure 1. Psilocybe medullosa, recently collected in a conifer forest in the Paneveggio Pale di S. Martino Regional Park (province of Trento, Trentino Alto Adige/Südtirol). A Basidiomes B Basidiospores C Cheilocystidia D Pileipellis. Magnification 40×. Scale bar: 1 mm. with a lighter apex, covered with white fibrils in the lower part, whitish mycelium at the base, partial veil whitish, thin, cortinate. Basidia tetrasporic, brownish, clavate, 20–25 × 6.5–7.5 µm Basidiospores in deposit ellipsoidal-oblong, smooth, with slightly thickened walls and small distinct pores, dark-purplish brown, 8–11 × 4.5–5.5 µm. Pileipellis ixotrichoderm, consisting of a thin layer of loosely interwoven, gelatinised hyphae. Cheilocystidia numerous, 25–40 × 8–9(12) µm, lageniform with generally narrow and long necks, straight or sinuous. Pleurocystidia absent. Psilocybe semilanceata Pileus 0.5–2.5 cm, light brown, beige, translucent when wet, pronounced central protuberance, shaped like a small cone. Cuticle covered with a separable, smooth, hygrophane gelatinous layer, initially greenish brown, becoming cream-ochre in dry weather. Flesh Psilocybe in Italy 175 thin and membranous, white, farinaceous odor and taste, turn blue where rubbed. Lamellae tending towards reddish brown or gray, adnate or subdecurrent to the stipe, dense and narrow, with a margin that is often lighter in color, becoming almost black due to spore release in ripe basidiomata. Stipe 3–10 × 0.3–0.75 cm, very thin, up to 1–2 mm, whitish or light brown. Basidia clavate, with a slight central constriction, tetrasporic, more rarely bisporic, 24.5–32.7 × 8.6–11.2 µm Basidiospores dark purplish-brown in deposit, ellipsoid, 10.5–15 × 6.5–8.5 µm. Pileipellis arranged in a 100–130 µm thick ixocutis, formed by septate hyphae, with a diameter of 2.2–5.5 µm, smooth or finely encrusted, immersed in a hyaline gel. Cheilocystidia lageniform to cylindrical, with an extended and flexuous neck, often forked, 20–5 × 5–10 µm. Pleurocystidia absent. Psilocybe semistriata Pileus 0.5–2.5 cm, convex to subumbonate, smooth, glabrous, hygrophanous, dark brown to light yellowish brown. Flesh thin and membranous, white, farinaceous odor and taste. Lamellae adnate to slightly decurrent, purplish brown, with whitish edges. Stipe 5–10 × 0.3–0.75 cm, light brown to dark brown or reddish brown, without veil remnants. Basidia clavate, tetrasporic, 22.5–30.7 × 8.5–11.5 µm. Basidiospores dark purplish brown in deposit, 8–11 × 5.5–6.5 µm, ellipsoid, thick walled, yellowishbrown, with a broad germ pore. Pileipellis is arranged in a thick ixocutis, smooth or finely encrusted, immersed in a hyaline gel. Cheilocystidia 20–30 × 5.5–6.5 µm, hyaline, frequently agglutinated in a gelatinous mass, sublageniform, sometimes with a flexuous neck. Pleurocystidia absent or very rare, when present 23 × 5 µm, subfusoid. Psilocybe serbica Pileus 1–4 cm, smooth, hygrophanous, slightly translucent-striate when moist but not viscid, buff-brown to orangish-brown, pale ochraceous when dry, conical to campanulate or convex, in ripe basidiomata broadly convex or plane and incurved at first then plane or decurved (Fig. 2). Flesh whitish to cream-colored, bruising blue when rubbed, smell raddish, but never farinaceous, taste usually bitter. Lamellae adnate to adnexed, often subdecurrent, light brown then dark brown with a purple tint, the edges remaining paler. Stipe, 4.0–8.0 × 0.15–0.8 cm thick, slightly enlarged at the base, whitish with a silky gloss and glabrous, or with some whitish remnants of the fibrillose veil. Basidia tetrasporic, claviform, 21.5–28.7 × 6.5–10.5 µm. Basidiospores dark purplish brown in deposit, tending toward dark purple, 10–13 × 6–7.5 µm, purple-brown, ellipsoid, slightly flattened, and thick-walled, with a distinct germ pore. Pileipellis as an ixocutis with cylindrical, slightly intertwined hyphae. Cheilocystidia, 20–35 × 6.0–11 µm, lageniform, tapering necks. Pleurocystidia absent. Psilocybe subcoprophila Pileus 1–3 cm, hemispherical to-conical then convex, cuticle hygrophanous, gelatinous, peelable, dark red-brown when moist, beige-brown when dry, margin acute with